Structural Enginccring Intcrnatinnal 2/2007 Science and Technology 133

Peei-ieviewed by inleinalional ex-

peils and accepled foi publicalion
by S! !diloiial Boaid
Papei ieceived: 1uly 4, 2OO6
Papei accepled: 1an 24, 2OO7
Summary
Launching ganliies aie fiequenlly used in lhe eieclion of piecasl segmenlal
and -beam biidges, while movable shulleiing syslems (MSS) aie used foi in
silu span-by-span and balanced-canlilevei consliuclion. The use of launching
unils is lheiefoie fiequenl in mosl lypes of medium-span, piesliessed conciele
biidges.
Launching ganliies and MSS aie complex and delicale sliucluies. They iesisl
huge loads duiing biidge eieclion and oveilake long spans duiing self-launching.
They aie lighli.e. designed foi high sliess levels in diffeienl load and suppoil
condilions, which make lhem pione lo inslabilily. And lhey aie ieused many
limes, on diffeienl pio|ecls and by diffeienl ciews.
As a mallei of facl, a numbei of launching unils have collapsed in iecenl yeais,
wilh many falalilies and exlieme delays on lhe pio|ecl schedule. As a conse-
quence, lhe launching unils aie almosl always leased oi puichased on lhe basis
of sliingenl lechnical specificalions, and lheii design is sub|ecled lo independenl
checking.
Design and opeialional failuies delecled by lhe aulhoi wilhin numeious inde-
pendenl design check assignmenls aie discussed in lhe papei and iecommen-
dalions and suggeslions aie piovided lo pievenl failuies and assuie adequale
iobuslness of launching unils. Owing lo lhe legal pioceedings suiiounding such
evenls, only geneial causes of collapse aie discussed in lhis papei and no pho-
logiaphs of ganliy collapses aie included, and lhe phologiaphs do nol iefei lo
collapsed unils.
Kcywnrds: launching ganliies; movable shulleiing syslems; slabilily of lempoiaiy
sliucluies; iobuslness of lempoiaiy sliucluies; biidge consliuclion equipmenl.
be easy lo lianspoil, assemble, and
opeiale, i.e. as lighl as possible, which
diclales lhe use of high-slienglh sleel
and designing foi high sliess levels
undei many diffeienl load and suppoil
condilions.
As a consequence, launching unils
aie slendei and pione lo inslabilily.
Oveiluining, unconliolled sliding, un-
sealing fiom suppoils and similai mac-
ioscopic evenls aie simple lo conliol.
Moie complex foims of inslabilily
such as oul-of-plane buckling can be
assessed only wilh numeiical analysis.
The conceplual schemes of launching
unils aie nol many |1]. The lighl gan-
liies foi piecasl beams compiise lwo
paiallel liusses wilh liiangulai cioss-
seclion. Two winch-liolleys iun along
lhe uppei choids wilh lhe beam sus-
pended undeinealh and no liansveise
biacing is inslalled belween lhe liusses
(Iig. 1). The spans aie shoil, lhe design
load is low, and lhe winch-liolleys
Rnbustncss and Stability nf Launching Gantrics
and Mnvablc Shuttcring Systcms ~ Lcssnns Lcarncd
Intrnductinn
Consliuclion of piesliessed conciele
biidges spanning fiom 3O lo 12O14O m
is moslly based on lhe use of self-
launching machines. Allhough lhe
lechnological iequiiemenls aie dif-
feienl, lhe lwo families of launching
unilslaunching ganliies foi piecasl
segmenlal consliuclion and movable
shulleiing syslems (MSS) foi in silu
casling, aie so similai lhal unils oiigi-
nally conceived foi in silu casling aie
oflen iecycled foi segmenl eieclion
and vice veisa.
Launching ganliies and MSS aie
complex and delicale sliucluies. They
iesisl huge loadsoflen lhe enliie
span weighl, and have full self-launch
capabilily undei lhe same consliainls
lhal lhe obslacle lo oveipass exeils on
lhe peimanenl sliucluie. They musl fil
plan and veilical cuivaluies bolh in
lhe supeisliucluie lo be eiecled and in
lhe suppoiling pieis. Also, lhey musl
Marcn Rnsignnli
Chief Biidge !ngineei,
HNTB Coipoialion
Seallle, WA
\SA
134 Science and Technology Structural Enginccring Intcrnatinnal 2/2007
opeiale fai fiom each olhei, so lhal
lhese unils aie usually veiy lighl and
defoimable.
A ganliy foi span-by-span eieclion
woiks on similai spans bul lhe design
load is much highei as lhe unil sus-
lains lhe enliie span duiing segmenl
assembly. The geneial aiiangemenl
of an MSS foi span-by-span casling is
similai; wilh lhe span eilhei suspended
fiom (uppei-beam unils) oi suppoiled
on (lowei-beam unils) a self-launch-
ing fiame. The lwin-uppei-beam unils
compiise lwo lhiee-dimensional (3D)
liusses, box-giideis, oi paiied -giideis
biaced lo each olhei only al lhe ends
oi lolally unbiaced. ndependenl 3D
liusses oi paiied -giideis aie also used
in lhe lwin-lowei-beam unils (Iig. 2)
because lhe lwo halves of lhe casling
cell musl be sepaialed duiing launch-
ing. A unil of lhis lype collapsed in
laly in lhe eighlies because of bieak-
ing of a ielaining cable duiing down-
hill launching on iollei beaiings.
The mosl compacl uppei-beam unils
have a cenlial beam compiising lwo
paiied -giideis. n lhe case of lighl
plan cuivaluies, lhe caiiying beam
can be divided inlo lwo seclionslhe
main giidei and a fionl suppoil beam
lhal suslains lhe fionl end of lhe main
giidei duiing launching, connecled by
a hydiaulic luinlable as in Iig. 3. This
solulion is also adopled wilh lhe lwin-
uppei-liuss unils, allhough suslain-
ing lwo dislanl liusses wilh a cenlial
suppoil beam may cause pioblems of
loision slabilily. A cuslom-made unil
of lhis lallei lype collapsed in Ohio
in lhe yeai 2OO4, killing foui woikeis.
Collapse was appaienlly caused by
impiopei anchoiing of a suppoil leg lo
lhe piei cap.
Lowei launching beams aie also used lo
suslain lhe fionl liolley of lhe wheeled
span caiiieis in lhe lasl slages of place-
menl as in Iig. 4. The caiiiei moves
foiwaid along lhe suppoil beam unlil
ieaching lhe loweiing localion, and lhe
suppoil beam is lhen launched lo lhe
nexl span lo cleai lhe aiea undei lhe
caiiiei foi span loweiing.
Single- and lwin-uppei-beam ganliies
foi balanced-canlilevei piecasl segmen
lal eieclion opeiale on much longei
spansa slably anchoied lwin-uppei-
liuss unil of lhis lype was deslioyed in
laly in lhe yeai 2OO6 by lhe collapse
of lhe segmenlal span being eiecled.
Similai unils aie also used lo caiiy
lwo casling cells foi in silu casling as
in Iig. 5. The casling cell can lheiefoie
be lwice as long as lhal of convenlional
foim liavelleis, and no lempoiaiy piei-
lock syslems aie necessaiy foi deck
slabilizalion duiing consliuclion, and
having access lo lhe woik localions,
casling lhe piei-head segmenls, and
liansfeiiing lhe casling cells lo lhe
nexl span, aie all facililaled. The design
Iig. 2. Twin-lowcr-bcan MSS (author)
Iig. 3. IivotcJ singlc-uppcr-bcan gantry (courtcsy D1A1)
Iig. 4. VhcclcJ span carricr with lowcr support bcan (author)
Iig. 1. Twin-uppcr-truss gantry jor prccast
bcans (courtcsy Contcc)
Structural Enginccring Intcrnatinnal 2/2007 Science and Technology 135
load of lhese unils is smallei lhan lhe
one foi span-by-span consliuclion, as
lhe deck segmenls aie handled indi-
vidually oi in paiis. The design-gov-
eining load condilion is lhe negalive
bending fiom lhe fionl canlilevei so
lhal vaiying-deplh unils aie used fie-
quenlly. Symmeliical slays devialed by
an exlension lowei of lhe main legs
solve lhe mosl ciilical cases.
Dcsign Lnads nf Launching
Lnits
The design loads of an MSS aie classi-
fied inlo fixed and vaiying loads. Iixed
loads include lhe self-weighl and lhe
supeiimposed dead load. \aiying
loads include lhe weighl of lhe fiesh
conciele and lhe ieinfoicing cage, lhe
load iedisliibulion al lhe applicalion
of piesliess, lhe aclions liansfeiied
by lifling devices caiiied by lhe unil,
lhe aclions of snow and wind, and lhe
lheimal vaiialions. n lhe unils foi
balanced-canlilevei consliuclion lhal
iesliain lhe deck againsl oveiluining
(Iig. 5), vaiying loads also include lhe
iesliainl foices of segmenl unbalance.
The load combinalions foi a launch-
ing ganliy aie moie complex because
of lhe dynamic naluie of loading.
These unils aie giouped inlo classes,
and lhe classificalion goveins lhe load
magnificalion faclois lo be used in
lhe load combinalions. The class of a
unil is deleimined on lhe basis of lhe
numbei of load cycles and lhe load-
ing level, and since mosl of load cycles
lake place al lhe load capacily of lhe
unil, lhe speclial facloi is usually high.
Specific classificalions also apply foi
lhe mechanical componenls.
The load condilions include iegulai
foices lhal acl duiing noimal opeia-
lions, occasional foices in lhe unil in
seivice, exceplional foices bolh in seiv-
ice and oul-of-seivice (non-opeialing
anchoied unil) condilions, and special
foices lhal aiise duiing assembly oi
locally. The iegulai foices aie lhe dead
load, lhe seivice load, and lhe ineilial
foices geneialed by inlenlional move-
menls and oscillalions of load. The
occasional foices aie lhe impacls of
lhe wheels of lhe winch-liolleys againsl
lhe iunways, wind, snow, ice, and lhei-
mal diffeiences. These unils aie ieused
many limes and lhe meleoiological
loads aie lheiefoie deleimined wilh-
oul ieduclions in ielalion lo lhe woik
duialion. The load combinalions dis-
linguish noimal opeialions and oul-
of-seivice wind condilions. Ganliies of
medium lenglh aie unlikely lo suslain
damage fiom wind-induced vibialions,
and launching is always avoided in lhe
piesence of sliong wind.
The exceplional foices aie lhe oul-
of-seivice wind, lhe lesl load, impacls
againsl lhe buffeis al lhe end of lhe
winch-liolley iunways, and lhe design-
level eailhquake. mpacls againsl
buffeis aie oflen disiegaided because
of lhe low velocily of lhe winch-liol-
leys, piovided lhal lhe iunways aie
equipped wilh end-of-slioke swilches
lhal slop lhe movemenl. !nd-of-slioke
buffeis aie indispensable wheie lhe
deck has a longiludinal giadienl, as
lhe main liusses follow lhe giadienl
and lhe iunways aie lheiefoie inclined
planes.
The loads aie giouped inlo lhiee load
condilions:
1oaJ ConJition I is lhe noimal
opeialional condilion wilh iegulai
foices. l combines lhe dead load
and lhe seivice load inclusive
calion. These
loads aie mulliplied by lhe load
calion facloi iesulling fiom
calion.
1oaJ ConJition II is lhe opeialional
condilion in lhe piesence of
occasional foices. l combines lhe
aclions of Condilion wilh wind
in seivice, snow oi ice, and lheimal
diffeiences. The occasional loads
aie nol mulliplied by lhe load
calion facloi. f lhe design
wind is sliong, lhe longiludinal
calion facloi can
diffei fiom lhe value foi Condilion ,
as lhe aclion of wind affecls lhe
slailing and biaking limes of lhe
winch-liolleys.
1oaJ ConJition III is lhe aclion of
ed by
Iig. 5. Twin-uppcr-bcan MSS jor balanccJ-cantilcvcr construction (courtcsy Rocro Thysscnkrupp)
136 Science and Technology Structural Enginccring Intcrnatinnal 2/2007
lhe following combinalions: dead
load and oul-of-seivice wind; dead
load, seivice load, and impacls
againsl lhe end-of-slioke buffeis;
dead load, seivice load, and design-
level eailhquake; and assembly and
dismanlling opeialions. Allhough
conceplually similai lo assembly
and dismanlling, self-launching is
geneially assessed in Condilion
because of lhe highei fiequency of
lhese opeialions.
The design codes foi launching unils
piesciibe diffeienl allowable sliesses
foi lhe lhiee load condilions. When
a limil-slale appioach is adopled foi
design, bolh seiviceabilily limil slales
(SLS) and ullimale limil slales (\LS)
aie assessed. The SLS coiiesponds lo
lhe loss of funclionalily of lhe ganliy,
wheieas lhe \LS is ielaled lo ciilical
condilions such as iigid equilibiium,
iupluie of conneclions, yielding of
sliucluial elemenls, and inslabilily.
Some codes assess inslabilily like any
olhei \LS condilion, allhough oul-
of-plane buckling is a sudden evenl
devoid of posl-ciilical domain and
lhe ciilical load is influenced by geo-
meliy impeifeclions lhal aie difficull
lo delecl. n lhe daily design piaclice,
lheiefoie, oul-of-plane buckling of
launching unils is assessed wilh moie
conseivalive load faclois, usually
C C 1 3
2 5 , . n spile of lhal, oul-of-
plane buckling of an oveiloaded sup-
poil leg iecenlly led lo lhe loss of a
148 m long, 12,3 MN heavy launching
unil, wilh one woikei killed.
Instability, Structural
Mndclling, and Asscssmcnt
with Lnad Tcsting
The buckling modes of a sliucluie
depend on lhe load. n a launching
ganliy lhe load shifls along lhe liusses
duiing placemenl, and lhe liusses shifl
on lhe piei suppoils duiing launching.
nslabilily of a launching unil is lheie-
foie assessed foi diffeienl posilions
and eccenliicilies of lhe seivice load
and of lhe unil ilself duiing launching.
So complex sliucluies (geneially also
lhe cioss-seclion of choids and diago-
nals vaiies along lhe unil) cannol be
assessed wilh bibliogiaphic values foi
lhe ciilical load. nslabilily is analysed
wilh numeiical models of lhe enliie
unil inclusive of main liusses, winch-
liolleys if capable of exeiling a laleial
iesliainl aclion belween lhe liusses,
and suppoil ciossbeams and loweis.
Lineai buckling analysis is used lo
deleimine lhe inslabilily modes undei
a specified sel of loads lhiough lhe
solulion of lhe geneialised eigenvalue
pioblem
K C r O
wheieKis lhe mechanical sliffness ma
liix,
C r
is lhe P-della sliffness maliix
due lo lhe load vecloi r , is lhe
diagonal maliix of eigenvalues, and
is lhe maliix of lhe coiiesponding
eigenveclois (buckling mode shapes).
!ach eigenvalueeigenvecloi paii is
called a buckling mode of lhe sliuc-
luie. The eigenvalue is called buck-
ling facloi and il is lhe scale facloi lhal
musl mulliply lhe loads lo cause buck-
ling in lhe given mode.
Design codes noimally iecognise lwo
lypes of inslabilily: lhe oveiall sway
of lhe sliucluie (oul-of-plane buck-
ling) and lhe inslabilily of a membei
belween ils end nodes oi of a web
panel belween sliffeneis and flanges
(local buckling). nvesligaling many
buckling modes wilh complex numeii-
cal models involves piohibilive com-
pulalional limes so lhal il is common
piaclice lo analyse oul-of-plane slabil-
ily wilh buckling analysis and lo check
local buckling wilh lhe sliess magnifi-
calion faclois piesciibed by code.
The diffeienl lypes of launching unils
iequiie specific appioaches lo model-
ling and analysis. n lhe case of a lwin-
lowei-beam MSS iigidly suppoiled
al lhe peimanenl pieis, simple beam
models can iepiesenl lhe box-giideis
oi paiied -giideis adequalely. The
lwin-lowei-liuss unils aie moie com-
plex and 3D models of lhe enliie unil
aie necessaiy when lhe piei biack-
els aie flexible (Iig. 6) oi only some
of lhe liusses suslain lhe casling cell.
Modelling lhe suppoil sliucluies is
also necessaiy when lhe MSS is sup-
poiled on bolh peimanenl conciele
pieis and lempoiaiy sleel pieis, as lhe
diffeienl flexibilily of suppoils, lhe dif-
feienl coefficienls of lheimal expan-
sion, and lhe diffeienl lheimal ineilia
of massive conciele pieis and slendei
sleel pieis affecl lhe load disliibulion
in lhe suppoil sliucluies and lhe buck-
ling faclois accoidingly |2].
Analysis of a single-uppei-beam unil
is also complex because lhe main sup-
poil legs aie close lo each olhei (Iig. 7)
lo lake suppoil on lhe fionl piei while
lhe ieai legs aie dislanl lo feed seg-
menls (Iig. 3) oi pieassembled cages
(Iig. 7) lhiough lhe compleled deck.
The ieai legs aie ad|uslable in plan lo
fil lhe deck cuivaluie, and all lhe legs
have hydiaulic loweiing syslems foi
fasl ielease of lhe compleled span. n
lhe piesence of so many lechnological
iesliainls, lhe sliucluial nodes belween
lhe legs and lhe -giideis aie veiy com-
plex. Single-beam models aie useful lo
Iig. 6. Twin-lowcr-truss MSS with jlcxiblc
support crossbcans (author)
Iig. 7. Casting ccll oj a singlc-uppcr-bcan MSS (author)
Structural Enginccring Intcrnatinnal 2/2007 Science and Technology 137
analyse span casling, lhe applicalion of
piesliessing, and self-launching, bul 3D
shell-elemenl models aie oflen indis-
pensable lo assess lhe sliucluial nodes.
The lwin-uppei-liuss unils lake suppoil
on flexible ciossbeams, and disiegaid-
ing lhe defleclions of suppoils leads
lo inaccuiale slabilily analyses. n lhe
MSS of Iig. 8, lhe casling cell is sus-
pended on eilhei side fiom lwo paiied
liusses (lighl giey liusses in Iig. 9),
while a lhiid exleinal liuss conliols
oul-of-plane buckling and caiiies lhe
ganliy iunway. The flexuial defleclion
of lhe suppoil ciossbeams is evidenl
in lhe phologiaph. So, complex unils
iequiie iefined analyses (in Iig. 9 a
view of lhe 53OO-fiame-elemenl model
is shown wilh lhe main load-caiiying
membeis in lighl giey and lhe biacing
and slabilizalion syslems in daik giey)
foi accuiale evalualion of lhe load
disliibulion.
The model of a launching liuss should
have |oinls al lhe conveigence poinls
of lhe giavily axes of membeis. The
aclual localion of |oinls is ciilical, as
in one of lhe many load and suppoil
condilions, lhe inilial geomeliy impei-
feclions mighl have lhe same shape
as lhal of a buckling mode. Theiefoie,
choid misalignmenls and veilicalily
eiiois in lhe suppoil loweis should
always be suiveyed and iepioduced in
lhe models by ad|usling lhe |oinl cooi-
dinales. Some geneial design codes
piesciibe allowable loleiances and
equivalenl loads foi lhe analysis of
lheii effecls. Howevei, lhe launching
unils aie sub|ecled lo many assemblies
and hundieds of sliess ieveisals, and
lhe code piovisions aie lheiefoie oflen
inadequale.
The ieliabilily of lhe inleinal ieleases
of lhe degiees of fieedom musl always
be ciilically ieviewed. The lwin-uppei-
beam unils lake suppoil on flex-
ible loweis, wilh lhe main lowei lhal
iesliains lhe liusses longiludinally and
lhe secondaiy lowei wilh fiee iolleis
oi Teflon skids. f fiiclion and weai
pievenl sliding of beaiings, lhe lhei-
mal elongalions of lhe liusses genei-
ale hoiizonlal bending in lhe suppoil
ciossbeams and P-della effecls in lhe
loweis. Befoie ieleasing lhe longiludi-
nal beaiing displacemenls in lhe model,
il is lheiefoie necessaiy lo check lhal
lhe longiludinal sliffness of lhe second-
aiy lowei is giealei lhan lhe expecled
uppei-bound iesislance lo sliding.
Similai consideialions apply foi lhe
iolalions. When lhe main beams lake
suppoil on pivoled fiames lhal do
nol iesliain lhe flexuial iolalions, lhe
ailiculalion can be modelled wilh a
cylindiical hinge al lhe pin axis. Bul
when lhe suppoil lowei has foui dis-
lanl legs, lhe ciossbeams aie placed on
|acks lo cieale a hydiaulic hinge dui-
ing launching. The safely iing nuls of
lhe |acks aie lighlened befoie cambei
ad|uslmenl and aie ieleased al foim-
sliipping so lhal duiing span casling
and lhe applicalion of piesliess, lhe
|acks can be modelled wilh iigid fiame
elemenls. Duiing launching, lhe sup-
poil ieaclions aie kepl unifoim by
lhe hydiaulic ciicuil and lhe |acks aie
modelled wilh kinemalic syslems capa-
ble of undeilaking diffeienlial deflec-
lions wilhoul unbalancing lhe suppoil
ieaclions.
The model capabilily lo iepiesenl
lhe unil behavioui should always be
assessed wilh load lesling. Launching
unils should be sub|ecled lo load lesl-
ing befoie lhe fiisl use and aflei eveiy
ma|oi ieassembly. Launching gan-
liies aie sub|ecled lo bolh slalic and
dynamic lesls, wheieas lhe MSS aie
sub|ecled lo only slalic lesls. Aflei
applying a waleipioof membiane and
inseiling lhe inleinal foims, lhe casl-
ing cell is filled wilh walei. Conciele
blocks may be suspended fiom lhe
main liusses nol lo oveiload lhe casl-
ing cell wilh an excessive walei load as
in Iig. 8.
Out-nf-Planc Buckling nf Twin-
Lppcr-Truss Lnits
The main liusses of lhe lwin-uppei-
beam unils aie eilhei biaced lo each
olhei al lhe ends oi lolally unbiaced,
and oul-of-plane buckling is a ma|oi
design concein. The ciilical load foi
oul-of-plane buckling of a fieeslanding
liuss depends on lhe degiee of fixily al
suppoils, a suppoil condilion piompl-
ing lhe liuss lo lwisl as il deflecls lalei-
ally, lhe laleial iesliainl aclion exeiled
by lhe inclined diagonals on lhe com-
piession choid, lhe localion and enlily
of concenlialed loads, and lhe level of
impeifeclion in lhe inilial geomeliy.
n a lwin-uppei-liuss unil, lhese fac-
lois coexisl and coalesce. The degiee
of fixily al suppoils is modesl, lhe
liusses being suppoiled on flexible
ciossbeams, wilh oul-of-node eccen-
liicily, and wilhoul cioss diaphiagms.
The liusses bend laleially and lwisl
because of diffeienlial defleclions in
lhe suppoil ciossbeams, and lhe deplh
of liuss and iolleis amplifies lhe laleial
displacemenls of lhe uppei choids. The
liiangulai cioss-seclion is lall and nai-
iow and lhe laleial iesliainl aclion
exeiled by lhe inclined diagonals is
lheiefoie low. The load is applied lo
lhe uppei choidi.e. above lhe cenlie
of sheai of lhe cioss-seclion, and lhe
geomeliy impeifeclions may be sig-
nificanl because of lhe high numbei of
field splices and lhe loleiances accu-
mulaled in pievious assemblies.
Oul-of-plane buckling of a lwin-uppei-
liuss ganliy is invesligaled by analysing
lhe placemenl cycle of some chaiaclei-
islic segmenls. Buckling analysis of an
MSS is simplei because of lhe absence
of load movemenls. The buckling
modes of lhe ganliy of Iigs. 10 and 11
have been compuled al hoisling and
loweiing of lhe heaviesl segmenl wilh
Iig. 8. 1oaJ tcsting oj a twin-uppcr-truss
MSS (author)
Iig. 10. Iirst buckling noJc at scgncnt
hoisting
Iig. 9. Nuncrical noJcl oj thc unit oj Iig. 8
138 Science and Technology Structural Enginccring Intcrnatinnal 2/2007
a 38OO-fiame-elemenl model; in lhe
lwo figuies, lhe segmenl is iighl undei-
nealh lhe winch-liolleys, iepiesenled
in blue. Many inleimediale condilions
have also been invesligaled as liian-
gulai liusses can and do buckle also
when lhe load is close lo lhe suppoil
ciossbeams. n lhe piesence of lians-
veise load eccenliicily, oul-of-plane
buckling can be conliolled by equip-
ping lhe winch-liolleys wilh liansveise
sliding skids oi iolls lhal lake conliasl
againsl lhe iunways lo exeil a laleial
iesliainl aclion belween lhe compies-
sion choids.
!xcessive confidence wilh a launch-
ing ganliy as a iesull of having alieady
handled similai loads in lhe pasl may
be a seiious mislake. nslabilily does
nol only depend on lhe enlily of load
bul also on how lhe load is applied lo
lhe unil. When a ganliy handles a long
piecasl beam, lhe winch-liolleys aie
al lhe opposile ends of lhe beami.e.
almosl one-half of lhe ganliy lenglh
apail. When lhe load geomeliy is such
lhal lhe winch-liolleys woik ad|acenl
lo each olhei (in lhe macio-segmenlal
eieclion of Iig. 12 lhe winch-liolleys
opeialed in landem lo handle 4,3 MN
heavy, 34 m long deck segmenls), lhe
lolal load may be lhe same, bul lhe
sliesses in lhe liusses aie much highei.
Shifling lhe load liansveisely wilh lhe
winch-liolleys (lhis is oflen necessaiy
in biidges cuived in plan) also ovei-
loads one of lhe lwo liusses.
Neilhei is self-launching less demand-
ing. Iig. 13 shows lhe fiisl oul-of-plane
buckling mode of a longei lwin-uppei-
liuss ganliy (42OO fiame-elemenl
model) al piei conlacl, wilh lhe winch-
liolleys al lhe ieai ciossbeam lhal sus-
pend anli-oveiluining counleiweighls.
Also such load concenlialions can
affecl local slabilily of lhe unil.
!xlieme allenlion musl be paid lo
lhe pivoled suppoil legs. n lhe sup-
poil fiame of Iig. 14, lhe bollom
ciossbeam oiiginally had a box-sec-
lion ovei ils enliie widlh. To ieuse lhe
ganliy in a cuived biidge, lhe suppoil
pislons had lo shifl liansveisely and
lhe ciossbeam was windowed lo lodge
lheii mobile heads, wilh lhe iesull lhal
lhe cioss-seclional loision conslanl
in lhe windowed end poilions of lhe
ciossbeam became less lhan one-lhou-
sandlh of lhe oiiginal value. When
lhe suppoil pislon is al lhe end of lhe
ciossbeam, lhe veilical load palh is lhe
lhiee-aligned-hinge scheme of Iig. 14,
in which lhe cenlial cylindiical hinge
has minimum iolalional sliffness. The
scheme is moie slable when lhe pislon
is undei lhe inclined poilal leg so lhal
lhe suppoil fiame would likely buckle
(leading lo lhe loss of lhe unil) only
in cuived biidges. As a iesull of lhe
independenl design check piocess, lhe
ciossbeam was sliffened by welding
laleial flanges and webs lo cieale box-
giideis on bolh sides of lhe windowed
poilions, Iig. 15.
Modelling lhe enliie unil is necessaiy
nol only foi buckling analysis. The
ciossbeam defleclions oveiload lhe
sliffei suppoil membeis, and single-
liuss models on iigid suppoils lheie-
foie lend lo undeieslimale lhe sliesses
in lhe pivoled suppoil legs and lhe
concenlialed loads liansfeiied lo lhe
deck. The same applies foi lhe fionl
pivoled legs lhal suppoil lhe unil
duiing launching of lhe main suppoil
ciossbeams, Iig. 12.
Iig. 12. IivotcJ jront launch support
Iig. 13. Iirst buckling noJc at thc naxi-
nun launch cantilcvcr
Iig. 14. 1ocal instability Juc to winJowing
oj thc cross-scction
Iig. 15. Rcar support jranc ajtcr stijjcning
(author)
Iig. 11. Iirst buckling noJc at scgncnt
rclcasc
Structural Enginccring Intcrnatinnal 2/2007 Science and Technology 139
Dynamic Effccts nf Lncal
Buckling and Prcvcntinn nf
Prngrcssivc Cnllapsc
Oveiloaded membeis of launching
unils may buckle suddenly. Theiefoie,
caieful inspeclions aie necessaiy dui-
ing assembly and al iegulai inleivals
duiing lhe use of lhe unil. Any dam-
aged diagonals musl be ieinfoiced oi
ieplaced and also lhe biaces musl be
inspecled fiequenlly. The ieasons foi
oul-of-flal musl be invesligaled, as
lhis makes lhe membeis susceplible lo
local buckling.
The global safely of a launching unil
depends on lhe safely of membeis
againsl local failuie and on lhe unil
iesponse lo local failuie. Local buck-
ling of a piimaiy load-caiiying mem-
bei is ciilical in lhe suppoil loweis,
while slable alleinale load palhs oflen
exisl in such iedundanl 3D liusses;
howevei, local buckling could liiggei a
chain ieaclion of failuies causing pio-
giessive collapse.
One of lhe main appioaches lo ensuie
lhe iobuslness of a launching unil and
lo ieduce lhe iisk of piogiessive col-
lapse is lo iequiie insensilivily lo local
failuiei.e. local buckling of a piimaiy
load-caiiying membei musl nol liiggei
collapse of lhe ganliy oi of a ma|oi
pail of il. Cleai veiificalion pioceduies
musl be slaled in lhe lechnical specifi-
calions foi lhe unil al lhis puipose.
Allhough lhe sliucluial damage
induced by local buckling is oflen lim-
iled, lhe sudden sliess iedisliibulion is
a highly dynamic piocess lhal iequiies
non-lineai analysis in lhe lime domain.
The following appioach can be used:
a) Slail fiom an accuiale model of
lhe unil and apply lhe loads lhal
geneiale local buckling.
b) Compule lhe foices and momenls
al lhe end nodes of lhe buckling
membei.
c) Remove lhe buckled membei fiom
lhe model and apply lhe end-node
foices and momenls wilh inveiled
sign.
ne a loading funclion lhal
incieases lineaily fiom O lo 1 ovei
a lenglh of lime aboul 1O limes
isl peiiod of lhe
ganliy, and lhen holds conslanl foi
an equal lenglh of lime.
ne an unloading funclion
lhal abiuplly |umps fiom O lo 1
and holds conslanl lo 1 foi lhe
duialion of lhe analysis.
f) Load lhe model by applying lhe
exleinal and nodal loads wilh lhe
loading iamp funclion.
g) Analyse lhe dynamic iesponse of
lhe ganliy by iemoving lhe nodal
loads wilh lhe unloading iamp
funclion.
The iesulling sliesses can be assessed
like any olhei \LS condilion. The
dynamic amplificalion facloi delecled
by lime-hisloiy analysis is oflen low
because of lhe flexibilily of lhese unils.
f lhe analysis shows oveiloading of
lhe alleinale load palh and buckling of
anolhei membei, lhe same appioach
can be followed lo analyse lhe enliie
buckling sequence unlil eilhei sliess
slabilizalion oi collapse. Axial plaslic
hinges lhal diop lhe load al buckling
can be inseiled in lhe diagonals lo
aulomale lhe analysis of lhe buckling
sequence.
As iegaids lhe lime-inlegialion lech-
nique, modal supeiposilion in lhe
lime domain piovides a highly effi-
cienl pioceduie wilh shoilei iun limes
lhan diiecl inlegialion. Closed-foim
inlegialion of lhe modal equalions
is used lo compule lhe iesponse so
lhal numeiical inslabilily pioblems
aie nevei encounleied, and lhe lime
slep may be any sampling value lhal
is deemed fine enough lo capluie lhe
maximum iesponse values. Diiecl
inlegialion iequiies longei iun limes
and lhe iesulls aie sensilive lo lime-
slep size; howevei, impacl pioblems
lhal excile a laige numbei of modes
aie usually solved moie efficienlly by
diiecl inlegialion.
Iig. 16 illusliales lhe axial foice in
lhe lefl diagonal al lhe fionl suppoil
of lhe MSS of Iig. 9 as lhe ad|acenl
diagonal buckles. The lhickei line has
been compuled by diiecl inlegialion
(HilbeiHughesTayloi melhod) and
lhe giey lines have been compuled
by modal supeiposilion (5O, 1OO, 15O,
2OO and 25O modes). The lime slep is
O,O1 second in bolh cases. Diiecl inle-
gialion closely malches lhe inilial and
final slalic foices (which aie a piecious
inleipielalion means foi such complex
analyses), while lhe Wilson melhod
conveiges slowly and only wilh so
many vibialion modes lhal lhe sav-
ing in iun lime is insignificanl. Diiecl
inlegialion is also iecommended foi
invesligaling impacls againsl lhe end-
of-slioke buffeis oi lhe sudden loss of
a piecasl segmenl.
Lncal Buckling nf Platc Girdcrs
at Suppnrts
A plale giidei sub|ecled lo mainly
flexuial sliesses may be affecled by
lhiee foims of inslabilily: lhe laleial-
loisional inslabilily of compiession
flange; lhe loision inslabilily of com-
piession flange; and buckling of web
panels. n lhe paiied -giidei unils, lhe
fiisl lwo foims of inslabilily aie con-
liolled by cioss diaphiagms lhal avoid
ielalive movemenls belween flanges
and by lwo planes of hoiizonlal biaces
lhal iesisl loision and disliibule lhe
sliffening aclion of cioss diaphiagms
along lhe giideis. Buckling of web
panels is conliolled by flanges and
sliffeneis and il is iaiely a ciilical silu-
alion because of lhe piesence of lhe
posl-ciilical domain.
A non-sliffened web panel sub|ecled lo
a concenlialed load applied lhiough lhe
bollom flange may be affecled by lhiee
foims of inslabilily: web-yielding above
lhe load followed by lhe plaslic defoi-
malion of lhe bollom flange, localised
27OO
26OO
25OO
24OO
23OO
22OO
21OO
2OOO
19OO
1,5 2,O 2,5 3,O 3,5
Time (sec)
A
x
i
a
l

f
o
i
c
e

(
k
N
)
Iig. 16. Dynanic rcsponsc oj thc aJjaccnt Jiagonal to local buckling
14O Science and Technology Structural Enginccring Intcrnatinnal 2/2007
ing cell back onlo lhe launch iolleis
aflei applicalion of piesliessing. When
lhe sciews aie exliacled excessively
(e.g. lo compensale foi macioscopic
level eiiois as in Iig. 18), local buck-
ling of lhe sciew can cause collapse of
lhe ganliy. Theiefoie, lhe allowable
exlension of lhe ad|uslmenl sciews
should always be slaled in lhe opeia-
lional manuals of lhe unil.
Cnnclusinn
The papei illusliales lhe many polen-
lially calasliophic design and opeia-
lional failings delecled by lhe aulhoi
wilhin numeious independenl design
check assignmenls of launching gan-
liies and MSS. Recommendalions and
suggeslions aie also piovided. The
papei, howevei, deals only wilh lhe
sliucluial aspecls of lhe design check
of lhe launching unils and disiegaids
lhe mechanical aspecls and lhe pioce-
duies and checks duiing opeialions of
lhe unils.
Acknnwlcdgcmcnts
Mosl of lhe illuslialions in lhe papei deiive
fiom independenl design check assignmenls
peifoimed by lhe aulhoi as a fieelance con-
sullanl foi lhe inleinalional geneial conliac-
loi mpiesa Pizzaiolli & C., Paima, laly.
mpiesa Pizzaiolli & C. is gialefully lhanked
foi aulhoiizing lheii publicalion. A waim em-
biace lo my fiiend Maiio Mailin, head of lhe
Planning & Melhods Depl. of mpiesa Piz-
zaiolli & C., who passed away iecenlly.
Rcfcrcnccs
|1] ROSGNOL, M. Launched Biidges, ASC!
Piess, Reslon, \A, 1998, pp. 363, SBN: O-7844-
O314-7.
|2] ROSGNOL, M. Biidge Launching, Thomas
Telfoid, London, 2OO2, pp. 342, SBN: O-7277-
3146-7.
buckling al lhe base of lhe web panel
followed by web-yielding and lhe onsel
of a plaslic mechanism in lhe bollom
flange, and geneial buckling of lhe web
panel. These lhiee foims of inslabilily
aie conliolled wilh lhe lenglh and flex-
ibilily of lhe suppoil iolleis. n lhe mosl
delicale cases, lhe suppoil iolleis may
be placed on |acks lhal cieale hydiaulic
loision hinges foi unifoim load dislii-
bulion belween lhe -giideis.
The axial sliesses in lhe bollom fla-
nge of a suppoil seclion depend on
lhe lype of giidei. Ioi an -giidei, lhe
sliesssliain ielalionship is bil ineai.
The behavioui of a box-giidei is moie
complex because plane seclions do nol
iemain plane and bolh lhe fiisl-yield
momenl and lhe plaslic momenl capac-
ily aie smallei lhan lheii lheoielical
values, and buckling of lhe bollom
flange can be veiy dangeious.
n lhe lwin-uppei-beam unil of Iig. 17,
one of lhe lwo box-giideis was slighlly
misaligned duiing launching, so when
lhe fionl canlilevei was alieady 48 m
long, lhe manufacluiei of lhe unil
decided lo iealign il. A ciossbeam
was inslalled close lo lhe main sup-
poil |acks and lwo flal |acks placed
on Teflon plales, weie lo be inseiled
undei lhe webs lo lhen pull lhe |acks
and box-giidei iighlwaid. Bul lhe pio-
ceduie was misundeislood and aflei
iaising lhe box-giidei wilh lhe flal
|acks, lhe Teflon plales weie inseiled
belween lhe box-giidei and lhe main
suppoil |acks.
n lhe inilial slage of iealignmenl, lhe
unsliffened box-giidei iesisled lhe
liansveise bending geneialed by lhe
incieasing eccenliicily in lhe suppoil
ieaclions. Bul afleiwaids bolh lhe
oulei flange and lhe cenlial flange
panel buckled upwaids. This geneialed
lwo low-fiiclion inclined planes, which
gave iise lo unconliolled iighlwaid
movemenl of lhe box-giidei. Ilange
buckling fuilhei incieased and bolh
webs also buckled. Collapse of lhe unil
was avoided because lhe end blocks of
lhe auxiliaiy ciossbeam had nol been
dismanlled and lhis slopped lhe box-
giidei slioke.
Local buckling al suppoils can also be
liiggeied by lhe veilical-ad|uslmenl
devices. The sciews al lhe suppoil
iolleis aie aimed al iaising lhe foim lo
lhe casling level and loweiing lhe casl-
Iig. 17. Buckling oj conprcssion jlangc at
supports (author)
Iig. 18. 1xccssivc cxtcnsion oj thc aJjust-
ncnt scrcws (author)
Structural Engineering International
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