Chapter02.Oerview of Soil Mechanics & Foundation Design

E1-E2 Techni cal (Ci vil) Vol.
-1 Rev dat e: 01-04-11

BSNL Indi a For Int ernal Ci rcul at i on Onl y Page: 1

E1-E2: TECHNICAL(CIVIL) VOL-1

CHAPTER-2
OVERVIEW OF SOILMECHANICS
&
FOUNDATION DESIGN

E1-E2 Techni cal (Ci vil) Vol. -1 Rev dat e: 01-04-11


Overview of Soil Mechanics & Foundation Design

1.0 Introduction
Geotechni cal Engi neeri ng is a rel ativel y modern branch of civil
engineering. As a disci pline, it is academi call y as exciting as
practicall y chall engi ng Geot echnical engi neering is actuall y the new
name of a subj ect known earlier as Soil Mechani cs and Foundati on
Engi neering. Of t hi s, foundation engi neeri ng, at l east as an art, is as
anci ent as civi l engi neering whereas the root s of Soil Mechanics, whi ch
forms its scienti fic base, can be traced onl y from 1773 with Coulombs
law for shear st rength of soil given in that year. Subsequent
contri buti ons were few upto the year 1925, whi ch was the birt h of
modern Soil Mechanics with the publi cation of Terzaghis cel ebrat ed
book Erdbaumechanik. Professor Karl von Terzaghi, who i s ri ghtl y,
regarded as t he father of modern Soil Mechani cs.

Before desi gning a foundation for a struct ure it i s essenti al to know
the behavior of soil s under loads. For study of behavior of soil s in
depth knowl edge of soil mechanics i s required. It i s essent ial to
associ at e t he structural engineer in drawing up the soil investi gatio n
programme and i nterpret ati on of the report. He must visit t he sit e t o
facili tat e proper scrutiny of the soil i nvesti gat ion report by comparing
the results and the recommendation with t he information avai l abl e from
similar sit es and construct ed proj ects.

2. 0 Fi eld Identification Of Soil s
Soil grains consist of inert rock minerals (cobbl e, gravel, sand, silt),
oft en combi ned wit h si gni fi cant amounts of cl ay (say, more than 5
percent). Whil e inert silt grains may be angul ar or rounded (thus
contri buti ng to great er or less angl e of i nternal fri ction, ), part icl es
of cl ay are small pl at elets with negat ive charges on both faces whi ch
att ract the positivel y charged ends of wat er molecul es. This bond i s
responsibl e for t he cohesi on ends of wat er mol ecul es. Thi s bond is
responsibl e for the cohesion C of cl ay. Silt or sand with appreciable
amounts of cl ay (say, more than 15 percent ) behaves like clayey soil
since the permeabilit y of clay is of the order of 10
- 7
cent imeters/second
compared t o 10cms/ second for sand. Thi s capacit y of t he clay to hol d
the wat er mol ecul es for long even when pressure i s appli ed on the soil,
greatl y influences it s behavi or i. e. shears st rengt h, compressibilit y and
permeabilit y.



2. 1 Si mpl e and Qui ck Methods of Fi eld Identificati on of Soi ls:
(i) Fine sand is differentiated from silt by placing a spoonful of soil in a glass jar
or test tube, mixing with water and shaking it to a suspension. Sand settles
first, followed by silt which may take about five minutes. This test may also be
used for clay which takes more than 10 minutes to start settling. The
percentages of clay, silt and sand are assessed by observing the depths of the
sediments.
(ii ) Silt is differentiated from cl ay as follows: -
(a) Clay lumps are more di ffi cul t to crush with finge rs than
silt. When moistened, the soil lump surface t exture is felt
with the fi nger. If i t is smooth, it is cl ay; i f rough, it is
silt.
(b) A ball of the soil is formed and shaken horizontal l y on the
palm of the hand. If the mat eri al becomes shiny from wat er
comi ng t o t he surface, it is silt .
(c) If soil cont aini ng appreci abl e percent clay i s cut with a
knife, t he cut surface appears l ust rous. In case of silt, t he
surface appears dull .

(iii ) Fi eld: indicati on for the consist ency of cohesi ve soil s are as
foll ows: -
Stiff : Cannot be moulded wi th i n the fi gure
Medi um: Can be moulded by t he fingers on st rong pressure.
Readil y indented wit h thumb nai l.
Soft : Easil y moul ded with the fi ngers.

(iv) Color of the soi l i ndi cat es i ts ori gi n and the condi tion under
whi ch it was deposit ed.
Sand and gravel deposits may cont ai n l enses of si lt, cl ay or even
organi c deposits. If so, the presumpti ve bearing capaci t y is
reduced.
Based on t he field identificati on of the soil, the presumpti ve
bearing capacit y of t he soi l can be guessed by referring t o table
2 of IS 1904 1986. The obj ectives of preliminary soil
investi gati on are to drawn up an appropriat e program for det ailed
soil investi gation and t o examine t he sket ch pl ans and
prelimi nary drawi ngs prepared by the Archit ect from the point of
suit abilit y of t he proposed structure.



TABLE 1 : SAFE BEARING CAPACITY

.
No.

TYPE OF ROCKS/ SOILS
SAFE
BEARING
CAPACITY

REMARKS

( 1)

( 2)

( 3)

( 4)

a) Rocks kN/ m
2

1. Rocks ( har d) wi t hout l ami nat i on def ect s,
for exampl e, gr ani t e, t r ap and di or i t e

3 240 -
2. Lami nat ed r ocks, for exampl e, st one and
l i mest one i n sound condi t i on

1 620 -
3. Resi dual deposi t s of shat t er ed and br oken
bed r ock and har d shal e, cement ed
mat er i al

880 -
4. Soft r ock 440

-
b) Non- cohesi ve soi l s
5. Gr avel , sand and gr avel , compact and
of f er i ng hi gh r esi st ance t o penet r at i on
when excavat ed by t ool s

440 ( See Not e 2)
6. Coar se sand, compact and dr y 440 Dr y means t hat t he
gr ound wat er l evel i s at
a dept h not l ess t han t he
wi dt h of foundat i on
bel ow t he base of t he
foundat i on

7. Medi um sand, compact and dr y 245 -

8. Fi ne sand, si t e( dr y l umps easi l y pul ver i zed
by t he f i nger s)

150 -
9. Loose gr avel or sand gr avel mi xt ur es,
l oose coar se t o medi um sand, dr y

245 ( See Not e 2)
10. Fi ne sand, l oose and dr y 100 -

c) Cohesi ve soi l s
11. Soft shal e, or st i f f cl ay i n deep bed, dr y 440 This group is susceptible to
long term consolidation
settlement



12. Medi um cl ay, r eadi l y i ndent ed wi t h a
t humb nai l

245 -
13. Moi st cl ay and sand- cl ay mi xt ur e whi ch
can be i ndent ed wi t h st r ong t humb
pr essur e

150 -
14.
Soft cl ay i ndent ed wi t h moder at e t humb
pr essur e

100
-

15.
Ver y soft cl ay whi ch can be penet r at ed
sever al cent i met er s wi t h t he t humb

50

-

NOTE : Val ues ar e very much rough for the foll owi ng reasons:
a) Effect of charact eri st ics of foundations (t hat is, effect of dept h,
width, shape, roughness, etc) has not been consi dered.
b) Effect of range of soil properti es (that is, angl e of frict ional
resist ance, cohesion, water table, densit y, et c) has not been
considered.
c) Effect of eccent ri cit y and indi cation of l oads has not been
consi der ed.

3. 0 Soil Mechanics Basi c Concepts

3. 1 Soil Mass Represented By 3-Phase System: -
Soil solids, wat er and air are constituent s of soil mass are represent ed
diagrammati call y as three phase system shown below.

V
s
=Volume of soil solids. W
s
=Wei ght of soi l solids.
V
a
=Vol ume of ai r. W
a
=Wei ght of ai r considered as
negli gible.
V
w
=Volume of wat er. W
w
=Wei ght of wat er.
V=Tot al volume of soil mass =
V
s
+

V
a
+ V
w

W=Tot al Wei ght of soil mass = W
s
+

W
w



1) Water content. : The water content w, also called the moisture content, is
defined as ratio of weight of water & weight of soil solids.

w = Wei ght of water x 100
Wei ght of soil soli ds

The wat er cont ent is generall y expressed as a percent age.

2) Unit Wei ghts: The wei ght of soil per unit vol ume i s defi ned as
unit wei ght or speci fic wei ght . In SI units is expressed as N/m
3
or kN/m
3
. In soi l Engi neering five di fferent fi ve unit wei ghts are
used in various computati ons.

i) Bulk Uni t Wei ght ().
The bulk unit weight is the total mass W of the soil per unit of its total
volume.
Thus, = W
V
ii) Dry Uni t Wei ght (
d
). : The dry unit wei ght i s the wei ght of
soil solids per units t otal vol ume of t he soil mass.

d
= Ws

V

The dry unit weight i s used to express the denseness of t he soil .

iii) Unit Weight of Soil Solids (
s
) : The unit wei ght of soil solids
is the mass of soil solids ( w
s
) per uni ts of volume of solids (Vs):

s
= W
s

Vs
iv) Saturated Unit Wei ght (
s at
): When t he soil mass i s sat urated,
its bul k unit wei ght ( ) i s call ed sat urat ed unit wei ght . The
saturat ed unit wei ght is t he ratio of t he tot al soil mass of
saturat ed sampl e to i ts tot al vol ume.

s at
= W
s
(saturated)
V
v) Submerged Unit Weight (): When the soil exits below wat er i t
is in submerged condition. The submerged unit wei ght () of
soi l is defined as t he submerged wei ght per unit t ot al volume.


= W
s ub
=
s at -
w

V

3. Specifi c gravity G: is defi ned as the rati o of t he uni t wei ght of
soil solids to that of wat er:

G =
s
/
w

4. Voids rati o. (e) Voids ratio e of a gi ven soil sample i s the
rat io of t he vol ume of voids to t he volume of soil solids in the
gi ven soil mass.

Thus, e = V v/ V s = n / 1-n

5. Porosi ty. (n) The porosit y n of a given soil sampl e is the ratio
of t he volume of voi ds to the t ot al volume of t he gi ven soil mass.
Vv e
n = =
V e +1

The voi ds ratio e is generall y expressed as a fracti on, whil e the
porosit y n is expressed as a percent age and is, therefore also referred
to as percentage voids.

6 Degree of Saturation. The degree of sat uration Sr is defined as
the rati o of the volume of wat er present in a given soil mass to
the tot al volume of voids in it .
S
r
= Vw
Vv

6. Various Inter-Relations

i) e. S
r
= w. G
ii) e = w. G (for Sr = 1 or full y saturat ed soi l degree of
saturation 100% )
G
.
w

iii)
d =
1 + e

iv) (
G
+ e. S
r
)
w

=
1 + e

v) For S
r
= 0 ,

G
.
w

=

d =
1 + e


vi) For S
r
= 1 ,

=

s at =
(
G +
e)
w

1 + e

vi)

d =
1 + w

vii)
=
(G
- 1
)
w

1 + e

7. Density Index: The term densit y index ID or rel ative densi t y or
degree of densit y is used to express t he rel ative compact ness of a
nat ural soil deposit . The densit y index is defined as the rati o of
the difference bet ween t he voi ds ratio of the soil in its l oosest
stat e and it s natural voids rati o (e) to the difference bet ween the
voids rati os i n the loosest and densest st ates:

e
max
- e
I
D
e
max
e
min

where e
max
= voids ratio in the loosest state
e
min
= voids ratio in the densest state
e = natural voids ratio of the deposit.

This term is used for cohesion less spoil only. When the natural state of the cohesion
less soil is in its loosest form e = e
max
and hence I
D
= 0. When the natural deposit is in
its densest state e = e
min
and hence I
D
= 1.

4.0 Plasticity Characteristics of Soils
Plasti cit y of soil is its abili t y to undergo deformati on wi thout cracking
or fracturing. Pl asti cit y is an i mport ant i ndex propert y of fi ne grained
soils, especial l y cl ayey soils.

Fine grained soil may be mixed with water to form a plastic paste which can be
moulded into any form by pressure. The addition of water reduces the cohesion
making the soil still easier to mould. Further addition of water reduces the cohesion
until the material no longer retains its shape under its own weight, but flows as a
liquid. Enough water may be added until the soil grains are dispersed in a suspension.
If water is evaporated from such a soil suspension, the soil passes through various
stages or states of consistency. In 1911,the Swedish agriculturist Atterberg divided
the entire range from liquid to solid state into four stages : (i) the liquid state, (ii) the
plastic state, (iii) the semi solid state and (iv) the solid state. He set arbitrary limits,
known as consistency limits or Atterberg limits. As shown in the fig. below.


a) Liquid limit (w
l
). Liquid limit is the water content corresponding to the
arbitrary limit between liquid and plastic state of consistency of a soil. It is
defined as the minimum water content at which the soil is still in the liquid
state, but has a small strength against flowing.

b) Plastic limit (w
p
). Plastic limit is the water content corresponding to an
arbitrary limit between the plastic and the semi solid states of consistency of a
soil. It is defined as the minimum water content at which a soil will just begin
to crumble when rolled into a thread approximately 3 mm in a diameter.

c) Shrinkage limit (w
s
). Shrinkage limit is defined as the maximum water
content at which a reduction in water content will not cause decrease in the
volume of soil mass. It is lowest water content at which a soil can still be
completely saturated.

d) Plasticity index (Ip). The range of consistency with in which a soil exhibits
plastic properties is called plastic range and is indicated by plasticity index.
The plasticity index is defined as the numerical difference between the liquid
limit and the plastic limit of soil:

Ip = w
l
- w
p

5. Unified Soil Classification And Indian Standard Classification.
USC system and as adopted by the ISI (IS : 1498 1970: Classification and
Identification of soils for general engineering purpose) is given below.
Soils are broadly divided into three divisions.



Coarse grained soil. In these soils, 50% or more of the total material by
weight is larger than 75 micron IS sieve size.

Fine grained soils. In these soils, 50% or more of the total material by
weight is smaller than 75 micron IS sieve size.

Highly organic soils and other miscellaneous soil materials. These soil
contain large percentage of fibrous organic matter, such as peat, and
the particles of decomposed vegetation. In addition, certain soils
containing shells, cinders and other non soil materials in sufficient
quantities are also grouped in this division.

1. Coarse grained soils. Coarse grained soils are further divided into
two sub divisions:

(a) Gravels (G). In these soils more than 50% the coarse fraction (+ 75
micron) is larger than 4.75 mm sieve size. This sub division includes
gravels and gravelly soil, and is designated by symbol G.
(b) Sands (S). In these soils more 50% the coarse fraction is smaller than
4.75 mm IS sieve size. This sub division includes sands and sandy
soils.

Each of the above sub-divisions are further sub divided into four
groups depending upon grading and inclusion of other materials.

W : Well graded
C : Clay binder
P : Poorly graded
M : Containing fine materials not covered in
other groups.

These symbols used in combination to designate the type of coarse grained soils. For
example, GC means clayey gravels.

2. Fine grained soils. Fine grained soils are further divided into three sub
divisions.
(a) Inorganic silts and very fine sands :M
(b) Inorganic clays :C
(c) Organic silts and clays and organic matter : O

The fine grained soils are further divided into the following groups on the
basis of the following arbitrarily selected values of liquid limit which is a
good index of compressibility:



(i) Silts and clays of low compressibility, having a liquid less than 35, and
represented by symbol L.

(ii) Silts and clays of high medium compressibility, having a liquid limit
greater than 35 and less than 50, and represented by symbol I .

(iii) Silts and clays of high compressibility, having liquid limit greater than
50, and represented by a symbol H.

Combination of these symbols indicates the type of fine grained soil. For
example, ML means inorganic silt with low to medium compressibility.



Table 2.0 Basic Soil Components (IS Classification)

Soil

Soil
Components

Symbol
Particle size range and description

Coarse
Grained
Boulder

Cobble

Gravel

Sand
None

None

G

S
Round to angular, bulky hard, rock particle,
Average diameter more than 30 cm

Round to angular, bulky hard, rock particle,
Average diameter smaller than 30 cm but
retained on 80 mm sieve.

Rounded to angular, bulky, hard, rock
particle, passing 80mm sieve but retained on
4.75 mm sieve
Coarse : 80 mm to 20 mm sieve
Fine : 20 mm to 4.75 mm sieve

Rounded to angular bulky, hard, rocky
Particle, passing 4.75 mm sieve retained on
75 micron sieve.
Coarse : 4.75 mm to 2.0 mm sieve
Medium : 2.0 mm to 4.25 micron sieve.
Fine : 425 micron to 75 micron sieve.

Fine grained
Components

Silt

Clay

M

C
Particle smaller than 75 micron sieve
identified by behavior , that it is slightly
plastic or non plastic regardless of moisture
and exhibits little or no strength when air
dried.

Particles smaller than 75 micron sieve
identified by behavior , that is, it can be
made to exhibit plastic properties within a
certain range of moisture and exhibits
considerable strength when air dried.

Organic matter

O

Organic matter in various sizes and stages of
decomposition.



Table 3. 0 Classifi cation of Coarse-grai ned Soil s (ISC System)

Division Subdivision Group symbol Typical
Names
Laboratory Criteria Remark

(1) Coarse-
grained soil s
(More t han
hal f of
mat eri al is
larger than
75-micro
Gravel (G)
(more than
hal f of coarse
fraction is
larger than
4. 75 mm IS
sieve)
Clean
gravels
(Fines l ess
than 5%)

(1) GW

(2) GP

Well graded
gravels

Poorl y
graded
gravels

Cu great er than 4
Cc bet ween than 1 and 3

Not meeting all gradation
requi rements for GW

When fines are
bet ween 5% to
12% border
line cases
requi ring dual
symbols such
as GP-GM,
SW-SC, et c.
Gravels
with
appreciabl e
amount of
fines (Fines
more t han
12%)

(3) GM

Silt y gravels

Clayey
gravels

Att erberg
limits
bel ow A-
line or I
p

less than
4

Att erberg
limits
bel ow A-
line or I
p

less than
7

Att erberg
Li mits plotti ng
above A-line
with I
p

bet ween 4 and
7 are border-
line cases
requi ring use
of dual symbol
GM-GC

(4) GC



Table (Continued)

Division Subdi vi sion Group symbol Typi cal
Names
Laboratory Crit eria Remark

Sand (S) (more
than hal f of
coarse fraction
is Smaller than
4. 75 mm IS
sieve)

Clean Sand
(Fines l ess
than 5%)

(5) GW

(6) SP

Well - graded
gravels

Poorl y -
graded
gravels

Cu great er than 6
Cc bet ween than 1 and 3

Not meeting all gradation
requi rements for SW

Sands with
appreciabl e
amount of
fines

(Fines more
than 12%)

(7) SM

(8) SC

Silt y Sands

Clayey
gravels
Att erberg
limits
bel ow A-
line or I
p

less than
4
Att erberg
limits
bel ow A-
line or I
p

less than
7

Att erbergs
Li mits plotti ng
above A-line
with I
p

bet ween 4 and
7 are border-
line cases
requi ring use
of doubl e
symbol SM-SC



(Continued)

Divisio
n
Subdivision Group
Symbols
Typical names Laboratory Criteria (see Fig 5.6) Remarks

(2) Fine

grained
soils
(more
than
50%
pass 75
IS
Sieve)

Low-
compressibili
t y (L)
(Li quid Limit
less than
35%)

Int ermediate
compressibili
t y
(I)
(Li quid limit
greater than
35 but l ess
than 50%

(1) GW

(2) CL

(3) OL

(4) MI

(5) CI

(6) OI

Inorgani c silt s
with none to low
plasticit y

Inorgani c clays of
low pl asti cit y

Organic si lts of
low pl asti cit y

Inorgani c sil ts of
medi um plasticit y

Inorgani c clays of
medi um plasticit y

Organic si lts of
medi um plasticit y
Att erberg li mits
plot below A-
line or Ip l ess
than 7
Att erberg li mits
plot below A-
line or Ip l ess
than 7

Att erberg li mits
plot below A-
line

Att erberg li mits
plot below A-
line

Att erberg limits
plot above A-
line

Att erberg limits
plot bel ow A-
line

Att erberg li mits
plotting above A-
line with Ip
bet ween 4 t o 7
(hat ched zone) ML-
CL
(1) Organi c and inorgani c
soils plot ted i n t he same
zone i n pl ast ici t y chart
are di stinguished by odour
and col our or li quid limit
test aft er oven-dryi ng. A
reduction in liqui d limit
aft er oven-dryi ng to a
val ue l ess than three-
fourth of the liquid limit
before oven-dryi ng is
positi ve identi fi cati on of
organi c soil s.

(2) Bl ack cotton soils of
Indi a li e along a band
partl y above the A-li ne
and part l y bel ow t he A
line



(Continued)

Divisio
n
Subdi vi sion Group
Symbol s
Typi cal names Laboratory Crit eria (see Fi g
5. 6)
Remarks

Hi gh
compressibi
lit y (H)
(Li quid
limit
greater than
50%)

(7) MH

Inorgani c silts of high
compressibilit y

Att erberg l imits plot bel ow
A-li ne

See
plasticit y
chart (Fi g.
56)

(8) CH

Inorgani c cl ays of high
plasticit y

A-li ne

(9) OH

Organic cl ays of
medi um to high
plasticit y

A-li ne

(3)
Hi ghl y
organi c
soil

PT

Peat and other hi ghl y
organi c soil s
Readil y ident ifi ed by
col our, odour, spongy feel
and fi brous t exture





6.0 Bearing Capacity

Definitions
1. Footing: - A footing is a portion of the foundation of a structure that transmits
loads directly to the soil.

2. Foundation: - A foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct
contact with and transmits loads to the ground.

3. Foundation soil: - It is the upper part of the earth mass carrying the load of
the structure.

4. Bearing capacity: - The supporting power of a soil or rock is referred to as its
bearing capacity. The term bearing capacity is defined after attaching certain
qualifying prefixes, as defined below.

5. Gross pressure intensity (q):- The gross pressure intensity q is the total
pressure at the base of the footing due to the weight of the superstructure, self
weight of the footing and the weight of the earth fill, if any.

6. Net pressure intensity (q
n
) :- It is defined as the excess pressure, or the
difference in intensities of the gross pressure after the construction of the
structure and the original overburden pressure.
Thus, if D is the depth of footing
q
n
= q D
where is the average unit weight of soil above the foundation base.

7. Ultimate bearing capacity (q
u
):-The ultimate bearing capacity is defined as
the minimum gross pressure intensity at the base of the foundation at which
the soil fails in shear.

8. Net ultimate bearing capacity (q
nu
):- It is the net increase in pressure at the
base of foundation that causes shear failure of soil.
q
nu
= q
u
D

9. Net safe bearing capacity (q
ns
) :-The net safe bearing capacity is the net
ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factory of safety F.
q
ns
= q
nf

F

10. Gross Safe bearing capacity (q
s
) :-The maximum pressure which the soil can
carrying safely without risk of shear failure is called the safe bearing capacity.
It is equal to the net safe bearing capacity plus original overburden pressure.
q
s
= q
ns
+ D.



11. Allowable bearing capacity or pressure. (q
na
) :- It is the net loading
intensity at which neither the soil fails in shear not there is excessive
settlement detrimental to the structure.

Failures in Soil

1. General Shear Failure: - An analysis of the condition of complete
bearing capacity failure, usually termed general shear failure, can be
made by assuming that the soil behaves like an ideally plastic material. In
such a failure, the soil properties are assumed to be such that a slight
downward movement of footing develops fully plastic zones and the soil
bulges out.

2. Local Shear Failure:-In the case of fairly soft or loose and compressible
soil, large deformation may occur below the footing before the failure
zones are fully developed. Such a failure is called a local shear failure.

I.S. Code Method for Computing Bearing Capacity:

General
IS Code (IS: 6403 1981) recognizes, depending upon the deformations
associated with the load and the extent of development of failure, three types
of failure of soil support beneath the foundations, they are (a) General Shear
Failure; (b) Local Shear Failure; and (c) Punching Shear Failure, occurs on
soils of high compressibility. In such a failure, there is vertical shear around
the footing, perimeter and compression of soil immediately under the footing,
with soil on the sides of the footing remaining practically uninvolved.

2. Bearing capacity equation for strip footing for c- soils

The ultimate net bearing capacity of strip footing is given by the following
equations:
i) For the case of General shear failure:
q
nu
= cN
c
+ D (N
q
1) + 0.5 B N

---------------(1)

ii) For the case of local shear failure:
q
nu
= 2/3 cNc

+ D (N
q
1) + 0.5 B N

------------(2)

For obtaining Nc
, Nq
, N
bearing capacity facotors

corresponding to local shear
failure, calculate(
m
) = tan
-1
(0.67 ) and read Nc, Nq , N

for general shear
failure as given in table 4.0 below.



Table 4.0 Bearing Capacity Factors (Is : 6403 1981)

Degree Nc Nq Nr
0 5.14 1.0 0.0
5 6.49 1.57 0.45
10 8.35 2.47 1.22
15 10.98 3.94 2.65
20 14.83 6.40 5.39
25 20.72 10.66 10.88
30 30.14 18.40 22.40
35 46.12 33.30 48.03
40 75.31 64.20 109.41
45 138.88 134.88 271.76
50 266.89 319.07 762.89

3.Shape factor, depth factor and inclination factor
The above bearing capacity equations, applicable for strip footing, shall be
modified to take into account, the shape of the footing, inclination of loading, depth of
embedment and effect of water table. The modified bearing capacity formulate are
given below :
i) For general shear failure
q
nu
= cNc Sc dc i
c
+ D (Nq-1) Sq dq i
q
+1/2 B N S d i

w

-------(1)

ii) For local shear failure
q
nu
= 2/3 cNc
Sc dc i
c
+ D(Nq-1) Sq dq i
q
+1/2 B N
S d i

w
---(2)

The depth factors are given as under ;

dc =1+ 0.2 (D/B ) N

1/2
where N
= tan
2
(45+ /2)
dq = d =1 for <10
0

and

dq = d =1 + 0.1 (D/B) N

1/2
for > 10
0

Shape Shape factors
Sc Sq S
1.Continous strip 1.0 1.0 1.0
2. Rectangle (1+ 0.2 B/L) (1+0.2 B/L) (1-0.4 B/L)
3. Square 1.3 1.2 0.8
4. Circle 1.3 1.2 0.6

The depth factors are to be applied only when the back filling is done with proper
compaction.
The inclination factors are given as under
ic = i
q
=(1- /90)
2
and i
= (1- / )
2

Where = inclination of the load to the vertical, in degrees.



4. Effect of water table
The effect of water table is taken into account in the form of a correction
factor w.
The value of w may be chosen as indicated below.
a) w=1.0 If the water table is likely to permanently remain at or below at
a depth of (D+B) beneath the ground level surrounding the footing
below.
b) W=0.5 If the water table is located at a depth D or likely to rise to the
base of footing or above,
If the water table is likely to permanently get located at depth Dw below the
G.L. such that D<Dw<(D+B), then w

be obtained by linear Interpolation.

It may be not ed t hat if t he wat er t abl e rises above t he base of foot ing,
w will remain at its minimum value of 0. 5.

5. Bearing capacity of Cohesi on l ess soil s (c=0)
For cohesion less soils having c=0, Indian Standard Code recommends that the
bearing capacity be calculated (a) based on relative density or (b) based on standard
penetration resistance value, and (c) based on static cone penetration test.
(a) Based on relative density
In this method, bearing capacity may be calculated by Equations 1& 2 together
with relevant shear strength parameter. In these formulate, c is taken equal to zero.
(b) Based on standard penetration resi stance value.
The standard penetration resistance is determined at a number of selected points at
intervals of 75 cm in the vertical direction or at change of strata and the average
value beneath each point is determined between the level of base of the footing
and the depth equal to 1.5 to 2 times the width of foundation. In computing the
value any individual value more than 50 percent of the average calculated shall be
neglected and average recalculated (the value for all loose seams shall however be
included).
Knowing the val ue of N, the value of () is read from Fi g. gi ven in t he
IS Code. The ult imat e net bearing capacit y is then cal cul at ed from the
formul a. Where the shape factors, depth fact ors and i ncli nati on factors
are determi ned as descri bed earl ier, and the bearing capacit y factors
Nq and N are avail able.

(c) Based on Stati c cone penetration test.
The static cone point resistance q
c
is determined as per IS :4968 (Part III) 1976 at a
number of selected points at intervals of 10 to 15 cm. the observed values are
corrected for the dead weight of sounding rods. Then the average value at each one of
the location is determined between the level of the base of the footing and the depth
equal to 1.5 to 2 times the width of footing. The average of static cone point resistance
value is determined for each one of the location and the minimum of the average
value is used in the design.


The net ultimat e bearing capacit y of shal low st rip footi ng on cohesi on
less soi l deposit is t hen determi ned from Fi g. given i n t he IS Code.

6. Bearing Capacity of Cohesi ve Soi ls ( = 0)
The net ultimat e beari ng capacit y immediat el y aft er construction on
fai rl y sat urat ed homogenous cohesive soils can be cal culat ed from the
expressi on.
q
nu
= c Nc Sc dc i
c

Where Nc = 5.14 (for =0)
The value of c i s obt ained from unconfi ned compressive st rengt h
test . Alternati vel y, cohesion c may be determined from the st ati c cone
point resi stance.

7. 0 Planning for Soi l Investigati on
Soil investi gati on must conform to t he provi sions in I. S. 1892 1979.
The scope of investi gati on i s i ndi cated i n para 2. 1 and 2. 2 of this code.
Engi neering properti es of soil depend on the soi l structure, i. e. nature
of soil grai ns and t heir arrangement , vol ume of air and wat er (degree
of sat urati on and porosit y). Since these vary from one l ocation to
another, the program of soil i nvesti gat ion needs to be evolved for each
proj ect. It should provide for adequat e dat a and ma ke appropriate
recommendation support ed by proper cal cul ations in respect of the
foll owi ng:
1. The t ype of foundati on.
2. Allowabl e beari ng capacit y for the foundation.
3. Tot al and di fferenti al settl ements.
4. Hi ghest groundwater level ever reached.
5. Anti cipat ed const ruction probl ems and suggest ed sol ution
(sheep pil ing, dewat ering, boulders/rock excavation,
differenti al , settl ement s, damage t o adj acent propert y,
environment et c. )

A copy of the surveyed si te plan and layout pl an of buildings
indicating the type and si zes of the buildings are requi red. It is
essential that the l ocation of bore hol es together with the reduced
levels are marked on the si te plan.

To determi ne the nature and extent of det ail ed soil i nvest igati on, a
prelimi nary i nvesti gation is necessary as stipul at ed i n para 3. 1. 1 of
I. S. 1892 - 1979. Knowi ng t he t ype of superst ruct ure, t he fi rst st ep is
to inspect the sit e and it s nei ghborhood and coll ect the information
about the soil profi le, t ype of foundati on generall y adopt ed and t o
guess the presumpti ve allowabl e bearing pressure for t he soi l. This i s


done through reconnaissance and si mpl e vi sual/manual test s. If soil
investi gati on detai ls are not avail abl e for nearby sit es, a t est pit or a
bore hol d may be dug to exami ne the soil at foundati on leve l .

Knowl edge of regi onal soil deposits corresponding to the localit y,
preval ent practi ces of subsoi l i nvesti gati on and foundati on desi gn
greatl y faci litate drawi ng up an appropriate program of soil
investi gati on. Major regional soil deposit s of Indi a are - All uvial soil s,
Bl ack cot ton soil s, Lateriti es, Desert soils and Sub marine soils
(Reference may be made to Indi an contributi ons to Geotechnical
Engi neering published by Indi an Geot echnical soci et y for sources of
information of the Regi onal deposit s).

1. Detail ed soil investi gati on
Degrees of appl i cabi l i t y of vari ous f i el d and l aborat ory
t es t s are i ndi cat ed i n Tabl es 1 and 2. The s i t uat i ons i n
whi ch each t es t i s appl i cabl e and t he l i mi t at i ons of s uch
t es t s are di s cus s ed i n t he f ol l owi ng paragraphs .
In arrivi ng at the al lowabl e beari ng pressure on foundati ons, both the
ultimate beari ng capacit y (based on shear st rengt h and the permissibl e
settl ement are taken into account. Normall y settl ement governs t he
desi gn but for narrow st rip foundations on soft at s hallow depths,
bearing capacit y based on shear failure may govern.

1. 1 Characteristi cs of soil in foundati on
a) Cohesion less soils and soil s with cohesion and angl e of
internal fri ction ( c - soi ls )
Sand and sil t are cohesi on l ess soil s. Sil t with even 5 to 8 percent of
cl ay has si gni fi cant cohesion. Shear st rength, s of soil is devel oped
due to resist ance to rolling, sli ding and deformation of soil
parti cles/skel et al st ruct ure. Cohesion, c is due to int er parti cle
att racti on due t o presence of cl ay and the angle of i nt ernal friction
is essenti all y due to resist ance to int er parti cle sli p of coarser grains
like silt and sand.
Shear st rengt hs i s gi ven by s = c + tan
Where is normal st ress on t he shear pl ane.
Since wat er has no shear strength, t he entire shear st rengt h is due to
inter-granul ar pressure whi ch is affect ed by the excess pore wat er
pressure developed in cl ayey soils. The parameters c and
corresponding to maximum shear strengt h are det ermined by
considering effecti ve pressures which are equal to tot al pressure
minus pore wat er pressure. These are det ermined by consoli dat ed


drained t est for cohesion less soils (and for c - soil s i f i nsit u drainage
occurs as t he load i s appli ed). During t esti ng, the excess pore wat er
pressure is dissipat ed completel y t hrough a slow process of
consoli dat ion and an equall y slow process of shear. The t ime required
for gradual i ncrement of load upt o shear fail ure i s det ermined as per
appendix A of I. S. 2720 (part 13) 1986. soil in si tu exist s, generall y,
in a consolidat ed st at e (
3
). As construction proceeds, additional
loads come on to the soil . If the permeabilit y of the soil i s low, whi ch
can occur i f the fine grai ned soil cont ains more than 15 percent cl ay
and is classified as cl ay with intermedi ate or hi gh compressi bilit y, the
excess pore water pressures developed in the cl ayey soil can not
dissipat e as fast as the rate of appli cat i on of load. Hence for cl ayey
soils with appreciabl e clay cont ent ( say more than 15 percent ), the soil
paramet ers C and are det ermi ned from consoli dated un-drai ned t est
in which the soil is consoli dat ed slowl y but sheared qui ckl y. If t he
cl ay cont ent is hi gh ( say more than 30 percent ) or very l ow ( say less
than 15 percent ), the tests are performed by Box shear as per I. S. 2720
(Part 13) 1986. The results are represent ative of fi eld conditi ons
under pl ane shear onl y (whi ch is 15 to 20 percent hi gher than for
tri -axial shear). For semi pervious cohesive soils, t he consoli dat ed
un-drained Test is performed by Tri -axi al Test (as per I. S. 2720 ( part
II ) si nce t he inevit abl e (though small ) drainage of the soil during
shearing in Box Shear Test introduces an el ement of error. Shear
strength of sti ff int act cl ays such as boulder cl ays, clayey silts are
bett er determi ned by drained tests since t he soil s are generall y over
consoli dat ed.

Saturation reduces t he shear st rength and long ter m ti me dependant
consoli dat ion of cl ay t akes pl ace duri ng t esting, onl y i f t he soil is
saturat ed. It is thus necessary t o det ermi ne shear st rengt h of the soil in
saturat ed condi tion i f the soil in situ is likel y t o be sat urat ed due to
rising of the ground wat er tabl e. Hence it is essenti al to ascert ai n the
hi ghest ground wat er level ever reached. Due to the capacit y of cl ay t o
absorb water by capi llary acti on and the very large vari ati on in shear
strength of unsaturat ed cl ayey soils with moisture cont ent , resul ts of
Box Shear Test cannot reli abl y represent in situ shear strengt h of
unsaturated cl ay. Even whil e consideri ng the results of consoli dat ed
un-drained Tri -axial Test or in sit u test on unsaturat ed soils, t he
effect of vari ation of insitu shear strength due t o possi ble change in
moisture content due to rain or rise in water tabl e needs to be
considered.



Satisfact ory undist urbed sampl es of cohesion l ess soils are di ffi cult to
obt ain from bore holes. Soil obt ained from t he spli t spoon sampl er
from st andard penetration t est may possess l arge shear strai ns due t o
disturbance. Hence shear t ests in the l aboratory on cohesion less soi ls
do not represent the true sit e condition. The most common fiel d test
is the st andard penetration test (Ref. I. S. 2131 1981). This t est, if
carefull y executed, i n soil undist urbed by boring operations, enabl es to
estimat e sati sfactoril y the bearing capacit y as per I. S. 6403 - 1981
and allowabl e beari ng pressure on settl ement considerat ion as per I . S.
8009 (Part 1) 1976. By using the same equipment and with the same
drill er, N val ues in the same soil can be reproduced wit h a
coeffi ci ent of variation of about 10 percent. Use of defecti ve
equipments such as a damaged anvi l , worn out drivi ng shoe,
old/oil y/ poorl y l ubri cated rope sheaves et c. can result in si gnifi cantl y
erroneous N val ues. Pushi ng a boulder whil e driving the sampl er,
rapid wit hdrawal of sugar or bit plug causing a qui ck condit ion at the
bottom of the bore hole by t oo much difference in the water l evel s
bet ween the ground wat er table and in the hole are other sources of
error.

The ori ginal st andard penetrati on Test was developed for sand.
However, at present it is commonl y used for all t ypes of soils.
Alluvial silt deposit s are mixtures of medium dense fine sand and silt
with a small percent of cl ay. In some cases, layers of st iff soil are
encount ered at depth of 6 to 10 met ers. Del hi silt has about 20 35%
sand, 50-65% silt and upt o 15 percent cl ay.

b) Cohesive soils
Due to very low permeability, highly cohesive soils in their natural state posses shear
strength due to cohesion only and are prone to time dependant settlement. Particles
of clay being very small in diameter (less than 0.002 mm), grain size analysis of the
soil fraction passing 75 micron is determined as per I.S. 2720 (Part IV) 1985.
Except when the soil is non plastic (indicated by the inability to perform the test to
determine plastic limit), it is essential to determine the percentage of clay and silt
separately. Natural clay deposits may contain upto 70% or even more of material
belonging to sand and silt grades. Such clayey soils, when saturated, behaves as if
they are purely cohesive under normal loading conditions from the building. Silt
with even 25% clay behaves as clay. Apparent angle of internal friction is low in the
un-drained condition since no water is expelled from the soil initially when the load is
applied. This is the accepted basis for calculating ultimate bearing capacity of
saturated clays. Only in the case of very slow rate of loading, or with very silty soils,
drained condition persists during loading, producing increase in effective pressure on


soil due to decrease in pore water pressure. Consequently shear strength is increased
due to increase in the angle of internal friction from apparent to true value.
In most cases, allowabl e bearing pressure is dependant on permissibl e
total settl ement but in every case the foundation is checked against
shear fai lure. Tri -axi al t est s on undist urbed sampl es i n the laboratory,
in situ vane shear t est t o det ermi ne the shear st rengt h and stati c cone
test for bearing capacit y of predominantl y cohesi ve soils are reli abl e.

Shear st rengt h of soft sensiti ve cl ays are measured by i n-sit u vane
shear t est as per I. S. 4434 1978 si nce laboratory t ests on disturbed
samples of such soils are not reli abl e.

In cohesive soils, apart from st ati c t ests, in sit u compressi ve strength
tests are routi nel y made usi ng a Pen/Pocket pent ro-met er. It i s usual
practice to t ake t hi n walled tube samples for laboratory t esting and
compare the fi eld and l aboratory t est results.

Alluvial clay deposi t s consist and clay deposit ed in river valleys and
estuari es (on t he bed of t he sea). They are normall y consolidat ed.
Stiff surface crust i s due to exposure t o the effect s of weather and
veget ati on. Load beari ng st ructures with very shal low and narrow
foundation in t he surface crust are const ruct ed whi ch do not transmi t
stresses to t he underl yi ng soft and hi ghl y compressi bl e deposits. In
the case of wide or deep foundations, it is necessary t o adopt low
bearing pressures or use a raft or pi les. Al luvi al cl ays, especi all y
marine clays, are sensi tive to dist urbance. If t hey are disturbed in
sampling or i n const ruction operations (such as in piling) they show a
marked l oss in shear strength.

1.2 Anticipated problems in construction due to soils characteristics.
In sandy/ al luvi al soils, i f ground wat er t abl e i s l owered, gr ound
subsi dence in the area surroundi ng the const ruction site may occur due
to consolidati on of underl yi ng cl ayey layers. In such a case, it may be
necessary t o provi de a water ret aini ng barri er around the sit e if
struct ures exists adjacent to the excavation (since pumping t o dewater
may produce 30 t o 50 mm sett lement wit hin a short peri od of time).

When pore wat er in the soi l is just enough to moist en sand but not
saturat e it , the surface tension makes it possibl e to provi de shallow
excavations wit h near verti cal si des. With continued drainage and
evaporation or vibration, the sides coll apse. Near verti cal excavation
in a cohesive soil may coll apse due to rainfall softening the clay and
creating excess pore wat er pressure.


Excavat ion i n sands bel ow t he wat er tabl e may result in a slumping of
the sides and boiling of the bottom, unless a properl y desi gned ground
wat er l owering system is adopt ed.

If excavat ion goes below the fi rm surface crust of all uvi al cl ay,
support by timbering or sheet pilli ng is and stiffened trenches are
prone to failure by heaving of t he bot tom and bul ging of the si de
support s.
1. 3 Programme of detail ed soil investi gation
In pl anning t he Programme, full advantages shoul d be taken of
avail abl e informat i on from prelimi nary investi gation, geo technical
consult ant s dat a base and soil Investi gati on reports for t he nearby
sites and their correl ation with actual performance of buil dings and
load t ests on pil es. If rock is encountered in a bore hol e, bor ing must
extend at least 2 meters to differentiat e a boulder from bed rock. If
rock is encount ered in different bore holes near about the proposed
foundation l evel, adequat e number of bore holes are requi red t o plot
the rock contour. On t he basis of prel iminary bori ngs or prior sit e
knowledge, detai ls of in situ t ests and l aboratory t ests are worked out
keepi ng in vi ew the limit ation of each.

Current methods of subsoi l expl oration are outlined in Appendix A of
IS 1892 1979 and the tests generall y required are indi cated in Tabl e
3 and Appendix A of t his Code of Practice.

A. S. T. M. suggests that when more than 15% of gravel or sand is
present i n any t ype of soil , the descripti on should i ncl ude with. For
fine grained soils (wit h more t han 50% passing 75 mi cron si eve )
wi th sand or gravel is writt en for percentages between 15 and 29
and gravell y of sandy for l arger percentages.
Sands or gravel s may be cl assi fi ed by the st andard penet ration tests
into broad groups as foll ows:

No of S. P. T. bl ows N
Loos e Les s t han 10
Medium Dense 10 to 30
Dens e ( or compact ) Mor e t han 30

Based on un-drained shear strength, clayey soils may be classified as follows
Soft (0.2 to 0.4 kg/cm)
Medi um (0. 4 to 0. 75 kg/ cm)
Stiff (0. 75 t o 1. 5 kg/ cm)



Aft er est abl ishi ng correl ati on on the basis of other rel iable tests,
standard penet ration test results have been in use for many years for
rel ati ve densit y, angl e of int ernal frict ion, un-drained compressi ve
strength, set tlement and modules of sub grade reaction. Some of these
are of quest ionabl e val ue unl ess corroborat ed by adequat e calibration
dat a for the locali t y since many were ori gi nal l y proposed without
extensive study of the l arge number of vari ables affecti ng t he N
val ues.

A. Tests required for classifi cation of soil s
1) Classifi cation as per IS 1498 1970 based on parti cle size
anal ysis as per IS 2720 (Part 4) 1985 and i ndex properti es
of the soil as per IS 2720 (part 5) 1985. On the basis of
index properti es, i f the soil is cl assifi ed as cl ay of
intermedi at e or hi gh compressibilit y, It is necessary to
det ermine the cl ay and silt percent ages separat el y. Hence i n
addition to si evi ng, pipette or hydromet er t est is necessary t o
det ermine the percentage of clay.

2) In assessing the engi neering behavior of a cohesi ve soil , it i s
necessary t o det ermine in situ wat er content in addit ion to
liquid limit and plastic limit of re-moul ded soi l.

B. Tests required to determine safe bearing capacity of shallow
foundations ( including raft)as per I.S. 6403 1981.
Apart from ascertaining the highest level ever reached by the ground water table and
tests for classification of soil as per I.S. 14981970 based on grain size analysis as
per I.S. 2720 (part iv) 1985 index properties of the soil as per IS 2720 (Part 5)
1985, the following tests are required to determine safe bearing capacity based on
shear strength consideration:

1) Standard penetration test as per I.S. 2131 1981 for coarse grained /fine
grained cohesion less soils and semi pervious clayey soils (i.e. c soils with
clay upto about 30 percent).

2) Direct shear (controlled strain) test as per I.S. 2720 (Part 13) 1986.
Consolidated un-drained test for cohesive and for C soils and consolidated
drained test for cohesion less soils. The results may be compared with standard
penetration test/static cone penetration test results. Since there is escape of pore
water during box shear, partial drainage vitiates the consolidated un-drained test.
Hence this test is not exact for semi pervious soils such as clayey sands/silts (i.e.
with clay more than 15% but less than 30%). For such soils , Tri-axial Tests are
required if shear strength is the critical criterion.


3) Static cone penetration test as per I.S. 4968 (part 3) 1976 for foundations
on non stiff clayey soils such as fine grained soils (i.e. more than 50% passing 75
micron sieve). In fine and medium coarse sands such tests are done for correlation
with S.P.T. and to indicate soil profiles at intermediate points.

4) Unconfined compressive strength test as per I.S. 2720 (part 10) 1973 for
highly cohesive clays except soft/sensitive clays.

5) Vane shear test for impervious clayey soils except stiff or fissured clays.

6) Tri-axial shear tests for predominantly cohesive soils. If shear strength is
likely to be critical.

C. Tests required to determine allowable bearing pressure for shallow
foundations on settlement consideration.
1) Standard penetration test as per I.S. 2131 1981 for cohesion less soils and
semi pervious clayey soils (i.e. c soils with clay upto about 30 percent)

2) Consolidation test as per I.S. 2720 (part 15) if the settlement of clayey
layer/layers calculated on the basis of liquid limit and in-situ void ratio
indicates that settlement may be critical. Consolidation test is not required if
the superimposed load on foundation soil is likely to be less than pre-
consolidation pressure (assessed from Liquidity Index and sensitivity or from
unconfined compressive strength and plasticity index).

3) Plate load test as per I.S. 1888 1982 for cohesion less soils and c soils
where neither standard penetration test now consolidation test is appropriate
such as for fissured clay/rock, clay with boulders etc.

D. Test specially required for raft foundations (Refer para 3 of I.S. 2950
(Part I ) 1981.
Apart from other tests for shallow foundations, the following tests are required
especially for raft foundation :

1) Static cone penetration test as per I.S. 4968 (part 3) 1976 for cohesion
less soil to determine modulus of elasticity as per I.S. 1888 1982.

2) Standard penetration test as per I.S. 2131 1981 for cohesion less soils
and c soils to determine modulus of sub grade reaction.

3) Unconfined compressive strength test as per I.S. 2720 (part 10) 1973 for
saturated but no pre-consolidated cohesive soil to determine modulus of
sub grade reaction.


4) As specified in I.S. 2950 (part I) 1981, plate load test as per I.S. 1888
1982 where tests at sl. 1 to 3 above are not appropriate such as for
fissured clays/ clays boulders.

5) In case of deep basements in pervious soils, permeability is determined
from pumping test. This is required to analyze stability of deep
excavation and to design appropriate dewatering system.

E. Tests specially required for deep foundations
1) While the composition and depth of the bearing layer for shallow
foundations may vary from one site to another, most pile foundations in a
locality encounter similar deposits. Since pile capacity based on soil
parameters is not as reliable as from load tests, as a first step it is essential
to obtain full information on the type, size, length and capacity of piles
(including details of load settlement graph ) generally adopted in the
locality. Correlation of soil characteristics ( from soil investigation reports)
and corresponding load tests (from actual projects constructed) is essential
to decide the type of soil tests to be performed and to make a reasonable
recommendation for the type, size length and capacity of piles since most
formulae are empirical.

2) If information about piles in the locality are not available or reliable, it
may be necessary to drive a test pile and correlate with soil data.

3) Standard penetration test to determine the cohesion (and consequently the
adhesion based on or methods) to determine the angle of friction ( and
consequently the angle of friction & between soil and the pile and also the
point resistance) for each soil stratum of cohesion less soil or c- soil.

4) Static cone penetration test to determine the cohesion ( and consequently
the adhesion based on or methods ) for soft cohesive soils and to check
with S.P.T. result for fine to medium sands. Hence for strata encountering
both cohesive and cohesion less soils, both S.P.T. and C.P.T. are required.

5) Vane shear test for impervious clayey soils.

6) Un-drained Tri-axial shear strength of undisturbed soil samples (obtained
with thin walled tube samplers) to determine c and for clayey soils
(since graphs for correlations were developed based on un-drained shear
parameter). In case of driven piles proposed for stiff clays, it is necessary
to check with the c and from remoulded samples also. Drained shear


strength parameters are also determined to represent in situ condition of
soil at end of construction phase.

7) Self boring pressure meter test to determine modulus of sub grade reaction
for horizontal deflection for granular soils, very stiff cohesive soils, soft
rock and weathered or jointed rock.

8) Ground water conditions and permeability of soil influence the choice of
pile type to be recommended. Hence the level at which water in the bore
hole and the level at which water in the bore hole remains are noted in the
bore logs. Since permeability of clay is very low, It takes several days for
water in the drill hole to rise upto the ground water table. Ground water
samples need to be tested to consider the possible chemical effects on
concrete and the reinforcement. Result of the cone penetration test for the
same soil show substantial scatter. Hence, they need to be checked with
supplementary information from other exploration methods. Pressure
meters are used to estimate the in situ modulus of elasticity for soil in
lateral direction. Unless the soil is isotropic, the same value cannot be
adopted for the vertical direction. A list of tests required for soil
investigation is given in Table 3.

2) Recommendation in the soil investigation Reports:
Due to the difficulty in assessing the contact pressure on the foundation soil
by individual columns/wall. And variation in soil properties, it is common
practice to provide an adequate factor of safety while making
recommendation for the foundation based on results of soil investigation.
However, we may have a problem if the investigating firm recommends, say,
a special type of foundation with a safe bearing pressure of 8 tones per sq.
meter and it turns out that the safe bearing pressure is 12 tones per sq. meter
which would permit spread footings resulting in substantial economy.
Similarly, suggestion of a pile foundation without considering other economic
types of foundation is inappropriate. Hence, it is necessary to examine the
report to ensure that the recommendations flow from the data which have been
correctly interpreted.

2. 1 Bearing capaci ty
For shallow foundation, the current practice is to use an average N value in the zone
affecting soil behavior. For a spread footings, the effective zone extends to a depth
equal to twice the width below the footing. For a square footing, the effective zone
extends to a depth equal to one and a half times the width (if the effective zones of
adjacent footings do not overlap). Weighted average is used. For piles, average N
for each stratum is used.


It is undesirable to place a footings on soil with a relative density less
than 0.5 in such cases, the soil should be compacted by drainage and / or preloading
prior to placing footings on it.

The effect of ground water table on settlement is considered as per I.S.
8009 (Part 1) 1976 and I.S. 6403 1981.

Recent geo technical studies indicate that prediction of consolidation
settlements are satisfactory when compared with actual measurements. The
predictions are better for inorganic insensitive clays than for others. The predictions
require great care if e Vs log p curve is curved throughout or the clay is very
sensitive. Much care is also required if the clay is highly organic as the creep
component of settlement is substantial.

If required, settlements can be computed for various point such as corner, centre or
beneath lightest or the heaviest parts of a building.

Differential settlement can be computed as the difference between the settlements of
columns with maximum and minimum settlement. Alternatively, it may be estimated
at 3/4
th
of the computed maximum total settlement for spread footings for columns
/walls.

Limiting the total settlement and the differential settlement to that permissible as per
I.S. 1904 1986, the allowable bearing pressure on the foundation soil is recommend
for various sizes of footings, based on equal settlement consideration.

If after applying the empirical rules, or computing settlements of the structure at
various points based on the assumption of a flexible foundation, it is shown that the
total and differential settlements exceed safe limits for spread/ strip footings and the
structure itself does not have sufficient rigidity (i.e. unlike a well tied building with
adequate cross walls and reinforced concrete bands at intermediate levels) to prevent
excessive differential movement with ordinary spread foundations, provision of a
rigid raft foundations either with a thick slab or with deep beams in both directions
may be considered.

If a tall building with basement is founded on clay, the base of the excavation will
initially heave to a convex shape. As superstructure is constructed floor by floor, the
soil will be consolidated and the bottom will finally deform to a concave (bowl)
shape.

The critical factor for framed buildings is the relative rotation (or angular distortion)
whereas the ratio of deflection to length is critical in load bearing walls which fall by
sagging or hogging of the centre length of the wall.


In view of excessive cost of a raft foundation, adequate soil investigation must be
done and the report should clearly bring out by proper analysis of results that it is not
possible to provide spread footings including combined footings.

In some cases of alluvial deposits, there may be a variation in characteristics of soil
deposit beneath a large raft. A stiff crust of variable thickness and extent.

Precautions may be indicated to avoid the lateral yield of soil if loose sand is
encountered beneath the edges of raft at depths less than 2.5 to 3.0 meters below the
ground level.

The immediate settlement calculated on the basis of theory of elasticity is strictly
applicable to flexible bases only and is used to determine the contact pressure
distribution under the raft. In practice most foundations are intermediate between
rigid and flexible. Even very thick ones deflect when loaded by the superstructure.
If the base is rigid, the settlement is uniform (but raft may tilt) and the settlement is
about 7% less. In the equation for settlement, the weighted average of the modulus
elasticity is adopted in place of a single value for the entire depth below foundation. If
N values are used to calculate the modulus of elasticity, which generally increases
with depth, weighted average of the modulus is calculated and used in computing
immediate settlement.

3. Shear strength
In some cases, consolidated Drained Test on cohesion less soils (i.e. soils containing
less than 5 percent clay) may give a small value of cohesion, of the order of 0.10 to
0.15 kg/cm
2
. This is attributed to test inaccuracy and surface tension. Hence this
small value of c being unreliable, is neglected in analyzing field conditions (such
as stability of slope etc.). Generally, deep cuts in clayey soils are designed for short
term stability based on total stress analysis in consolidated un-drained condition.
These are analyzed for long term stability if the cut slope is to exist even when
consolidated drained conditions may occur.

4.0 Pile Foundation
A pile foundation is recommended only when a raft foundation cannot be
recommended due to excessive settlement (which must be calculated from
consolidation test) when the shallow foundation is on a loose filled up soil or is
under lain by a highly compressible soil stratum. The base level of the piles is
determined considering the end resistance of the stratum and settlement behavior of
the soil under the pile groups.

A slip of 5 to 10 mm of the soil is enough to develop full skin resistance along the pile
whereas a displacement of the order of 10 percent of diameter of pile tip is necessary
to mobilize full end bearing resistance.


Driven piles compact loose and medium dense cohesion less soils and hence are
preferable. For such piles, pile driving formulate are more reliable for cohesion less
soils than for cohesive soils. Large surface cracks are formed by driven piles in stiff
clay. Hence the skin resistance may be neglected upto about 1.8 meters at top.
Capacity of driven cast in-situ concrete piles is determined as per Appendix A of I.S.
2911 (part 1/Sec 1) 1979.

Capacity of bored piles is more dependent on the construction technique than for
driven piles. Soil is loosened as a result of boring operations. Shaft friction values for
bored piles in sands may be only half of that for driven piles. This ratio is about one
third for end bearing resistance. If concrete is placed ( but not mechanically
compacted ) while withdrawing the shell tube, the surrounding cohesion less soil
may be considered to be in loose condition. Capacity of bored cast in situ concrete
piles is determined as per Appendix B of I.S. 2911 (part 1/Sec 2) 1979.

If piles encounter shrinkable clays near the ground, due allowable may be made for
loss of frictional resistance and also for uplift due to swelling.

In st iff fissured cl ays, bored cast i n sit u pil es or low. Displacement
driven piles are usual l y recommended. Dense silt s cause hi gh
penet ration resist ance for dri ven piles but the capacit y of the pil e
remai ns l ow due t o disturbance of t he soil during driving.

Normal l y consolidat ed clays cause down drag on bored cast in
situ pil es due to consoli dat ed on account of drai nage occurri ng as a
result of boring.

Point resist ance and ski n fri cti on of pile in sand i ncreases as the
length of the pil e i ncreases upto the criti cal depth equal t o 10 times
the pil e di amet er for loose sand and 20 times for dense sand, Beyond
this l ength, the values remain const ant.

Point resist ance of piles longer than 15 t o 20 times the di ameter, dri ven
through weak strat a into thi ck firm sand deposit increases with dept h
of embedment in thi s strat um upt o a maximum value correspondi ng
to 8 to 12 times the di amet er of the pi le.

Except for bored pil es in sand capacit y of a group of pil es equals the
sum of the capaciti es of indi vidual pil es in the group. In case of bored
piles in sand, the capacit y i s about t wo thi rds the sum of capacit y.
Check is necessary for failure of t he pil e group as a si ngl e bl ock.



Pile capacit y may be cal cul at ed by several appropriat e met hods so as
to establish upper and lower bound val ues. Errors are very hi gh whe n
results from one t ype of soil deposit in one localit y or valid for one
year of pi le are extrapolat ed t o deri ve t he value for different deposits
in another localit y or another t ype of pil e involving a different
construction t echnique.

With a vi ew t o li mit the number of piles i n each group to the
minimum, the recommendat ion should indi cate the hi ghest possibl e
capacit y of the pil e consi deri ng the soil paramet ers, the bore log and
the appropri at e t ype of pil e.

5. Conclusion:
Technical sanction of a project is based on sound engineering practice. It is thus of
utmost importance to evolve and acceptable practice for planning of soil
investigation and appropriate recommendation for foundation. Every soil
investigation report should be examined at an appropriate level before acceptance of
the recommendation regarding the type of foundation and the allowable bearing
pressure. This is essential in view of the high cost of foundation and that any error in
foundation is difficult to rectify or may have disastrous consequence.



LIST OF VARIOUS FOUNDATION ENGINEERING CODES



SP 36 : Part 1 : 1987 Compendium of Indi an standards on soil engineering: Part 1 Laboratory testing of soils for ci vil
engineering purposes
SP 36 : Part 2 : 1988 Compendium of Indi an standards on soil engineering: Part 2 Field testing
IS 1080 : 1985 Code of practi ce for desi gn and const ruction of shallow foundations in soils (other than raft , ring and shell )
IS 1498 : 1970 Cl assifi cat ion and i denti fi cation of soils for general engi neering purposes
IS 1725 : 1982 Speci ficati on for soil based blocks used i n general buil ding construction
IS 1888 : 1982 Method of Load Test on Soils
IS 1892 : 1979 Code of practi ce for subsurface investi gations for found ati ons
IS 1904 : 1986 Code of practi ce for desi gn and const ruction of foundati ons in soils: general requi rement s
IS 2131 : 1981 Method for St andard Penetration Test for Soils
IS 2132 : 1986 Code of practi ce for thi n wal led tube sampli ng of soil s
IS 2720 : Part 2 : 1973 Methods of t est for soils: Part 2 Determinat ion of wat er content
IS 2720 : Part 3 : Sec 1 : 1980 Methods of t est for soil s: Part 3 Det ermination of speci fic gravit y Secti on 1 fi ne grained so i ls
IS 2720 : Part 1 : 1983 Methods of Test for Soils - Part 1 : Preparati on of Dry Soil Samples for Various Tests
IS 2720 : Part III : Sec 2 : 1980 Test for Soils - Part III : Det ermination of Speci fic Gravit y - Section 2 : Fi ne, Medi um and
Coarse Grained Soil s
IS 2720 : Part 4 : 1985 Methods of Test for Soils - Part 4 : Grain Size Anal ysis
IS 2720 : Part 5 : 1985 Method of Test for Soi ls - Part 5 : Det ermination of Liquid and Pl asti c Limit
IS 2720 : Part 6 : 1972 Methods of t est for soils: Part 6 Determinat ion of shri nkage fact ors
IS 2720 : Part 9 : 1992 Methods of t est for soils: Part 9 Determinat ion of dry densit y- moisture cont ent rel ation by constant
wei ght of soil method
IS 2720 : Part 10 : 1991 Met hods of t est for soils: Part 10 Det ermination of unconfined compressi ve st rength
IS 2720 : Part 11 : 1993 Met hods of t est for soils: Part 11 Det ermination of t he Shear St rength Paramet ers of a speci men


test ed in inconsolidated, indrained t riaxi al compression without the measurement of pore wat er pressure
IS 2720 : Part 12 : 1981 Met hods of t est for soils: Part 12 Det ermination of shear strengt h paramet ers of soil from
consoli dat ed undrai ned tri axial compressi on t est wit h measurement of pore water pressure
IS 2720 : Part 13 : 1986 Met hods of Test for Soil s - Part 13 : Direct Shear Test
IS 2720 : Part 14 : 1983 Met hods of Test for Soil s - Part 14 : Det erminati on of Densit y Index (Relative Densit y) of
Cohesionless Soils
IS 2720 : Part XV : 1965 Methods of Test for Soils - Part XV : Det ermi nation of Consol idation Properti es
IS 2720 : Part VII : 1980 Methods of Test for Soils - Part VII : Det ermi nation of Water Cont ent -Dry Densit y Relation Usi ng
Li ght Compacti on
IS 2720 : Part 8 : 1983 Methods of Test for Soils - Part 8 : Determination of Wat er Cont ent -Dry Densit y Relat ion Usi ng
Heavy Compact ion
IS 2720 : Part 20 : 1992 Met hods of t est for soils: Part 20 Det ermination of li near shri nkage
IS 2720 : Part 22 : 1972 Met hods of t est for soils: Part 22 Det ermination of organi c matt er
IS 2720 : Part 23 : 1976 Met hods of t est for soils: Part 23 Det ermina tion of cal cium carbonat e
IS 2720 : Part 25 : 1982 Met hods of t est for soils: Part 25 Det ermination sil ica sesquioxide rat io
IS 2720 : Part 16 : 1987 Met hods of Test for Soil - Part 16 : Laboratory Det ermination of CBR
IS 2720 : Part 17 : 1986 Met hods of Test for Soil s - Part 17 : Laborat ory Det ermination of Permeabilit y
IS 2720 : Part 18 : 1992 Met hods of t est for Soil s - Part 18 : Det erminati on of Field Moisture Equival ent
IS 2720 : Part 19 : 1992 Met hods of Test for Soil s - Part 19 : Det erminati on of Centri fuge Moi sture Equivalent
IS 2720 : Part XXI : 1977 Methods of Test for Soils - Part XXI : Det ermi nation of Tot al Sol ubl e Solids
IS 2720 : Part XXIV : 1976 Met hods of Test for Soils - Part XXIV : Det ermination of Cation Exchange Capacit y
IS 2720 : Part 27 : 1977 Met hods of t est for soils: Part 27 Det ermination of t ot al solubl e sulphates
IS 2720 : Part 28 : 1974 Met hods of t est for soils: Part 28 Det ermination of dry densit y of soils i npl ace, by the sand


repl acement method
IS 2720 : Part 30 : 1980 Met hods of t est for soils: Part 30 Laboratory vane shear t est
IS 2720 : Part 33 : 1971 Met hods of t est for soils: Part 33 Det ermination of t he densit y in place by t he ring and wat er
repl acement method
IS 2720 : Part 35 : 1974 Met hods of t est for soils: Part 35 Measurement of negative pore wat er pressure
IS 2720 : Part 26 : 1987 Met hod of Test for Soils - Part 26 : Det ermi nation of pH Val ue
IS 2720 : Part XXIX : 1975 Met hods of Test for Soils - Part XXIX : Det ermination of Dry Densit y of Soils In-pl ace by the
Core-cutter Met hod
IS 2720 : Part 31 : 1990 Met hods of Test for Soil s - Part 31 : Fi eld Det ermination of Cali forni a Bearing Ratio
IS 2720 : Part XXXIV : 1972 Methods of Test for Soils - Part XXXIV : Det ermination of Densit y of Soil In-place by Rubber-
ball oon Method
IS 2720 : Part 36 : 1987 Met hods of t est for soils: Part 36 Laboratory det erminati on of permeabilit y of granul ar soil s
(const ant head)
IS 2720 : Part 37 : 1976 Met hods of t est for soils: Part 37 Det ermination of sand equival ent values of soils and fine
aggregat es
IS 2720 : Part 38 : 1976 Met hods of t est for soils: Part 38 Compaction control t est (hi lf met hod)
IS 2720 : Part XL : 1977 Met hods of Test for Soil s - Part XL : Det erminati on of Free Swel l Index of Soil s
IS 2720 : Part XLI : 1977 Methods of Test for Soils - Part XLI : Measurement of Swel ling Pressure of Soils
IS 2720 : Part XXXIX : Sec 1 : 1977 Met hods of Test for Soil s - Part XXXIX : Direct Shear Test for Soils Containing Gravel
- Sect ion I : Laborat ory Test
IS 2720 : Par t XXXIX : Sec 2 : 1979 Met hods of Test for Soil s - Part XXXIX : Direct Shear Test for Soils Containing Gravel
- Sect ion 2 : In-Si tu Shear Test
IS 2809 : 1972 Gl ossary of Terms and Symbols Rel ati ng t o Soil Engineeri ng
IS 2810 : 1979 Gl ossary of t erms rel ating to soil dynami cs


IS 2911 : Part 1 : Sec 1 : 1979 Code of practi ce for desi gn and const ructi on of pil e foundations: Part 1 Concret e pil es, Sect ion
1 Driven cast in-sit u concrete pil es
2 Bored cast -in-situ piles
3 Driven precast concret e pil es
IS 2911 : Part 1 : Sec 4 : 1984 Code of practi ce for desi gn and const ructi on of pil e foundations: Part 1 concret e pi les, Secti on
4 Bored precast concret e pil es
IS 2911 : Part 2 : 1980 Code of practice for desing and const ructi on of pil e foundations: Part 2 T imber piles
IS 2911 : Part 3 : 1980 Code of practice for desi gn and const ructi on of pil e foundations: Part 3 Under reamed pi les
IS 2911 : Part 4 : 1985 Code of practice for desi gn and const ructi on of pil e foundations: Part 4 Load t est on pil es
IS 2950 : Part I : 1981 Code of Practi ce for Desi gn and Constructi on of Raft Foundations - Part I : Desi gn
IS 2974 : Part 2 : 1980 Code of practice for desi gn and const ructi on of machine foundations: Part 2 Foundations for impact
t ype machine (hammer foundations)
IS 2974 : Part 3 : 1992 Code of practice for desi gn and const ructi on of machine foundations: Part 3 Foundations for rot ary
t ype machines (Medi um and hi gh frequency)
IS 2974 : Part 4 : 1979 Code of practice for desi gn and const ructi on of machine foundatio ns: Part 4 Foundations for rot ary
t ype machines of low frequency
IS 2974 : Part 5 : 1987 Code of practice for desi gn and const ructi on of machine:foundations Part 5 Foundations for impact
machines other t han hammers (forging and st ampi ng press, pi g breaker s, drop crusher and jolt er)
IS 2974 : Part I : 1982 Code of Practi ce for Desi gn and Constructi on of Machine Foundati ons - Part I : Foundati on for
Reciprocat ing Type Machines
IS 4091 : 1979 Code of Pract ice for Desi gn and Const ructi on of Foundati ons for Transmissi on Line Towers and Pol es
IS 4332 : Part 1 : 1967 Methods of t est for stabilized soils: Part 1 Methods of sampling and preparation of st abilized soils for
testi ng


IS 4332 : Part 3 : 1967 Met hods of t est for st abi l i zed soi l s: Part 3 Test for det er mi nat i on of moi st ure cont ent -dry densi t y rel at i on for
st abl i zed soi l s mi xt ures
IS 4332 : Part 4 : 1968 Met hods of t est for st abi l i zed soi l s: Part 4 Wet t i ng and dr yi ng, fr eezi ng and t hawi ng t est s for compa ct ed soi l -
cement mi xt ures
IS 4332 : Part 5 : 1970 Met hods of t est for st abi l i zd soi l s: Part 5 Det ermi nat i on of unconfi ned compressi ve st rengt h of st abl i zed soi l s
IS 4332 : Part II : 1967 Met hods of Test for St abi l i zed Soi l s - Part II : Det er mi nat i on of Moi st ure Cont ent of St abi l i zed Soi l Mi xt ures
IS 4332 : Part 8 : 1969 Met hods of t est for st abl i zed soi l s: Part 8 Det ermi nat i on of l i me cont ent of l i me st abl i zed soi l s
IS 4332 : Part 10 : 1969 Met hods of t est for st abi l i zed soi l s: Part 10 Test for soi l / bi t umi nous mi xt ures
IS 4332 : Part VI : 1972 Met hods of Test for St abi l i zed Soi l s - Part VI : Fl exural St rengt h of Soi l -cement Usi ng Si mpl e Beam Wi t h
Thi rd-poi nt Loadi ng
IS 4332 : Part VII : 1973 Met hods of Test for St abi l i zed Soi l s - Part VII : Det er mi nat i on of Cement Cont ent of Cement St abi l i zed Soi l s
IS 4332 : Part IX : 1970 Met hods of Test for St abi l i zed Soi l s - Part IX : Det er mi nat i on of t he Bi t umi nous St abi l i zer Cont ent of
Bi t umen and Tar St abi l i zed Soi l s
IS 4434 : 1978 Code of pract i ce for i n-si t u vane shear t est for soi l s
IS 4968 : Part 1 : 1976 Met hod for subsurface soundi ng for soi l s: Part 1 Dynami c met hod usi ng 50 mm cone wi t hout bet oni t e sl urr y
IS 4968 : Part 3 : 1976 Met hod for subsurface soundi ng for soi l s: Part 3 St at i c cone penet rat i on t est
IS 4968 : Part II : 1976 Met hod for Subsur face Soundi ng for Soi l s - Part II : Dynami c Met hod Usi ng Cone and Bent oni t e Sl urr y
IS 5249 : 1992 Met hod of t est for det er mi nat i on of dynami c propert i es of soi l
IS 6403 : 1981 Code of pract i ce for det er mi nat i on of beari ng capaci t y of shal l ow foundat i ons
IS 8009 : Part II : 1980 Code of Pract i ce for Cal cul at i on of Set t l ement of Foundat i ons - Part II : Deep Foundat i ons Subj ect ed t o
Symmet ri cal St at i c Vert i cal Loadi ng
IS 8009 : Part I : 1976 Code of Pract i ce for Cal cul at i on of Set t l ement s of Foundat i ons - Part I : Shal l ow Foundat i ons Subj ect ed t o
Symmet ri cal St at i c Vert i cal Loads
IS 8763 : 1978 Gui de for undi st rubed sampl i ng of sands and sandy soi l s
IS 9198 : 1979 Speci fi cat i on for compact i on rammer for soi l t est i ng


IS 9214 : 1979 Met hod for det er mi nat i on of modul us of sub-grade react i on (k-val ue) of soi l s i n t he fi el d
IS 9259 : 1979 Speci fi cat i on for l i qui d l i mi t apparat us for soi l s
IS 9456 : 1980 Code of pract i ce for desi gn and const ruct i on of coni cal and hyperbol i c parabol oi dal t ypes of shel l foundat i ons
IS 9556 : 1980 Code of practi ce for desi gn and const ruction of di aphragm walls
IS 9640 : 1980 Speci ficati on for split spoon sampler
IS 9669 : 1980 Speci ficati on for CBR moulds and it s accessories
IS 9716 : 1981 Guide for l at eral dynami c load t est on pil es
IS 9759 : 1981 Guidelines for de-watering during const ruction
IS 10042 : 1981 Code of practi ce for sit e-investi gations for foundation in gravel boulder deposits
IS 10074 : 1982 Specificati on for compaction mould assembl y for li ght and heavy compact ion test for soils
IS 10077 : 1982 Specificati on for equipment for determi nat ion of shrinkage factors
IS 10108 : 1982 Code of practi ce for sampling of soils by t hin wall sampler wit h st ationery pist on
IS 10270 : 1982 Gui deli nes for desi gn and const r ucti on of prestressed rock anchors
IS 10379 : 1982 Code of practi c for fi eld control of moist ure and compacti on of soi ls of embankment and subgrade
IS 10442 : 1983 Specificati on for eart h augers (spi ral t ype)
IS 10589 : 1983 Specificati on for equipment for determi nat ion of subsurface sounding of soil s
IS 10837 : 1984 Specificati on for moulds and accessories for det ermination of densit y i ndex (rel ati ve densi t y) of cohesionl es s
soils
IS 11089 : 1984 Code of practi ce for desi gn and constructi on of ring fo undation
IS 11196 : 1985 Specificati on for equipment for determi nat ion of liquid l imit of soi ls cone penet ration method
IS 11209 : 1985 Specificati on for mould assembl y for det ermi nati on of permeabil it y of soils
IS 11229 : 1985 Specificati on for shear box for t esti ng of soil s
IS 11233 : 1985 Code of practi ce for desi gn and constructi on of radar ant enna, mi crowave and TV tower foundations


IS 11550 : 1985 Code of practi ce for fiel d instrument ation of swelling pressure i n expansive soils
IS 11593 : 1986 Specificati on for shear box (large) for t esti ng of soil s
IS 11594 : 1985 Specificati on for t hin wall ed sampling t ubes and sampl er heads
IS 11629 : 1986 Code of practi ce for inst all ation and operation of si ngl e point hydrauli c over -fl ow setti ng gauge
IS 12023 : 1987 Code of practi ce for fiel d monitoring of movement of st ructures using tape ext ensomet er
IS 12175 : 1987 Specificati on for rapid moisture met er for rapid det erminati on of wat er content for soi l
IS 12208 : 1987 Met hod for measurement of earth pressure by hydrauli c pressure cell
IS 12287 : 1988 Specificati on for consoli dometer for det ermination of consol idation properti es
IS 12979 : 1990 Specificati on for mould for det ermination of linear shri nkage
IS 13094 : 1992 Gui deli nes for sel ection of ground improvement techniques for foundation in weak soi ls
IS 13301 : 1992 Gui deli nes for vi brati on isol ation for machine foundations
IS 13468 : 1992 Specificati on for apparat us for det ermination of dry densit y of soil s by core cutter met hod
IS 14893 : 2001 Non-Dest ructi ve Integrit y Testi ng of Pil es (NDT) Guidelines
IS 15284 : Part 1 : 2003 Desi gn and Construction for Ground Improvement - Guidel ines - Part 1 : Stone Columns


Questions
1. Explain Density index of soil?
2. Explain the different divisions in which the soil is broadly divided in Indian
standard of soil classification system?
3. Explain in brief sub division of soil on the basis of arbitrarily selected liquid limit
of fine grained soils?
4. Define Void ratio, Porosity and Degree of saturation of soil?
5. Explain in brief the different types of failure in soil?
6. Define Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and Shrinkage Limit in Plasticity Characteristics
of Soils?
7. List the different Tests which are specially required for deep foundations?
8. Explain the effect of water table on bearing capacity of soil?
9. Define Ultimate bearing capacity and Gross safe bearing capacity of soil?
10. When Pile foundation is recommended?


Chapter02.Oerview of Soil Mechanics & Foundation Design

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bearing capacity facotors

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Chapter02.Oerview of Soil Mechanics &amp; Foundation Design

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Chapter02.Oerview of Soil Mechanics &amp; Foundation Design

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E1-E2 Techni cal (Ci vil) Vol.

-1 Rev dat e: 01-04-11

bearing capacity facotors

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Chapter02.Oerview of Soil Mechanics & Foundation Design

Chapter02.Oerview of Soil Mechanics & Foundation Design