Ancient History Notes

History, Archaeology and Science

The word Archaeology comes from two Greek words (Archaeos + Logos) meaning ancient
knowledge
Archaeologists are those who seek ancient knowledge. They study the human past through
physical remains.
They study sources to determine what happened in the past
Artefacts are human made objects
Archaeology, history and science work in close partnership
History provides experts who can read and understand ancient writing and legends
Science provides technologies which help archaeologists in discovering underground sites, in
dating the finds, in examining physical remains for disease, cause of death, appearance, age
and sex. Also help to preserve and protect the heritage of our past
Archaeologists use this help from history and science to examine what is found and work out
the what, why and how of the past.
Archaeology is a contradictory study, it destroys the past in order to save it.
Archaeologists have been guilty of damaging and destroying their own sites through their
misuse of ancient stories, digging techniques, they have been known to fake objects in their
blind search for fame, they have recreated past objects according to what they think things
should look like not as they may have looked like.
Thought archaeology destroys the past, it also saves it by preserving the appearance and
most of all rescues the past from being forgotten.
The New Archaeology began in American in the 1960s, called for a fresh approach because
there was a need for archaeologist to find new methods of studying cultures with no writing.
They also needed new methods of dating finds which had no writing on them. Lewis Binford
wanted to make archaeology more scientific.
Old archaeologists usually study ancient civilisations which used writing
World archaeology, these archaeologists are more careful in working out their reasons for
digging. They try to set very clear reason for excavation. They look closely at the ecology so
that they can work out what relationship existed between the artefacts they find and the
environment.
When a site is unearthed, archaeologists must use inference to help them make sense of the
discovery.
Much of archaeology, contains more archaeological sources (artefacts and physical remains)
than written sources.
Context means where an object is found and its position in relation to other objects.
There are above ground structures and below ground structures
Most ancient sites are beneath the ground, buried and hidden by the forces of nature or by
human beings
A common type of buried site is a tell, a mound which looks like a natural hill but which in
face is made up of many layers of ancient remains built on top of the other over time
Second type of buried site is a concealed sites. Such sites are buried under flat soil, sand, in
caves of in mountain sides.
Midden contains rubbish left behind by those who once lived nearby may be a concealed
site.
Some concealed sites can over time become exposed through wind, water erosion or
accidental discovery by people.
Many concealed sites leave no clues at ground level although they can give hints of their
existence from a distance through a technique called remote sensing.
When a tell or a concealed site is excavated: it may be a successive or a sealed deposit
Successive deposit will contain remains from many inhabitants over a long period of tie.
Layers/strata/stratigraphy
Misplaced objects and layers are known as intrusions
Sealed deposit means that a site was only used for a time and then was covered by soil or
perhaps volcanic lava. Is often undisturbed objects from different times
Visual survey: inspect the area around the hill, looking for clues such as small artefacts or
shards (pieces of pottery) which may show that people once lived in the area.
Remote sensing: done from air, metal detectors
Aeroplane photography: picks up tell-tale shadows and texture that cannot be seen at
ground level
Satellite photography: measure light reflected from the earth and infra-red light given off by
the earth
SLAR: (sideways looking airborne radar) uses radar waves which penetrate jungles and
bound back as radar pictures
Resistivity survey: measure the amount of electricity passing through the ground
Archaeo-magnetic survey: measure the amount of magnetism in the earth. (magnometer)
Photographic probe: long tube with camera attached to its end
SIR: (subsurface interface radar) uses radar to bounce back pictures of underground shapes
The ones which produce the most promising or greatest number of finds indicate the best
place to start digging
Test pits also give archaeologists an idea of which type of digging method is best to use.
Can be destructive since it can damage objects or structures in the process of digging the pit.
Grid excavation
Methods of digging should vary to suit the site. Whatever method the archaeologist uses,
they must make sure that none of the objects or their context (where they are found and
what is found with them) is destroyed.
Relative dating is used when the date of an object is unknown and to say whether it is older
or younger than other objects.
Absolute dating gives the age of an object in years.
Dating an object is more likely accurate when the two methods can be cross checked with
each other
Sequence dating is used when archaeologist excavate sites by carefully uncovering the layers
Seriation dating is used when the layers are confused or unsettled. Also called stylistic dating
Typology is another form of relative dating. Grouping objects in this way is called typology
F.U.N dating gives the age of human and animal bones found in the earth by measuring the
amount of fluorine, uranium and nitrogen left in them
Absolute dating: dendrochronology (tree rings), radio carbon dating (carbon 14 dating),
potassium/argon dating (K/Ar dating), thermo luminescence (T.L dating), fission tracking
dating (measures uranium 238)- the more tracks the older the object
Physical anthropologist are specialists who examine the ancient dead to determine age,
gender and appearance.
Different parts of the body disintegrate at different rates after death. Soft tissues are the
quickest to decay, whilst teeth are almost indestructible
Where a body was placed has affected its state of preservation.
Palaeo-pathologists are specialist who examine the ancient dead to learn about their state
of health and cause of death
It can be difficult to tell the difference between what is real and what is fake
Archaeology is more than excavation. The finds which are unearthed, must be cleaned,
protected and stored properly.
Archaeologists must try to conserve and restore what is found. Scientists who conserve
objects protect them from further damage.
Once an object is dug up conservation is needed.
Restoration is the science of restoring an object to its original condition.
Considerable damage is dont to these great outdoor monuments by pollution, tourism and
looting
Archaeologist search for their evidence in many places
Erosion over the centuries often leads to disintegration of towns.
Observation classification and recording interpretation
Archaeology is a process by which investigators of the past collect and record data, test it for
reliability and authenticity, interpret and draw conclusions from it.
Difficult to reconstruct a full and detailed picture of the past
Excavation is a process of revering, collecting and recording information. The recording of
the site must be meticulous and systematic.
4 main tasks to complete: conserve, authenticate all material remains that have been
located, to classify and to date
Archaeologists can choose whether to excavate a site or to study it in a non invasive
manner. Excavation can destroy a site. As each layer is excavated and revcealed, the
evidence is lost and destroyed forever. We are left with only recorded information for future
studies.
Entombed Warriors
Qin had a great army where birth mattered little
Qin was a kingdom blessed by natural resources, loyal hardworking people, protected by
mountains and the mighty Yellow River
Li Si urged the kin to conquer the other Chinese kingdoms like a silkworm devouring a
mulberry leaf
Qin Shi Huangdi became the first emperor of China and he set the foundations and shape of
China that lasted over 2000 years
In March 1974AD farm workers near the city of Xian in central China were digging a well.
They hit a solid objects and they saw what seemed to be the tip of a reddish brown piece of
pottery. They had found the Terracotta Warriors
4 pits, pit 1: 6000 statues, pit 2: smaller pit with 1400 soldiers and horses, pit3: smallest pit,
command post, pit 4: empty
The warriors were all different
Very detailed
The troops were painted to highlight their differences
Traces of colour were found on the statues
The ancient Chinese are known to have developed the art of physiognomy or reading a
persons character and future from their physical features
Terracotta; baked earth
Baked in a kiln (oven) fired between 800 and 1000 degrees
Method of constructing each figure was the same, though they may have been produced at
different places. Legs and hands were solid, bodies, arms and heads were hollow.
They used coils to create the statues
Final detailing occurred when fine clay was carefully layered over the moulded head. (sharp
end of a bamboo stick)
The discovery of the terracotta warriors has given historians a wonderful archaeological
source of evidence on the life, personality and time of the man who created Chinas first
empire
It was discovered from the Terracotta warriors that there was no sign of human sacrifice or
the legendary cruelty of the First Emperors reign
They were perhaps representing once living men, to guard their emperor
Before Qin became ruler of the Kingdom, China consisted of a number of separated
kingdoms that were often at war with each other.
Qin had:
Fortunate geographic position as it was protected by a shield of mountains and the winding
Yellow River
End of feudalism as the kinds divided his land among several powerful families and they in
turn provided him with soldiers etc. (strict separation of social classes)
The king demanded more power and loyalty to be centred on himself at his new capital. All
weights and measure had to be the same throughout the kingdom. The state made
everyone obey its laws
Set up a system of rewards titles and privileges were given to those who earned such
honours in military service or by increasing the states grain supply. Family background did
not matter. The peasants were well rewarded for their hard works. They in turn formed the
proud, loyal, well-disciplined army of Qin.
Qin grew in power due to its military technology of formations and iron weapons.
Economically they had building projects, the Zheng Guo canal brought water to vast areas in
Qin. The kingdom of Qin was united by canals and excellent road
Qin welcomed men of talent and ability to the kingdom
A stable kingdom was achieved as Qins kings ruled for long periods in time
To prevent any more fighting after defeating the other kings, Qin Shi Huangdi divided his
new empire into 36 units (countries). He made the defeated rulers and their families to leave
their old centers of power and live in Xianyang where he could keep an eye on their
activities. Their weapons were melted down and formed bells and massive statues. The first
emperor alsoi ordered all city walls to be pulled down.
Unification of China (296BC 221BC)
The first emperor wanted to make sure that his government orders would be known
throughout China, so he simplified the Chinese script so they could be easily written and
read acroos the vast new empire and to make the people obedient, the cruel punishments
of Qin became part of the law across all China
Money, weights, measures were all standardised.
He paid a lot of attention to transport and communications
The first emperor wanted to keep his empire sage from the wild wandering traibesmen to
the north. He also wanted to keep his people inside the wall, under his control.
The great wall was to link the older walls built to protect earlier kingdoms. It also provided a
long communication system
The first emperor gave China a waterway network of 2000 km.
Suffering and death loomed behind each building project
Burning of books occurred when Li Si, the emperors adviser, defended his master at an
imperial banquet. He argued against a group of scholars who claimed that earlier dynasties
treated their own families better than the Emperor did his own children. It was Li Si who
recommended that many old books be dispatched to the flames. He even advised the death
penalty for those who defied the order or who use the past to criticise the present in public
Many of these books were deeply influenced by the ideas of Confucius, Chinas great
thinker. (danger of comparing)
A year after the book burning, the first emperor was advised by a magician, Master Lu, that
if he wanted to live forever, he must separate himself from other people. When he learnt
that people knew where he could be found, the angry emperor demanded to knw who had
revealed where he was. When nobody owned up all those with him at the time of betrayal
were arrested and killed.
Over 460 scholars were executed.
Later scholars and historians wished to blacken the reputation of the First Emperor
Terracotta warriors were believed to be built to protect and serve the emperor in the
afterlife
Dynasty is a series of rulers who belong to the same family

The Trojan War
Heinrich Schliemann, argued that ancient myths should be used as historical sources. Other
historians believed myths were fairy tales
Schliemann however believed that they contained truths about ancient people, places and
events.
His main inspiration was Homer, the story teller. Homer told the exciting tale of a great ten
year war between the city of Troy (Ilium) and a thousand ships from Greece which came to
destroy her.
Schliemann believed these tales to be a true account of the past and he decided he would
use Homers stories to discover Troy and the major Greek cities mentioned in the poems.
Schliemann sought first to discover the great city of Troy (1873 he discovered Troy)
He discovered Troy by following Homers words describing the city of Troy and therefore
discovered Troy in the hill of Hissarlik
Schliemann had taught archaeologist a crucial lesson. Ancient stories are valuable historical
sources. They contain truths. We should not ignore them.
Ancient myths help archaeologists find buried sites.
Myths and legends contain truth, but they have been handed down by word of mouth for
thousands of years. This means that they also contain additions, half-truths and confused
facts.
Schliemann became so blinded by ancient myths that he damaged Troy
When Schliemann began to excavate he found that the hill he was working on had nine
layers
By wrong methods of digging techniques, he and a few workers, dug a huge trench in the
middle of the assumed city hence destroying the strata and most of the evidence
This made his excavation in danger of being closed down by the authorities.
Two days before the ending of this excavation, Schliemann found treasure in Troy layer 2
near the base of a building he called Priams Palace. This treasure he called Priams
treasure.
There have been doubts as to whether the find was genuine
Schliemann learnt too late that ancient legends contain both face and fiction. By accepting
that myths contain truth he made amazing discoveries. By he was also guilty of destroying,
and possibly faking evidence.
Heinrich Schliemann was guilty of trying to force the evidence to fit the myth
Deir el Medina
Deir el Medina was the village where the workers responsible for building and decorating
the great royal tombs of Egypt during the New Kingdom period lived.
It was located on the west bank of the Nile River opposite the capital Thebes
Occupied 1545 1069 BC
Amenhotep I founded Deir el Medina
Very important as it gives us insight into the lives of average workers
Was located between the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens
Medina was abandoned for a time
Deir el Medina has a lot of archaeological evidence as it was well preserved : ostraca (broken
pottery and limestone flakes used as cheap writing material), papyri (ancient paper), stelae
(round topped stone slabs inscribed with writing) and in the village homes where they
decorated.
Houses were arranged side by side down the main street, which at first separated the two
crews
The pharaoh provided the houses as homes for the workers who would build his eternal
resting place
Moving around the village must have been difficult due to the narrow streets and lanes
Village was a hive of incoming and outgoing activity
The magnificent royal tombs of the New Kingdom were built and decorated by specialists
Deir el Medina is one of our richest sources of archaeological and written evidence
concerning the lives, work routines and religious practices of the inhabitants.
Medina was self-contained and completely separate from the great religious city of Thebes.
All workers were employed by the king, and their wages of food, clothing and water were
supplied by the royal warehouses across the River Nile in Thebes.
Chose Valley of the Kings to be pharaohs resting places because it was far away from the city
to be robbed and also had high walls that could be more easily guarded by the cemetery
police. Also for its remote location and its special link to Ra
The most important day in the lives of the crews of the royal tomb was when the king died
and his successor was named. The dead kings tomb then had to be finished in time for the
burial
Royal tomb builders were important to the king and all of Egyptian society. As a result they
were pampered, given more than enough to live on and were always in touch with the
exciting world of Thebes beyond their walls.
Although they were well off and secure, the villagers jealousies and ambitions sometimes
led to bitter quarrels.
The pharaoh of the New Kingdom was a very special human being. Egyptians believed he
was the son of two great gods (Ra and Osiris)
Royal tombs were completely different from those of other Egyptians.
When pharaoh died, his funeral procession began at sunset and followed the setting sun to
the Valley of the Kings.
Royal tombs were built to copy the geography of the underworld
Hall of Separation: dangerous pit trapped rainwater and unwary tomb robbers. Also
magically marked the entrance to the deeper underworld.
House of Gold: Kings burial chamber
Walls of the royal tombs were decorated with magical texts and spells that helped the king
to become a god
Am Duat: describes each hour of the Sun gods daily journey, his changes of form and his
meeting with Osiris in the underworld, where the two gods unit for a short while as The
Combined God
Litany of Ra: tells us about the meeting of the two gods
The Book of Gates: shows Ra and pharaoh passing through twelve dangerous gates and
meeting Osiris who sits on a throne as supreme judge of all the dead