Lecture 7: Adaptation and Functional morphology

1. Definition of adaptation? How do they arise?

fit of an organism to its en!ironment
the process of natural selection
". #hat is natural selection? How does it occur?
$rganisms produce more offspring than can sur!i!e to reproduce
%ot all sur!i!e &ecause the resources needed are limited
Herita&le !ariation occurs naturally in populations
'hose indi!iduals &est a&le to deal with their en!ironments (those most fit)* presuma&ly &y !irtue of
these !ariations* would &e most li+ely to sur!i!e to reproduce the ne,t generation.
-.Hereditary and non.hereditary adaptation
Non-hereditary adaptation
Acclimati/ation 0 e.g.* humans li!ing at high altitudes can a!oid a lac+ of o,ygen &y increasing the
num&er of red &lood cells as o,ygen pressure decreases. 1f they mo!e to lower altitudes* the num&er of
red &lood cells decreases
Hereditary adaptation
1nherited structures that are said to ma+e a &etter fit of an organism to its en!ironment 0
e.g.* flight in &irds. Archaeopteryx had wings &ut couldn2t fly well3 its descendants today can fly !ery
well
4. How5why is &iological adaptation important?
6iological adaptation is important in at least - different ways:
.'o understand how organisms li!e today in their natural en!ironment
.'o reconstruct functional morphology of organisms (li!ing and e,tinct)
.'o e!aluate theories a&out the long.term mechanisms of e!olution
7. Hypothesis.testing in the study of adaptation
.#ith either li!ing organisms or fossil organisms* we can suggest se!eral hypotheses of the adapti!e
significance of a feature
.Functional analysis pro!ides a test* and can allow us to re8ect some of the hypotheses of adapti!e
significance of a feature* lea!ing others as more plausi&le.
Adapti!e significance must not &e simply assumed (not good science) (e.g.* ostrich wings 09 flight)
:. #hat are the three general ways to in!estigate adaptation and natural selection in paleo&iology using
functional analysis?
.;econstruct &eha!ior or function of a structure
#hat does it do?
<ay compare to li!ing organisms* machines* ideal form . . .
.=!aluate performance
How well does it do it?
<ay compare to li!ing organisms* machines* ideal form . . .
.=!aluate long.term e!olutionary performance
#hat selecti!e ad!antage does it confer?
>an loo+ at patterns of e,tinction and di!ersification
7. ?nderstand the e,ample of pterosaur wings and what it can teach us
>ompare to modern analogues:
@ Gliding like a flying squirrel? Aro&a&ly not.
Features of s+eleton are more similar to those of flying animals* that can generate lift &y powered
flapping flight
@ Flying like bats? Aossi&ly?
6ats are e,cellent* highly maneu!era&le flyers. <ostly with small &ody si/es3 largest &ats are the si/e
of small pterosaurs. Aterosaur an+le structure not a&le to function hanging from tree &ranches. $ther
aspects of pterosaur s+eletal structure fairly different from &ats
@ Flying like birds? Aerhaps the &etter analogy.
6ased on &eha!ior of scale models* small pterosaurs (chic+en.si/ed) were capa&le of slow* efficient
powered flapping flight with high maneu!era&ility. Large (77 ft. wingspan) pterosaurs used wings to
generate lift initially &y flapping* and then pro&a&ly relied on soaring to +eep them in the air.
.Bome li!ing analogues are &etter (more appropriate) than others. > Don2t assume* testC
.Bome e,tinct organisms may perform &etter than either a modern analogue or a machine > #e may
not li!e in the &est of all possi&le worlds
.=!en a structure or function that is !ery close to ideal* &y some standard of e!aluation* doesn2t pre!ent
e,tinction > Long.term selecti!e ad!antage may o&tain* &ut doesn2t last fore!er
D. #hat are the constraints on morphology? #hat can understanding these constraints help us
study5understand?
Ahylogeny.historical factor
Adaptation.functional factor
Erowth.morphological factor
#e are constrained &y our present morphologies*growth processes* and physiologies that ha!e e!ol!ed
o!er our phylogenetic history and are therefore also constrained in how we can adapt to changing
conditions in the future.
Feeping these constraints in mind*we can &etter understand:
.why organisms ha!e the forms that they do
.why and how those forms ha!e e!ol!ed@ why certain shapes ha!e %$' e!ol!ed
.why other forms ha!e e!ol!ed repeatedly
G. #hat is theoretical morphology? <orphospace? ?nderstand ;aup (1G::) e,ample.
'he analysis of the differences &etween all the forms an organism might ha!e and those which ha!e
actually e,isted
<orphospace: Bimplified depiction of comple, shape !ariations using selected !aria&les
(measurements)
Disco!ered that coiled shell morphospace is sparsely occupied
1H. How do we study performance using functional analysis? (- ways)
.#hat does it do?
Aropose hypotheses &ased largely on li!ing organisms I ideal forms.
.How well does it do it?
Adaptations don2t need to &e perfect* or tend toward perfection (optimality)
.98ust good enough is $F.
-What seleti!e ad!antage does it onfer?
%eed a phylogenetic hypothesis and a fossil record to e!aluate.
11. ?nderstand trilo&ite e,ample
.'rilo&ites* nearly 7HH million years ago* de!eloped a type of lens that is al"ost perfetly designed to
transmit light with a minimum of distortion under water.
.=!en a structure5function that is !ery close to ideal doesn#t pre!ent e$tintion.
.#hat we can say a&out seleti!e ad!antage is relati!e.

1". #hat is paleo&iomechanics?
Does not reJuire e,istence of a li!ing homologue or a li!ing or matching analogue.
Arinciples of physics are applied directly to the o&ser!ed structure
1-.?nderstand horseshoe cra& e,ample
<ost e,tinct horseshoe cra&s ha!e spines around front and sides of &ody3 Li!ing horseshoe cra&s today
do not.
14.#hat is e!olutionary functional morphology? How do we study it? ?nderstand e,amples.
=!aluate long.term e!olutionary performance. #hat is the selecti!e ad!antage of certain features
o!er e!olutionary (geological) time scales?
%e"e"ber&
.Features don2t e!ol!e in isolation* &ut as part of whole organisms
.>onte,t.dependence and time.dependence of adaptations: Btructures are not often well.adapted in
all conte,ts* o!er all time
.'here are no goals in e!olution: $ptimality may &e achie!ed locally* &ut rarely glo&ally
slide 1G
Lecture D: Aaleoecology I =!olutionary Aaleoecology
1. #hat is paleoecology? >an we directly apply ecological methods and assumptions to the fossil
record?
.'he reconstruction of ancient en!ironments
.'he study of interactions among fossil organisms and their physical* chemical* and &iological
en!ironment* as they change and e!ol!e o!er time
Direct application of ecological methods and assumptions to the fossil record was common early on in
paleoecological research
Aro&lems with this approach:
.<any paleoecological scenarios were5are difficult(or impossi&le) to test.
.>ontrolled e,periments are not possi&le in the fossil record.
". ?nderstand the four main areas of in!estigation in paleoecological reconstruction and the study of
fossil assem&lages.
'( )edi"entology. physical characteristics of original ha&itat
.;ate of fluid flow depositing sediments
.Direction of flow
.Depth of water
.Aosition of shoreline
*( Geohe"istry
.$,idi/ing or reducing conditions3 from presence of o,idi/ed or reduced iron
.>ar&on content of sediments
.'emperature dependence of o,ygen isotopes3 can estimate paleotemperatures
>( +rae fossils
,hnology (Eree+ ichnos K trace)
.6eha!ior as re!ealed &y trace (and &ody) fossils
.Direct e!idence of ecological interactions in the past* specifically the interaction of an organism and
the su&strate upon which it li!es.
Determining the organism that made the trace can &e difficult* &ut traces:
.<ay &e preser!ed in places where &ody fossils are rare
.Are relati!ely unaffected &y diagenesis
.>annot &e transported away from where they formed
-ertebrates 0 mostly mo!ing traces
. speed* posture* direction of tra!el* locomotor mode
.type of organisms* interactions among indi!iduals
,n!ertebrates
. !aried &eha!iors
feeding* mo!ing* dwelling* escaping &eha!ior
.( +aphono"y of body fossils
/sti"ates of speies loss from original assem&lage to fossil assem&lage
Decay* dissolution* disarticulation* diagenesis* etc.
Btudy how sur!i!ing species accumulate to form a fossil deposit
1s the fossil assem&lage preser!ed in its li!ing habitat or not?
%eed to +now something a&out the life ha&its of organisms today
Aossi&ility of physical transport3 &iotur&ation
+a$ono"i o"pleteness: which species are present? #hich are not?
+e"poral distribution of organis"s
. Li!ed at same time? Accumulated o!er long time?
+i"e a!eraging: groups of organisms li!ing at different times* preser!ed in fossil record apparently
li!ing at the same time
.0ass "ortality
-. ?nderstand &iotic and a&iotic limiting factors in ecosystems.
A&iotic limiting factors:'emperature*$,ygen* Balinity* Depth (and light)* Bu&strate
6iotic limiting factors: e!idence for interaction among species
Aredation* >ompetition* <utualism
4. ?nderstand trophic dynamics and food we&s. #hat are the different components?
.Arimary producers: photosynthesis plants* algae (greatest &iomass) in photic /one.
.>onsumers: carni!ores* her&i!ores* parasites* sca!engers* suspension feeders* deposit feeders* gra/ers
.Decomposers: mostly &acteria
7. How do we recogni/e !erte&rate consumers? 1n!erte&rate consumers? =,amples?
.Lerte&rate consumers:
>arni!ores and her&i!ores: relationship &etween tooth morphology (coprolites) and diet is pretty clear
in modern ecosystem
.1n!erte&rate consumers:
.>arni!orous naticid and muricid snails su&due their prey* and drill a hole through the prey shell* eating
the soft tissues inside
:. How do we use car&on isotopes? #hat do they tell us? ?nderstand e,amples.
Lighter isotope (1">) is preferentially ta+en up in organic matter3 when organisms die* they then
release 1"> &ac+ to the en!ironment.
>ar&on isotopic analysis of tooth enamel of her&i!orous mammals can &e a powerful
paleoen!ironmental tool:
.to reonstrut dietary preferenes of e$tint organis"s
.to reonstrut eosyste"s in anient en!iron"ents
1arbon isotopi ratios& 2ou are 3hat you eat
>an analy/e the car&on isotopic ratio in &ones and teeth of e,tinct organisms to reconstruct their diets
7. ?nderstand e!olutionary paleoecology.
'he study of how ecological interactions affect the e!olutionary history of a group.
D. ?nderstand &arnacle* mammal* coral e,amples
6arnacles: predation (smaller si/e is &etter for predation region) * competition
coral: Bym&iosis (mutualism) with 4oo$anthellae allgae
Algae &enefit &y recei!ing shelter in coral &ody* and recei!ing nitrogen and car&on dio,ide from coral.
>orals &enefit from o,ygen and
nutrients produced &y algae* and an en/yme secreted &y the algae.
mammal: >ompetiti!e e,clusion
<ultitu&erculates and plesiadapids outcompeted &yrodents?
Lecture G: Aaleo&iogeography I =!olutionary &iogeography
1. #hat is ecological &iogeography?
Eeographic distri&ution of organisms today
". ?nderstand the terms: cosmopolitan* endemic (young I relict)* dis8unct
.cosmopolitan: world.wide !ery &road geographical distri&ution
.=ndemic: restricted to single region
young: geographically young. 1slands are geologically young* so speciesoriginating there
ha!en2t had time to mo!e elsewhere
relict: former range was larger* now restricted to smaller area
dis8unct: two or more regions now widely separated
-. #hat are the modern controls on geographic distri&ution?
'( 't"ospheri 1irulation& seasonality
#ind* and patterns of atmospheric circulation determine patterns of oeani irulation
*( 5eani 1irulation& 1urrents
>. >limate and continental position:
.affect patterns of circulation
.continental si/e affects circulation
4. #hat is historical &iogeography?
How organisms got to &e where they are today
7. ?nderstand dispersal and the factors that affect it (including &arriers and corridors).
.=,plains distri&ution of organisms or species prior to plate tectonics
.>an in!ol!e the ati!e mo!ement of organisms themsel!es* or mo!ement of fluid en!ironment
carrying organism along passi!ely
6ody si/e an important factor3 dispersal can occur at different life stages
6arriers limit dispersal for each type of organism*also often related to &ody si/e:
.>an &e physiological* physical* ecological* etc.e.g.* high mountain ranges3 oceans3 deserts3 ri!ers* etc.
.>an change o!er lifetime (organism)* and o!er geological time (species range)
>orridors: relati!ely uno&structed routes of dispersal (terrestrial)
:. ?nderstand plate tectonics and structure of the =arth
Alate tectonics: the e,planation of how =arth wor+s.
M=arth2s outer shell is &ro+en into rigid plates that mo!e.
M<o!ing plates change the face of planet =arth.
MAlate tectonics is a&le to e,plain almost e!erything.
Btructure of =arth: core* mantle* crust (oceanic NdenseO* continental Nless denseO)
1nterior of =arth is hot* crust is cool: heat.dri!en con!ection cells generated in mantle
>rust (relati!ely &rittle) is &ro+en up into plates that interact with one another* &y: spreading3
su&duction3 transform (sliding) motions
7. ?nderstand !icariance &iogeography including the terms %oahPs Ar+* 6eached Li+ing funeral ships*
escalator hopscotch.
Fragmentation of large areas into smaller ones* &y the introduction of non.&iological &arriers 09 plate
tectonics
%oahPs ar+: li!ing organisms &eing carried passi!ely along with land
6eached Li+ing funeral ships: fossil organisms carried along with land
=scalator hopscotch: li!ing organisms can hop from one island to the ne,t
D. How do we conduct an analysis of !icariance &iogeography?
A. >onduct a phylogenetic analysis with morphology and 5or molecular seJuence data
6. 'ranslate the phylogenetic hypothesis into a &ranching pattern of area relationships
>. 'est with phylogenetic and area cladograms for other organisms
D. 1n!estigatenon.&iological(usually geological)e!ents that produce a similar pattern
G. #hat is e!olutionary paleo&iogeography? ?nderstand the e,amples that we went through.
#hat significance do &iogeographic and paleo&iogeographic patterns and processes ha!e for
e!olutionary patterns and processes?
=,ample 1: 'ectonic fragmentation and species di!ersity : Bpecies di!ersity and si/e (area) of
geographic region: Larger regions support more species3 smaller regions support fewer
=,ample ": Ereat American 6iotic 1nterchange=,ample
-: Lar!al ecology
Lecture 1H: 6iostratigraphy I the stratigraphic record
1. #hat does the fossil record represent?
represents the result (product) of two processes: Deposition of sediment and =!olution of organisms
". #hat are the three main ways of ordering roc+ strata? ?nderstand each.
.Lithostratigraphy: &ased on characters of sedimentary roc+s themsel!es
.6iostratigraphy: &ased on fossils in the roc+s.
>hronostratigraphy: com&ination of relati!e methods of telling time using litho. and &iostratigraphy*
and a&solute methods
-. ?nderstand stratigraphic range* assem&lage* and inde, fossils
.Btratigraphic range: the +nown occurrence of a fossil in the stratigraphic record.
1t &egins at the FAD (First Appearance Datum) and ends at the LAD (Last Appearance Datum)
.Assem&lage: a group of co.occurring species.
Assem&lages can characteri/e /ones
.1nde, fossils:are a highly distincti!e type of /one fossil
a&undant* easily found and typically ha!e:
.#ide (intercontinental)geographic distri&ution
.Bhort !ertical(stratigraphic) range
.Distinct morphologicalcharacteristics
.Hard* minerali/ed s+eletons
4. ?nderstand the geologic time scale and how it was constructed
<ost eons5eras5periods separated &y "ass e$tintions3 characteri/ed &y uniJue groups of fossils and
the nature of the roc+s themsel!es
(orders of the time scale)
7. #hat &iases must &e considered when studying FADs and LADs? (e.g. phylogeny)
/ology and biogeography&
-Generalist ta,a li!e in a wide range of en!ironmental ha&itats3 speialist ta,a li!e in restricted
ha&itats.
.1os"opolitan ta,a ha!e &road geographic ranges* while ende"i ta,a ha!e narrower geographic
ranges
.'bundant ta,a are more li+ely to &e found in the fossil record*
rare ta,a are less li+ely.
.*ody si6e: s"all.&odied ta,a may &e more difficult to locate as fossils* &ut are more li+ely to &e
a&undant* and thus more easily disco!ered.
.'a,a persisting o!er longer periods of geological time are more li+ely to &e collected than those
persisting o!er shorter time periods.
7hylogeny&
.'he process of e!olution itself causes organisms to change o!er time* resulting in the recognition and
naming of new ta,a o!er time.
.A lineage (K clade* or system of common ancestry) can persist e!en though indi!idual named ta,a
may originate and &ecome e,tinct within the lineage.
Geology&
- <ore fossils li+ely to &e collected from particular time periods in which a greater !olu"e of
sedimentary roc+ was deposited.
.<ore fossils li+ely to &e collected from roc+s e,posed and more aessible at the surface of the =arth
M may &e &iased &y roc+ type3 age3 etc.
Hu"an > paleontologist&
.<ore paleontologists may wor+ in certain ti"e periods than in others* resulting in more ta,a named
from those time periods.
.<ore paleontologists may wor+ in certain regions than in others* resulting in more ta,a named from
those regions.
:. ?nderstand Bignor.Lipps effect* La/arus ta,a* =l!is ta,a and Qom&ie effect
-)ignor-8ipps effet 0 poorly sampled strata can ma+e it impossi&le to distinguish a sudden
(synchronous LADs) from gradual (asynchronous LADs) e,tinction e!ent.
-8a6arus ta$a 0 ta,a thought to &e e,tinct reappear in the fossil record at a later time.
-/l!is ta$a 0 e!olution of con!ergent morphologies after e,tinction e!ent mista+en for persistence of
e,tinct predecessor.
.4o"bie effet 0 fossils rewor+ed from older strata and re.deposited in younger strata* falsely
e,tending the stratigraphic range.
Lecture 11: <acroe!olution I ;ates of =!olution
1. #hat is macroe!olution? How does it differ from microe!olution?
Large.scale* long.term e!olutionary change* usually pertaining to species or higher.le!el ta,a* rather
than indi!idual organisms
<acroe!olution:
Ho3 e!olution of different speies o"pare 3ith eah other
Ho3 en!iron"ent affets e!olution in large sale
Ho3 "a9or transitions proeeded
,f there are patterns in e!olutionary history: and if so: 3hy
<icroe!olution:
-<echanism of how a new species e!ol!es
.<echanisms of mutations and how they are inherited.
.How genes flow in a population.
.How molecular structure affect e!olution.
". #hat are the - macroe!olutionary processes we discussed? #hich is the most dominant and how
does it wor+?
-7hylogeneti drift( >ompara&le to genetic drift. ;andom wal+s can produce nota&le trends.
-.ireted speiation( >ompara&le to mutation pressure.
-)peies seletion& >ompara&le to natural selection in populations.
Differential rates of speciation and e,tinction among lineages
Bpecies selection ma,imi/es rates of speciation and minimi/es rates of e,tinction.
-. #hat is di!ersity? How is it calculated?
Di!ersity K $rigination . =,tinction
%um&ers of +inds of different organisms (ta,a) through time.
4. #hat are the models of di!ersity o!er time? ?nderstand empirical and eJuili&rium models.
/"pirial "odel& What you see is 3hat you get; based on obser!ation alone(
/quilibriu" "odel& "any soures of error <bias= in the fossil reord(
7. #hat is Bep+os+iPs model? #hat are the 'hree Ereat =!olutionary Faunas? =,amples of each?
1: >am&rian: trilo&ites* inarticulated &rachiopods* worms
11: Aaleo/oic: articulated &rachiopods* corals* cephalopods* crinoids
111: <odern: molluscs* &ryo/oans* fishes
:. >an we trust the pattern from the three great faunas?
Bome things to consider:
How well do families (or any higher ta,on) pro,y for species?
$nly for marine fossil record* has not &een applied to other groups li+e !erte&rates.
Alroy ("HH4) found the composition of the three faunas de&ata&le and that the rise of the modern fauna
is slower than e,pected.
Btanley ("HH7) found that the constants that Bep+os+i used were unrealistic and the pattern may &e
more similar to an e,ponential cur!e.
7.>an long.term e!olutionary patterns all &e reduced to the process of natural selection acting on
indi!iduals o!er !ery long periods of time? 6e a&le to discuss the de&ate a&out this topic.

D. Has the rates of e!olution !aried o!er geological time?
Res
G. Ahyletic gradualism !ersus punctuated eJuili&rium. 6e a&le to e,plain &oth.
.Anagenesis 09 gradual change in mode of freJuency distri&utions of populations within a lineage
o!er time. Anagenesis results in a pattern referred to as phyletic gradualism in the fossil record.
.Aunctuated eJuili&rium: <ore often* we see long periods of stasis (a&sence of change)* punctuated
&y rapid* a&rupt episodes of change
1H. #hat are adapti!e radiations?
=pisodes of significantly sustained e,cess of origination of new ta,a o!er e,tinction of e,isting ta,a.
11. Are adapti!e radiations dri!en &y intrinsic factors? #hat are e,amples of intrinsic factors? Fnow
the e,amples we went through.
slide1-
1"( Are adapti!e radiations dri!en &y e,trinsic factors? #hat are e,amples of e,trinsic factors? Fnow
the e,amples we went through.
Blide17
Lecture 1": $rigination and Di!ersification I =!o.De!o
1.#hen was the origin of life? #hatPs the definition of life? #hatPs the age of the =arth?
Aro&a&ly occurred a&out -.7 . -.D &illion years ago
Age of the =arth S4.: Ea
Life is: self.&ounded (indi!idual)
self.generating (grow)
self.replicating (reproduce)
Life descri&es systems capa&le of e!olution &y natural selection
Life &egins with cells
". #hat organisms were the first life? #hat is the e!idence for the origin of life?
Aurple &acteria (in Domain 6acteria) $; 'hermophilic sulphur.reducing &acteria (in Domain Archaea)
.Btudies of molecular phylogeny
.Btructure* ecology* and &iochemistry of li!ing pro+aryotes
.Fossils 0 can &e difficult to interpret3 indi!idual filamentous &acteria
.Eeological data 0 &iogeochemical cycles3 car&on isotopes
-. #hen does the first fossil appear? #hat was this first fossil?
a&out -.7 &illion years ago
>yano&acteria (&lue.green algae) stromatolites
4. #hen do meta/oans originate?
=diacara fauna
:7H.77H <RA
7. #hen do s+eletons originate. #hat is the >am&rian e,plosion? #hy did s+eletons e!ol!e?
>am&rian e,plosion 0 a&out 74H million years ago
First appearance of most ma8or groups of s+eletoni/ed meta/oans occurs more or less at the same time
%ot triggered &y simple chemical change3 some glo&al &iological or ecological factor 0
? Aredation: if predators first appear in >am&rian* they could cause an e!olution of s+eleton
(protection)
? Adapti!e e!olution of Ho, genes
? 1ncrease $" le!els: allowed animals to ha!e larger &ody
:.#hat was the Archean world li+e? 61Fs?
$cean chemistry dominated &y hydrothermal systems 0 rates of oceanic crust production and
geothermal gradients se!eral times higher than today
Low $"* high >$" and %* !ery high Fe. %o free o,ygen.
6anded 1ron Formations
7. ?nderstand the &asics for the two hypotheses of where life &egan (hot !s. cold)
High temperature: Hydrothermal su&marine !ents
Hyperthermophiles are phylogenetically primiti!e
Low temperature: ;educing en!ironment N>H4* %H-O reJuired
6iochemicals decompose rapidly at high temperatures
D. #hat is e!o.de!o?
=!olutionary De!elopmental 6iology
'he study of de!elopment to elucidate e!olution
G. #hat is heterochrony? Aaedomorphosis? Aeramorphosis?
.Heterchrony: a de!elopmental change in the timing of e!ents* leading to changes in si/e and shape
.Aaedomorphosis M adult of deri!ed organism resem&les 8u!enile of ancestor.
.Aeramorphosis M 8u!enile of deri!ed organism resem&les the adult of the ancestor.
1H. #hat are the de!elopmental parameters? How can we get peramorphic and paedomorphic trends
from !arying these parameters?
.;ate of de!elopment
.'ime of onset of de!elopment (when de!elopment starts)
.'ime of offset of de!elopment (when de!elopment stops)
Aaedomorphosis
.;educed rate of de!elopment .
$nset of de!elopment delayed .
de!elopmental offset occurs earlier
Aeramorphosis
.1ncreased rate of de!elopment
.$nset of de!elopment occurs at an earlier time
.Delayed de!elopmental offset
11.?nderstand the feather e,ample including the 7 de!elopmental stages of feathers and what dinosaur
groups e,hi&it these stages:
Fi!e stages in feather de!elopment recogni/ed today:
Btage 1: un&ranched hollow cylinder
Btage ": plumulaceous (downy) tuft of &ar&s.
Btage -: formation of rachis3 open pennaceous feather.
Btage 4: &ar&ules formed3 closed pennaceous feather.
Btage 7: asymmetrical !ane of flight feather.
Dinosaur fossils (in successi!ely more deri!ed clades of dinosaurs) representati!e of each stage:
Btage 1: Binosauroptery,
Btage ": theri/inosaurs
Btage -: tyrannosaurids
Btage 4: <icroraptor3 >audiptery,
Btage 7: Archaeoptery,3 >onfuciusornis
.Fnow the Ho, gene information. How does this relate to the >am&rian e,plosion?
Lecture 1-: =,tinctions
1. 1s e,tinction a normal occurrence?
Res
". How do we identify e,tinctions in the fossil record?
-. Elo&al !s. local e,tinction. Fnow the difference.
4. Btratigraphic sampling and e,tinctions.
Bignor. Lipps effect: a&rupt e,tinctions appear gradual &y sampling error
La/arus ta,a:: re.appearing a&o!e the e,tinction hori/on
=l!is ta,a::La/arus loo+.ali+e3 similar morphology &ut different phylogeny
Qom&ie effect: fossils appear a&o!e the e,tinction hori/on due to rewor+ing of sediment
7. 6ac+ground !s. mass e,tinction. Fnow the difference.
there was a steady &ac+ground e,tinction rate a!eraging " . 4.: families per million years declining
slightly o!er the duration of the Ahanero/oic.
<ass e,tinctions Kgeologically rapid (time)*ma8or reductions (catastrophic)in glo&al di!ersity (ta,a)
:.Tuantity !s. Juality of e,tinction. #hat does each tell us?
Tuantity of e,tinction:>ount up num&ers of ta,a (families* etc.) that &ecome e,tinctcan e!aluate the
se!erity of the e!ent
Tuality of e,tinction:@#hich particular families* etc. &ecome e,tinct?@#e can e!aluate what features
those familiespossessed. Do they gi!e us clues?
7. Fnow the &ig fi!e mass e,tinctions.
=nd.$rdo!ician
late.De!onian
=nd.Aermian =,tinction . Loss of >am&rian fauna I decimation of Aaleo/oic fauna
.Aarticularly se!ere at low latitudes (in tropics)
SG7U of species &ecome e,tinct
end.'riassic
=nd.>retaceous =,tinction: Loss of large.&odied organisms
S77U of species &ecome e,tinct
D. Fnow the different types of e,tinction selecti!ity.
'a,onomic selecti!ity:different ta,onomic le!els affected differently(e.g.* species much more affected
than phyla)
Ahylogenetic selecti!ity:whole clades affected (those sharing particular deri!edcharacters or
morphological inno!ations)* or not.
<orphological selecti!ity: Bpecies with a particular morphology sur!i!e more than others.
=asy to !isuali/e differences* &ut can &e difficult to interpret.
=cological selecti!ity:specialists affected more than generalists3tropical ta,a more than
temperate5polar3carni!ores (higher in food we&) more than her&i!ores3large.&odied species more than
small.&odied* etc.
6iogeographic selecti!ity:#idespread ta,a tend to sur!i!e more than geographically restricted ta,a.
G. 1s there a periodicity of e,tinctions?
%o
1H. #hat are the possi&le causes of mass e,tinctions?
Bea le!el change
$ceanic circulation change
'ectonic acti!ity
Lolcanic acti!ity
=,traterrestrial impact
11. Fnow the three different mass e,tinctions we loo+ed at in detail. . #hat is the :th great mass
e,tinction?
.>atastrophic e,tinction: A&rupt and glo&al changes cause synchronous e,tinctions at a geological
&oundary* with few if any sur!i!ors
.Btepped mass e,tinction Eroups of species sensiti!e to change &ecome e,tinct first* with more ro&ust
groups &ecoming e,tinct in su&seJuent episodes3 generally ele!ated rates of e,tinction across a
geological &oundary
Eraded mass e,tinction. ;ate of e,tinction increases &eyond &ac+ground le!el*straddling a geological
&oundary
.Appearance of a synchronous e,tinction might result froma poor stratigraphic
record across the &oundary
'he :th Ereat =,tinction?
1nternational ?nion for the >onser!ation of %ature (1?>%) ;ed List: one in eight &irds* one in four
mammals* one in fi!e in!erte&rates* one in three amphi&ians and half of all turtles face e,tinction.
1". How do we study paleoclimate?
stratigraphic record
isotopic record
1-. #hat is the e!idence for climate change?
Historical records
'ree rings
Aollen from la+e &ottoms
$,ygen isotope ratios from ice
glacial e!idence
plan+ton and isotopes in ocean sediment
14. #hat are effects of climate change?
=ffects of >limate >hange
Elacial retreat
Bea.le!el rise
=,treme weather e!ents (flood* drought* etc.)
>hanges in agricultural yield
Bpecies e,tinctio
1ncreases in the range of disease !ectors