DDA 3523

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING


AIR POLLUTION:
POLLUTANTS, SOURCES AND EFFECTS
IN MALAYSIA


STUDENTS NAME/
MATRIX NO.
MOHD HAFIZ ADENAN
DX075828DAD04
MOHD MOHAIZASS MOHD SAID
DX085045DAD04
MOHD YUSRI MOHAMMED YUNUS
DX090023DAJ04
MUHAMMAD ASYRAF MASRI
DX075317DAD04
ROSNILIZAM LIAS
DX075325DAD04
LECTURER DR. SHREESHIVADASAN CHELLIAPAN
SUBMISSION DATE 17 APRIL 2011
i

TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Air Quality Monitoring ................................................................................ 1
1.2 Air Quality Status ......................................................................................... 3
2.0 AIR POLLUTANTS .............................................................................................. 4
2.1 Common Pollutants ...................................................................................... 4
2.1.1 Carbon monoxide (CO) .................................................................... 4
2.1.2 Sulphur dioxide (SO
2
) ...................................................................... 4
2.1.3 Nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
) .................................................................... 5
2.1.4 Ground level ozone (O
3
) ................................................................... 5
2.1.5 Particulate matter (PM
10
) .................................................................. 6
2.1.6 Lead (Pb) .......................................................................................... 7
2.2 Pollutants Emission ...................................................................................... 7
2.2.1 Ambient Air Quality Guidelines ...................................................... 7
2.2.2 Emission Loads ................................................................................ 8
3.0 AIR POLLUTION SOURCES ............................................................................. 9
3.1 General Classification .................................................................................. 9
3.1.1 Anthropogenic Sources .................................................................... 9
3.1.2 Natural Sources ................................................................................ 9
3.2 Classification Used By Government Agencies .......................................... 10
3.2.1 DOE Classification ......................................................................... 10
3.2.2 DOS Classification ......................................................................... 11
4.0 AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS ............................................................................ 13
4.1 Health ......................................................................................................... 13
4.2 Daily Activities .......................................................................................... 14
4.3 Global ......................................................................................................... 15
4.4 Economy ..................................................................................................... 15
5.0 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 16
6.0 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................... 17
ii

LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1.1: Location of air quality monitoring station in West Malaysia ............................ 2
Figure 1.2: Location of air quality monitoring station in East Malaysia ............................. 2
Figure 1.3: API reading (10
th
April 2011, 5:00 pm) ............................................................ 3
Figure 2.1: Size comparison of PM with human hair .......................................................... 6
Figure 2.2: Pollutants emission load in Malaysia, 2009 ...................................................... 8
Figure 3.1: Overall emission of pollutants by source, 2008 (DOE) .................................. 10
Figure 3.2: Overall emission of pollutant by source, 2008 (DOS) .................................... 11
Figure 4.1: Effect of CO in blood ...................................................................................... 13
Figure 4.2: View of Kuala Lumpur during 2005 Malaysian haze ..................................... 14
Figure 5.1: Lead emission in Malaysia (1988-2006) ......................................................... 16

LIST OF TABLE
Table 1.1: Categories and parameters of air quality monitoring stations ............................ 1
Table 1.2: Air Pollutant Index (API) of Malaysia ............................................................... 3
Table 2.1: Malaysian ambient air quality guidelines ........................................................... 7
Table 3.1: Pollutants emission by type and source, 2009 .................................................. 12



1

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Air pollution can be described as contamination of atmosphere by air pollutants
that can endanger human health and the health and welfare of plants and animals,
or can attack materials, reduce visibility, or produce undesirable odours. Air
pollution occurs when the air pollutants was emitted into the air in
sufficient concentration, for a sufficient time, and under certain conditions.
1.1 Air Quality Monitoring
Air quality of Malaysia is monitored by Department of Environment (DOE)
through 51 monitoring stations to detect any significant change in the air quality
which may be harmful to human health and environment. These monitoring
stations are divided into five categories which are industrial (26%), residential
(57%), traffic (2%), background (2%) and PM10 (13%) and the parameters that
were monitored are sulphur dioxide (SO
2
), nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
), carbon
monoxide (CO), ground level ozone (O
3
), particulate matter less than 10 m in
size (PM
10
), hydrocarbon (HC) and ultraviolet rays (UV). The category of
monitoring station and their respective parameters are tabulated below.
Table 1.1: Categories and parameters of air quality monitoring stations
Category
Monitored Parameter
SO
2
NO
2
CO O
3
PM
10
HC UV
Industrial

Residential

Traffic

Background

PM10


The monitoring stations were strategically located throughout the country to meet
specific monitoring objectives. Most stations are located in residential areas to
ensure the air quality exposed to the public is continuously monitored. The
location of monitoring stations is shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2.
2


Figure 1.1: Location of air quality monitoring station in West Malaysia

Figure 1.2: Location of air quality monitoring station in East Malaysia
3

1.2 Air Quality Status
DOE reported the status of Malaysian air quality status in terms of Air Pollutants
Index (API), closely follows the Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) developed by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA).API is computed
based the concentration of SO
2
, NO
2
, CO, O
3
and PM
10
. An hourly index is
calculated for each pollutant and the highest index value recorded is then taken as
the API for the hour. The API system of Malaysia is shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Air Pollutant Index (API) of Malaysia
API Air Quality Status
0-50 Good
51-100 Moderate
101-200 Unhealthy
201-300 Very unhealthy
>300 Hazardous

API 500 and above authorized the declaration of a state of emergency in the
reporting area.
The API reading is reported daily for 7:00 am, 11:00 am and 5:00 pm and can be
accessed by public at http://www.doe.gov.my/apims/index.php. The latest API
reading (prior to the writing of this report) is shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: API reading (10
th
April 2011, 5:00 pm)
Good
82%
Moderate
18%
Good
Moderate
Unhealthy
Very unhealthy
Hazardous
4

2.0 AIR POLLUTANTS
US-EPA defined the air pollutants as any substance in the air that can cause harm
to humans or the environment. Pollutants may be natural or man-made and may
take the form of solid particles, liquid droplets or gases. The main air pollutants
are gases such as oxides of nitrogen (NO
X
) and oxides of sulphur (SO
X
), and
particles such as dust and lead.
2.1 Common Pollutants
DOE monitored six types of air pollutants which also listed as common air
pollutants by US-EPA. These pollutants are:
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Sulphur dioxide (SO
2
)
Nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
)
Ground level ozone (O
3
)
Particulate matter (PM
10
)
Lead (Pb)
2.1.1 Carbon monoxide (CO)
CO is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless gas consists of one carbon atom and
one oxygen atom. The main source of CO in Malaysia is motor vehicle. It is
slightly lighter than air and highly toxic to humans and animals in higher
quantities, although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low
quantities, and is thought to have some normal biological functions.
2.1.2 Sulphur dioxide (SO
2
)
SO
2
is a colourless, non-flammable and pungent odour gas consists of one sulphur
atom and two oxygen atoms. The major source of SO
2
in Malaysia is combustion
process in industries and motor vehicle engines since coal and petroleum often
contain sulphur compounds. The production of SO
2
as a result of burning sulphur
compound, S
8
(the most common of sulphur allotropes found in nature) is shown
in chemical equation below.
8 2 2
S (s) 8O (g) 8SO (g)
5

2.1.3 Nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
)
NO
2
is a gas consists of one nitrogen atom and two oxygen atoms, reddish-brown
in colour with a sharp, biting odour. It is formed when nitric oxide, NO is oxidised
in the atmosphere.
NO is produced when nitrogen gas, N
2
is burned in high temperature or formed
naturally during lightning storms by the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen, two
common atmospheric gases. The production of NO and NO
2
is shown in the
chemical equation below.
2 2
2 2
N (g) O (g) 2NO(g)
2NO(g) O (g) 2NO (g)

The major source of NO
2
in Malaysia is combustion process in power stations,
industries and motor vehicles.
2.1.4 Ground level ozone (O
3
)
Ozone (O
3
) is a pungent-smelling, slightly bluish gas composed of three oxygen
atoms. Good ozone formed naturally in the stratosphere as a layer that protects life
on earth from the sun's harmful rays, Ironically, while high-level ozone is
beneficial to the environment, the presence of O
3
at low level of atmosphere
(troposphere) is considered as pollutant and it is the main component of smog. It is
not usually emitted directly into the air but created by a chemical reaction.
Majority of ozone occurs when nitrogen oxides (NO
X
), carbon monoxide (CO)
and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the atmosphere in the presence of
sunlight. There are many stages of chemical reaction that formed O
3
from NO
X
,
CO or VOC which includes the formation of hydroxyl radical (OH) and peroxy
radical (HO
2
). The net reaction that formed O
3
from CO is shown in chemical
equation below.
2 2 3
CO(g) 2O (g) CO (g) O (g)
High level of O
3
in Malaysia was recorded in urban areas due to higher traffic
volume since NO
X
, CO and VOC is either products or by-products of fossil fuel
used for the motor vehicles.
6

2.1.5 Particulate matter (PM
10
)
Particulate matter, also known as particle pollution or PM, is a complex mixture of
extremely small particles and liquid droplets. Particle pollution is made up of a
number of components, including acids (such as nitrates and sulphates), organic
chemicals, metals, and soil or dust particles.
Since most particles are non-spherical in shape, the most widely used definition
for size is the aerodynamic diameter. Some particles, such as dust, dirt, soot, or
smoke, are large or dark enough to be seen with the naked eye while others are so
small and can only be detected using an electron microscope. Figure 2.1 shows the
size of particulate matter compared to human hair.

Figure 2.1: Size comparison of PM with human hair
The size of particles is directly linked to their potential for causing health
problems. Larger particles are generally filtered in the nose and throat and do not
cause problems. DOE is concerned about particles that are 10 m in diameter or
smaller because these particles are generally inhalable and can pass through the
throat and nose and enter the lungs. Once inhaled, these particles can affect the
heart and lungs and cause serious health effects.
Particulate matter can rupture, blocking and/or passing through alveoli in lung,
leading to cancer, alzheimers, and permanent declines in lung capacity.
7

2.1.6 Lead (Pb)
Lead is a main-group element with the atomic number 82. It is poisonous and
exposure to lead can cause lead poisoning. Lead has been commonly used for
thousands of years because it is highly malleable and ductile as well as easy to
smelt. Current used of lead include lead-acid batteries and as pigments in paints.
Lead was used as an additive in petrol since 1920s to reduce engine knocking. In
1985 the Government have made the Environmental Quality (Control of Lead
Concentration in Motor Gasoline) Regulations, 1985 which restricts the import,
manufacture or possession of any motor gasoline that contain lead concentration
more than 0.4 g/L. In 1990 the limiting concentration was reduced to 0.15 g/L.
The Environmental Quality (Control of Petrol and Diesel Properties) Regulations
2007 limits the lead concentration of 0.013 g/L to any petrol which is produced,
stored, distributed, transported, supplied, sold or offered for sale within Malaysia.
2.2 Pollutants Emission
CO, NO
2
, SO
2
, O
3
and PM
10
are monitored continuously at 51 locations while
lead is monitored every 6 days at two locations namely Pudu Station and City Hall
Station. The air quality trend is computed by averaging direct measurements from
the monitoring sites on a yearly basis and cross-reference with the Malaysian
Ambient Air Quality Guidelines.
2.2.1 Ambient Air Quality Guidelines
Ambient air quality guidelines were established in 1988. The averaging time
represents the period of time over which measurements is monitored and reported
for the assessment of human health impacts of specific air pollutants. Table 2.1
shows the Malaysian ambient air quality guidelines.
Table 2.1: Malaysian ambient air quality guidelines
Pollutant Averaging Time Guideline
CO 8 hour 9 ppm
NO
2
1 hour 0.17 ppm
SO
2
24 hour 0.04 ppm
O
3
1 hour 0.1 ppm
PM
10
24 hour 150 g/m
3

Pb 3 month 1.5 g/m
3

8

2.2.2 Emission Loads
The overall pollutant emitted to the atmosphere as recorded by DOE in 2009 is
2,577,266 metric tonnes as shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Pollutants emission load in Malaysia, 2009
CO is the major contributor to pollutant load in 2009 with 63% while NO
2
the
second with 29%. SO
2
and PM
10
are 7% and 1% respectively.








CO
63%
NO
2
29%
SO
2
7%
PM
10
1%
Total emission 2,585,266 metric tonnes
9

3.0 AIR POLLUTION SOURCES
Sources of air pollution may come from various location, activities or factors that
emit various types of pollutants to the atmosphere. The types or classification of
air pollution sources may varies depending on the type of the report and the target
group in which the report was to be presented.
3.1 General Classification
Air pollution can occurs naturally or as a result of human activities. Generally the
sources of air pollution can be classified into two major categories which are:
Anthropogenic sources
Natural sources
3.1.1 Anthropogenic Sources
Anthropogenic sources are the sources that came from human activities. It is
mostly related to the burning of various types of fuel especially fossil fuel. The
most common of anthropogenic sources in Malaysia includes:
Transportation activities especially motor vehicle which involves the
burning of petrol and diesel. It is the major source of pollutant load
especially on CO which is the largest pollutant emitted to the atmosphere.
Power plant operation which is the major source of NO
2
and also the
second contributor to CO as reported by DOE in 2009.
Industrial activities which is the main source of PM10.
Other activities including controlled burning in agricultural, illegal open
burning and daily activities such as smoking.
3.1.2 Natural Sources
Natural sources have less contribution in Malaysia. The most common is lightning
which produced NO
2
. Other sources (some did not occur in Malaysia) include:
Smoke and dust from wildfire.
Volcanic activities which produced SO
2
, particles and other contaminants.
Dust form area with little or no vegetation during dry season.
10

3.2 Classification Used By Government Agencies
The government agencies that present the environmental statistic to the public
include Department of Environment (DOE) and Department of Statistics (DOS).
DOE is responsible for monitoring the air quality and reporting the air quality
status while DOS publish a report related to the environment in tandem with their
role as the central repository for environment statistics.
The latest statistic data available by both agencies will be presented for purpose of
comparison. These data were from Environmental Quality Report 2008 by DOE
and Compendium of Environment Statistics, 2009 by DOS. Both published report
are reporting the environmental status of Malaysia for the year 2008.
3.2.1 DOE Classification
DOE classified the air pollution sources in term of activities in their annual
Environmental Quality Report (EQR). Pollution sources were divided to 4
categories namely motor vehicle, power station, industrial and others. The
emission of pollutants by source in 2008 as reported by DOE in EQR 2008 is
shown in Figure 3.1 below.

Figure 3.1: Overall emission of pollutants by source, 2008 (DOE)
Motor vehicle
79%
Power station
11%
Industrial
7%
Others
3%
Total emission 2,055,303 metric tonnes
11

3.2.2 DOS Classification
Department of Statistics (DOS) categorised the sources of pollutants in term of
their mobility. DOS reported that the main contributors of air pollution in 2008 are
emissions from stationary sources, mobile sources and open burning activities.
A mobile source is the source that was mainly due to pollutants emitted from
motor vehicles while emissions from industrial sector and power plants are
categorised under stationary sources. Other source includes hotels, commercial
centres, institutions and night markets. According to DOS the quantity of
pollutants emitted in 2008 amounted to 2,055,303 tonnes as shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: Overall emission of pollutant by source, 2008 (DOS)
Even different terminologies were used, Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2 shows that both
agencies agreed that the major source of air pollution is transportation activities.
Stationary sources described by DOS matched to the combination of power station
and industrial described by DOE. Stationary sources is the second contributor to
air pollution with emission load almost one fifth total load.
The emission of each pollutant by source in 2009 is shown in Table 3.3
Mobile
Sources, 79%
Stationary
Sources, 18%
Others, 3%
Total emission 2,055,303 metric tonnes
12

Table 3.1: Pollutants emission by type and source, 2009
Pollutant
Motor
Vehicle
Power
Station
Industrial Others TOTAL
CO 1,533,191 66,693 16,931 4,449 1,621,264
NO
2
211,599 437,335 87,770 19,655 756,359
SO
2
13,406 84,944 48,024 33,542 179,916
PM
10
4,574 6,892 13,577 2,684 27,727
TOTAL 1,762,770 595,864 166,302 60,330 2,585,266
*All units in metric tonnes















13

4.0 AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS
The main reason that makes air pollution is considered as the major environmental
problem is their adverse effects which related to the type of pollutant released to
the air. These include effects to health, daily activities, economy and global.
4.1 Health
The major concern regarding air pollution is the effects to human health and
welfare of flora and fauna. These include:
Respiratory function effects caused by NO
2
, O
3
or PM
10
.
Skin cancer risks caused by O
3
.
Shortage of oxygen in the body caused by CO. Low oxygen level in blood
forcing heart to beat even faster to supply enough oxygen to organs which
will cause cardiovascular problems. Further effects include headaches,
dizziness, nausea and unconsciousness, toxicity of the central nervous
system and heart, loss of vision, severe effects on the baby of a pregnant
woman and many other serious problems. CO is even more dangerous than
any other pollutants since it is colourless and odourless, thus not
immediately detectable.

Figure 4.1: Effect of CO in blood
Lead poisoning caused by Pb which effects many of body's organ systems
include nervous system, renal system, cardiovascular system and
reproductive system.
14

Irritation of eyes, nose and throat, aggravation of asthma and bronchitis
caused by SO
2
or O
3
.
Lung damage caused by SO
2
, O
3
or PM
10

SO
2
also effects the plants by disrupting the cell metabolism, causing leaf
injury, reducing growth and reproduction, and increase the susceptibility of
plants to attacks by insect.
PM
10
can clog the stomata openings of plants and interfere with
photosynthesis functions which can lead to growth stunting or mortality.
NO
2
and SO
2
are acidic and can reduce the pH of water thus harming the
aquatic life.
4.2 Daily Activities
Air pollutants can cause smog and haze thus reducing visibility and affect
the daily activities.
High API reading will limit the outdoor activities due to health concern.
API more than 500 result the declaration of state of emergency. For
example state of emergency was declared in Port Klang and Kuala
Selangor on 11
th
August 2005 due to haze. This results the closing of all
schools, government officials, the port, and offices in the affected areas.

Figure 4.2: View of Kuala Lumpur during 2005 Malaysian haze
15

4.3 Global
Emission of NO
2
and SO
2
causing the effect of acid rain which create more
problems such as acidification of lake and sea, damaging trees, reduced
fertility of soil and accelerate the decay of building material.
Air pollutants contribute to greenhouse effect and causing the global
warming.
High pollutant load in urban area create urban heat island phenomenon.
Emission of CFC contributes to the depletion of ozone layer.
Pollutants in air can alter precipitation.
Affect the international relationship. Air pollutants are transboundary and
spreading of pollutants from one country to other country can create
tension between those countries.
4.4 Economy
Apart from direct health-related and other environmental issues, air pollution also
causing economic loses such as:
Loses due to medical treatment
Lost income from being absent from work
Decreased productivity
Travel time losses due to reduced visibility
Losses from repair of damage to buildings
Increased costs of cleaning
Losses due to damage to crops & plants
Reduced economic generation from various sources such as tourism and
port industry.





16

5.0 CONCLUSION
Air pollution is a serious threat to the environment and its adverse effects to the
health, economy and environment are very worrying. The main source of air
pollution in Malaysia is motor vehicles which emit pollutants especially CO, the
largest load of all pollutants emitted to atmosphere. Apart from its dangerous
effects to health, it is also the most dangerous pollutant compared to other
pollutants because it is not detectable due to its properties which are colourless
and odourless.
An action should be taken especially by related Agencies such as Department of
Environment, Road Transport Department and Commercial Vehicle Licensing
Board as an effort to reduce the emission of CO. For example, it is suggested that
a new device is developed to be attachable to the vehicle that can convert the
pollutants to the less harmful substance. It is also suggested that we improve our
public transport system so that it become the main choice for transportation
especially in urban areas. The usage of public transport also will reduce traffic
congestion problem.
Campaigns and efforts definitely will take a long time to be achieved but in the
end a good result will be obtained. It is proven when effort was made to reduce the
lead pollution as shown below.

Figure 5.1: Lead emission in Malaysia (1988-2006)

17

6.0 REFERENCES
Department of Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment,
Malaysia (2009). 2009 Annual Report. Kuala Lumpur: Misas Advertising
Sdn Bhd.
Department of Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment,
Malaysia (2009). Environmental Quality Report 2008. Petaling Jaya: Syasaz
Hodings Sdn Bhd.
Department of Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment,
Malaysia (2010). Environmental Quality Report 2009. Petaling Jaya: Syasaz
Hodings Sdn Bhd.
Department of Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment,
Malaysia. Air. www.doe.gov.my/portal/public/air/
Department of Statistics, Prime Ministers Department, Malaysia (2009).
Compendium Of Environment Statistics, Malaysia, 2009. Putrajaya.
Environmental Protection Agency, United States. Six Common Air Pollutants.
www.epa.gov/air/urbanair/
Ismail Sahid (1985). Masalah Semasa Alam Sekitar Malaysia. Bangi: Penerbit
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
Shreeshivadasan Chelliapan. Teaching Module: DDA3523 Environmental
Engineering. Civil Engineering Department, UTM SPACE.
Wikipedia. Air Pollution. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution