What Are the Parts of the Brain and Their Functions?

The brain is divided into three (3) major regions - the hindbrain, the midbrain and the forebrain. Each
region is composed of different brain parts that work together to process the information they receive.
Hindbrain
The Hindbrain is located at the rear of the skull and is the lowest portion of the brain. Hindbrain parts
include the medulla, the cerebellum and the pons.
1. The medulla is where the spinal cord enters the skull. It is responsible for controlling breathing,
regulating reflexes, and maintaining an upright posture of the body.
2. The cerebellum are two (2) rounded structures located besides the medulla. It is responsible for
coordinating motor activity (movements of the body), so that extensive damage of the cerebellum
can cause failure to even stand up.
3. The pons serves as the bridge towards the midbrain. It is a cluster of neuronal fibers surrounding
the reticular formation (discussed below), and is responsible for monitoring sleep and arousal by
coordinating with the autonomic nervous system.
The Brain Stem evolved 500 million years ago and is the most ancient part of the brain. It is composed of
the hindbrain, plus the midbrain, minus the cerebellum. It is involved in alertness and in monitoring basic
survival functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure. It is also known as the "reptilian
brain" because it is considered the entire brain of reptiles.
Midbrain
The Midbrain serves to relay information between the hindbrain and the forebrain, particularly information
coming from the eyes and the ears. It is composed of two (2) systems - the reticular formation, and a
cluster of neurons having dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine receptors.
The reticular formation is involved with stereotypical patterns of behavior such as walking, sleeping, and
other reflexes. Parkinson's disease, a degenerative disease of the brain that causes involuntary tremors
on affected body parts, damages a section near the bottom of the midbrain.
Forebrain
The Forebrain is considered as the highest region of the brain because it essentially differentiates us
humans from the rest in the animal kingdom. This region is also involved in processing complex
information. (The midbrain and hindbrain are similar with other animals, hence the term Brain Stem.) The
forebrain is composed of the limbic system, the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the basal ganglia, and the
cerebral cortex.
1. The limbic system is made up of the amygdala and the hippocampus. From a Latin word meaning
"almond", owing to its shape, the amygdala is responsible for processing emotions - how humans
become aware of them and how we express them. It is also critical for our survival because it helps
us discriminate one object from another. For instance, damage of the amygdala may cause us
humans to eat our own feces, fight the wrong "enemy", or try to mate with a chair. The
hippocampus, on the other hand, is presumably involved in memory storage because damage to
the part actually results to inability to store new information. Patients with damaged hippocampus
therefore live the day without remembering yesterday. Overall, the limbic system is involved in
memories and emotions by determining which neuronal connections should be strengthened and
which should be rewired.
2. The thalamus sits on top of the brain stem. It sorts and relays incoming information to the different
parts of the forebrain. For example, information coming from the cerebellum is oftentimes relayed
to the motor cortex in the cerebral cortex (discussed below). The thalamus also works with the
reticular formation on regulating states of sleep and wakefulness.
3. The hypothalamus is located just below the thalamus, hence the name. It monitors pleasurable
activities such as eating, drinking and sex. It influences the endocrine system, particularly the
pituitary gland, in secreting hormones in response to different emotions, stress and rewarding
feelings.
4. The basal ganglia is a cluster of neurons sandwiched between the thalamus and the cerebral
cortex. It works with the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum for coordinating voluntary movements,
particularly in forming habitual behaviors, such as bicycle riding and typing. Just like the bottom
section of the midbrain, the basal ganglia gets damaged with Parkinson's Disease. This is the
reason why Parkinson's patients oftentimes produce slow and unwanted movements.
5. The cerebral cortex is the most recently developed (or evolved) part of the brain. Like a crumpled
paper, it almost completely caps the rest of the brain parts. It is also the largest part of the human
brain, making up to 80% of the brain's volume. High-level processing also takes place in this part
of the brain. Because of the complexity and the influence of the cerebral cortex in various
behaviors and mental processes, this part of the brain deserves to be treated more in-depth below.
Cerebral Cortex
The cerebral cortex is divided into two (2) hemispheres - the left and the right hemispheres. The left
hemisphere is associated with verbal processing, such as speech and grammar, and mathematics; while
the right hemisphere is involved with nonverbal processing, such as spatial perception, visual recognition
and emotion. The left hemisphere processes information coming from the right side of the body, while the
right hemisphere processes information coming from the left side of the body. The two hemispheres of
the brain are connected with each other by a bundle of axons called the corpus callosum. This connection
allows the left and the right hemispheres to communicate and integrate information with each other.
Two notable areas in the left hemisphere are the Broca's and Wernicke's areas. The Broca's area was
discovered in 1861 by a French surgeon named Paul Broca, when he evaluated a man called Tan. Tan
was named so because "tan" was the only word he could speak. His condition is known as aphasia. Tan's
autopsy revealed that his brain was damaged in a certain area in the left hemisphere. Broca's area turned
out to be involved with speech production, while Wernicke's area is significant for language
comprehension.
Roger Sperry researched about the importance of the corpus callosum in integrating the information
processed in the left and right hemispheres of the brain. In 1968, he examined W.J., whose corpus
callosum was surgically severed. 6 years after (1972), he experimented with cats by cutting off their
corpus callosums and some connections of their eyes to their brains. He found that cats needed to
relearn what they saw from one eye when a visual task is moved to the other eye. Furthermore, he
observed that logical thinking is predominantly centered on left brain activity, while creative activities are
more associated with right brain activity. Sperry's study was known Split-Brain Research. As soon as the
media found out about his studies, the results were sensationalized and reduced to casual left-right brain
categorization. People began to typify themselves as either logical or creative/artistic. On a positive note,
Sperry's research led to the realization that the school curricula needed to incorporate more creative and
artistic activities for learning.
Aside from being divided into two hemispheres, the cerebral cortex is also divided into lobes - occipital,
temporal, parietal and frontal; cortices and association cortices - visual, auditory, motor and sensory.
Information coming from the environment are registered in the cortices and processed in the association
cortices. Cortices may be mapped point to point. Wilder Penfield, a neurosurgeon from Montreal
Neurological Institute, located where in the somato-sensory cortex and motor cortex several parts of the
body are felt and moved. On the other hand, association cortices are integrative; they process the
information received by the cortices. Because of this difference, damages to the cortices are based on
location, while damages to the association cortices are based on their extent.
1. The Occipital Lobe is located at the back of the head and is involved in processing visual
information, such as color, shape and motion. Accordingly, the visual cortex and visual association
cortex are located in this lobe. Damage to the occipital lobe may cause cross-eyeing and blindness
partly or entirely of the visual field. Siamese cats, for example, are oftentimes born with defective
visual cortex, so that they have to consciously cross their eyes just to see straight!
2. The Temporal Lobe is located just above the ears and is involved in hearing, language processing
and memory (due to its connection with the limbic system). The auditory cortex, auditory
association cortex, and part of the visual association cortex are located in this lobe. Damage to the
temporal lobe leads to failure to store new information (just like damage to the hippocampus, as
discussed above).
3. The Parietal Lobe is located at the top of the head and towards the rear. It is involved in attention
and motor control, in processing spatial location, and in perceiving pain, touch and temperature. It
is said that Albert Einstein's parietal lobe is 15% larger than average, probably the reason why he
oftentimes imagined objects in space while formulating his theories. The sensory association
cortex is located in this lobe.
4. The Frontal Lobe is located just behind the forehead and towards the top of the head. It
constitutes 30% of the cerebral cortex in humans, 17% in chimps, 3.5% in cats, and it barely exists
in rats. It is involved in the control of voluntary muscles, intelligence and personality. Its critical
involvement with personality comes from the story of Phineas T. Gage, a 25-year old foreman
whose personality was altered after an iron rod accidentally shot up and pierced his frontal lobe.
From being mild-mannered, hardworking and emotionally calm, he became obstinate, moody,
irresponsible and selfish. The most important portion of the frontal lobe is the prefrontal cortex. It is
sometimes referred to as the executive control system of the body as it is involved in planning,
reasoning, and monitoring and organizing thinking. Damage to the frontal lobe causes failure to
follow basic directions, distraction from irrelevant stimuli, and personality change. The somato-
sensory cortex and motor cortex are located in this lobe.
Biological Foundations of Behavior: Evolution, Genetics, and The Brain


5. This chapter covers the relationship between evolutionary theories and behavior, genetics and
behavior, neural bases of behavior, the nervous system (including the structures and functions of
the brain), nervous system interactions with the endocrine and immune systems, and genetic
influences on behavior.
6. Evolutionary psychology focuses on biologically-based mechanisms that evolved as solutions to a
species' problems of adaptation. Evolution is a change over time in the frequency with which
particular genes occur within an interbreeding population. The cornerstone of Darwin's theory of
evolution is the principle of natural selection, which posits that biologically-based characteristics
that contribute to survival and reproductive success increase in the population over time because
those who lack the characteristic are less likely to pass on their genes. Genetically-based traits
often occur in "packages." As in the case of sickle cell disease, a factor that impairs survival may
persist in a population if another trait in the package is even more important for survival.
7. Hereditary potential is carried within the DNA portion of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in units
called genes, whose commands trigger the production of proteins that control body structures and
processes. Genotype (genetic structure) and phenotype (outward appearance) are not identical,
in part because some genes are dominant while others are recessive. Many characteristics are
influenced by the interactions of multiple genes. Behavior geneticists study the contributions of
genetic and environmental factors to psychological traits and behaviors. Adoption and twin
studies are the major research methods used in an attempt to disentangle hereditary and
environmental factors. Especially useful is the study of identical (monozygotic) and fraternal
(dizygotic) twins who were separated early in life and raised in different environments. These
studies suggest that many psychological characteristics have appreciable genetic contributions.
Genetic engineering allows scientists to duplicate and alter genetic material or, potentially, to
repair dysfunctional genes. These procedures promise groundbreaking advances in treatment of
diseases, but they also raise momentous ethical and moral issues.
8. Specialized cells called neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system. Each neuron has
three main parts: dendrites, which collect information from neighboring neurons and send it on to
the cell body; the cell body, which contains the biochemical structures that keep the neuron alive;
and the axon, which conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body to other neurons,
muscles, and glands. Glial cells support neurons by holding them in place, manufacturing nutrient
chemicals, and absorbing toxins and waste materials. An action potential is a sudden reversal in
the neuron's membrane voltage. The shift from negative to positive voltage is called
depolarization. The depolarization process occurs when the dendrites of the cell are stimulated,
resulting in small shifts in the cell membrane's electrical potential, a shift called a graded
potential. If the graded potential is large enough to reach the action potential threshold, an action
potential occurs. Either an action potential occurs or it does not, according to the all-or-none law.
When a neuron is stimulated, tiny protein structures called ion channels are activated. Sodium ion
channels allow positively charged sodium ions to enter the interior of the cell, leading to the
process of depolarization. Immediately after an impulse passes any point on the axon, a time
period called a refractory period occurs, during which another action potential cannot occur. The
myelin sheath is a tubelike insulating substance covering some axons in the brain and spinal
cord.
9. Neurons communicate through synaptic transmission. The synapse is a tiny gap between the
axon terminal and the next neuron. Chemical substances called neurotransmitters, which are
stored in synaptic vesicles, carry messages across the synapse and bind to receptor sites. Once
a neurotransmitter molecule binds to its receptor, it continues to activate or inhibit the neuron until
deactivation occurs. One method of deactivation is reuptake, in which the transmitter molecules
are taken back into the presynaptic neuron. There are many types of neurotransmitters. One
involved in memory and muscle activity is acetylcholine. Various drugs function as agonists
(increasing the activity of a neurotransmitter) or antagonists (decreasing neurotransmitter
activity).
10. There are three major types of neurons in the nervous system. Sensory neurons input messages
from the sense organs to the spinal cord and brain, motor neurons carry impulses from the brain
and spinal cord to the muscles and organs, and interneurons perform connective or associative
functions within the nervous system. The division of the nervous system containing the brain and
spinal cord is called the central nervous system. The division that consists of all neurons
connecting the CNS with the muscles, glands, and sensory receptors is called the peripheral
nervous system. In turn, the PNS is divided into two systems. The somatic nervous system
consists of sensory and motor neurons while the autonomic nervous system regulates the body's
glands and involuntary functions such as breathing, circulation, and digestion. The autonomic
nervous system consists of two branches. The sympathetic branch activates or arouses bodily
organs while the parasympathetic branch slows down body processes. Most nerves enter and
leave the CNS via the spinal cord. Some simple stimulus-response sequences such as pulling
away from a hot stove typically don't involve the brain and are known as spinal reflexes.
11. Psychologists use a number of methods to study the brain. Neuropsychological tests measure
verbal and nonverbal behaviors that are known to be affected by brain damage. Researchers
may destroy neurons under controlled conditions or stimulate them with electrical current or with
chemicals. The activity of large groups of neurons is often studied via an electroencephalogram
(EEG). The newest tools of discovery involve brain imaging. X-ray technology used to study brain
structures are called computerized axial tomography (CT) scans. Pictures of brain activity involve
the use of positron emission tomography (PET) scans. A technique to measure both brain
structures and functions is called magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); functional MRI (fMRI) yields
snapshots of brain activity taken less than a second apart.
12. The brain historically has been divided into three main divisions: the hindbrain, midbrain, and
forebrain. The hindbrain consists of the brain stem and cerebellum. The brain stem, which
contains the medulla and the pons, is involved in life support. The medulla plays a major role in
vital body functions such as heart rate and respiration. The pons is a bridge carrying nerve
impulses between higher and lower levels of the nervous system. The cerebellum, attached to the
brain stem above the pons, is concerned primarily with muscular coordination. The midbrain, lying
just above the hindbrain, is an important relay center for the visual and auditory systems. Within
the midbrain is the reticular formation, which is involved in brain arousal, sleep, and attention.
13. The forebrain's size and complexity distinguishes humans from lower animals. An important
sensory relay station in the forebrain is the thalamus, while the hypothalamus plays a major role
in motivational and emotional behavior. The limbic system helps to coordinate memory, emotion,
and motivational urges. Within the limbic system are the hippocampus, which is involved in the
formation and storage of memories; and the amygdala, which is linked to aggression and fear.
14. The outermost layer of the brain, constituting 80 percent of human brain tissue, is the cerebral
cortex. Each hemisphere of the cortex is divided into the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal
lobes, each of which is associated with particular sensory and motor functions. Lying at the rear
of the frontal lobe is the motor cortex, which is involved in controlling muscles. The somatic
sensory cortex receives sensory input. Two specific speech areas are also located in the cortex.
Wernicke's area is involved in speech comprehension while Broca's area is involved in the
production of speech. The association cortex is involved in the highest levels of mental functions.
People who suffer from agnosia, the inability to identify familiar objects, often have suffered
damage to their association cortex. Executive functions such as goal setting, judgment, and
planning may be controlled by the prefrontal cortex. The brain is also divided into two
hemispheres: the left and the right. The corpus callosum is a bridge that helps the two
hemispheres communicate and work together. The location of a function primarily in a single
hemisphere is known as lateralization. "Split-brain" research designed to look at the relative
functions of the hemispheres involves studying the roles of the corpus callosum and the optic
chiasma.
15. The ability of neurons to change in structure and function is known as neural plasticity.
Environmental factors, particularly early in life, have notable effects on brain development. There
are often critical periods during which environmental factors have their greatest (or only) effects
on plasticity. A person's ability to recover from brain damage depends on several factors. Other
things being equal, recovery is greatest early in life and declines with age. When neurons die,
surviving neurons can sprout enlarged dendritic networks and extend axons to form new
synapses. Neurons can also increase the amount of neurotransmitter substance they release and
the number of receptors on postsynaptic neurons so that they are more sensitive to stimulation.
Recent findings suggest that the brains of mature primates and humans are capable of producing
new neurons (neurogenesis). Current advances in the treatment of neurological disorders include
experiments on neuron regeneration and the injection of neural stem cells into the brain, where
they find and replace diseased or dead neurons.
16. The endocrine system consists of numerous glands distributed throughout the body. The system
conveys information via hormones, which are chemical messengers secreted by the glands into
the bloodstream. The adrenal glands secrete stress hormones, which mobilize the body's
immune system. When foreign substances known as antigens invade the body, the immune
system produces antibodies to destroy them. Problems arise with both an underactive and an
overactive immune system. An overactive response known as an autoimmune reaction results
when the immune system incorrectly identifies part of the body as an enemy and attacks it.
17. Biological factors allow a range of effects, depending on the environment in which they function.
Thus, cultural factors, learning experiences, interpersonal relations, and other environmental
factors combine with biological factors to influence behavior. One might think that if the heritability
of a particular trait is high, then society can have little effect on the trait. In actuality, however, if a
particular society were to put pressure on everyone to conform to a particular behavior, then
environmental influences would be similar for everyone; consequently, the causal weight for that
behavior would shift toward biological factors.

Biological Foundations of Behavior

The Nervous System
The nervous system is the body's electrochemical communication throughout the entire body.The brain is
the head of the nervous system which is made up of billions of nerve cells and is probably the most
intricate matter on this planet. The four characteristics of the brain and nervous system are complexity,
integration, adaptability, and electrochemical transmission. These four characteristics show how the brain
works with the nervous system, how we are able simultaneously do many things at once, how humans
are able to adapt, and how we are able to process information through electical impulses and chemcial
messengers. The nervous system is also devided into two main parts, the CNS (Central Nervous System)
which is part of the brain and spinal cord. While the PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) which is divided
into somatic and autonomic. They let us know when we are in dangerous circumstances and also take
care of our body in digesting food and healing wounds.
Neurons
Neurons help our brains to process information and also work as a network for the nervous system. A
neuron has three main parts, a cell body, an axon, and dendrites. The dendrites take information to the
axon where the myelin sheath speeds the process of the neural impules and sends it to the terminal
button where neurotransmitters take the information to other neurons. The neurotransmitters include
acetylcholine, GABA, glutamate, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and endorphins. These help
stimulate other electrical impulses.
Structures of the Brain and their Functions
Brain consists of five lobes which is the Cerebral Cortex (Outter covering where higher mental functions
are held), Occipital lobe (vision), Temporal lobe (Memory), Frontal lobe (Smell, Personality, Sexual
Behavior, and Executive Functions), and the Parietal lobe ( Motor functions, Hearing, and Touching). The
brain has two hemispheres, the left is primarily in charge of the right side of the body, speech, and
language comprehension. The right is in charge of all information which is nonverbal ( Spatial perception,
visual recognition, faces, and emotion).
The Endocrine System
The endocrine system consists of glands that release chemicals into the body through the bloodstream.
The pituitary gland and adrenal glands play important roles in the Endocrine System. The adrenal glands
can change moods which can effect your energy levels and the ability to cope with stress. Other parts can
also release chemicals into other organs such as the pancreas, ovaries, and testes which can produce
sex hormones.
Brain Damage, Plasticity, and Repair
The brain has remarkable plasticity, which also means adaptability to complications in one particular side
or area of the brain. Plasticity in children under the age of 5 is much more effective than in an adult. Three
particular ways a brain may repair itself are, substitution of function, neurogenesis, and collateral
sprouting. Brain grafts may also be done which are implanted in place of bad tissue.



Genetics and Behavior
Genetics consist of chromosomes that are link-like structures that come in 23 pairs. One member of each
of the pairs of chromosomes comes from one of the parents. Chromosomes contain DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic acid). Genes are either dominant or recessive and the dominant gene overrides the
recessive gene according to the dominant-recessive genes principle. Genotype is an persons genetic
material, and phenotype is a persons charcteristics. Environment and genes both play a role in
determining a persons phenotype.



Psychology's Biological Foundations and Health and Wellness
Stress is the result of changes in the environment. Stressors are the particular events that cause the
stress. Stress causes the symathetic nervous system to "turn on," and it prepares the body to take action
towards whatever the problem may be. If a person has alot of stress on a regular basis, it is called chronic
stress which can be extremely bad for ones health. Our bodies can adapt to little amounts of stress which
are called acute stresses.
The Biological Foundations of Behavior


The Big Picture: Chapter Overview
The brain is a complex, versatile, and flexible network that controls our behaviors and mental processes.
The evolutionary psychology approach, which emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction,
and natural selection in explaining psychology, considers how the human nervous system has evolved to
its complex present state. Most scientists believe that behavior is determined by the interaction of the
environment and the organism's biological inheritance. This chapter focuses on neuroscience, the area of
specialization in psychology that studies the nervous system.
The nervous system is made up of interconnected nerve cells that transmit information throughout the
body. There are four defining characteristic of the nervous system: (1) it communicates via
electrochemical transmission, (2) it is characterized by its complexity, as the brain alone is composed of
billions of nerve cells, (3) it can integrate information from many sources and create a coherent
psychological experience, and (4) it has a great capacity to adapt to changes in the environment and the
body. The capacity of the brain to adapt is termed plasticity.
Cells that carry input to the brain are called afferent neurons and those that carry output from the brain
are called efferent neurons. Most of the communication in the nervous system takes place through neural
networks, which are nerve cells that integrate sensory input and motor output.
The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The
central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system connects the
brain and spinal cord to the other parts of the body. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the
somatic nervous system, which contains sensory and motor nerves, and the autonomic nervous system,
which monitors the body's internal organs.
There are two types of nerve cells: neurons and glial cells. The neurons are in charge of communication
and the glial cells support and nourish the neurons. A neuron is made of (1) a cell body, which regulates
the cell's growth and maintenance; (2) dendrites, which collect information for the neuron; and (3) an
axon, which carries information away from the cell body to other cells. Most axons are covered with a
layer of fat cells called the myelin sheath, which insulates the axon and speeds up the impulse.
Neurons send information down the axon in the form of waves of electricity called the action potential.
The neuron has a cell membrane that allows certain substances to enter the cell and other substances to
exit the cell. When a neuron is resting it is not communicating, and it has more negative ions inside than
outside. This slightly negative charge inside the cell is termed the resting potential. When a neuron is
stimulated, the cell membrane allows positive ions to enter the cell. When the inside of the cell becomes
positively charged, the cell membrane allows other positive ions to exit the cell, restoring the slightly
negative inside charge. This exchange of electrochemical charges occurs one spot at a time in the axon.
Once a spot has allowed positive ions in and out, it stimulates the next spot; this is what is understood as
the electrochemical wave that moves across the axon. Picture a wave such as the one that develops at
football games: you stay sitting until the people next to you stand and raises their hands. When you stand
up with your arms in the air, you are like that spot in the axon where the cell membrane allows positive
ions in and out; this state is the action potential. When you sit again, you are like that spot in the axon,
returning to its resting potential. When you stand up and raise your hands you stimulate the person next
to you to do the same, and so on and so forth. The action potential operates according to the all-or-none
principle.
Each axon ends in numerous terminal buttons. Each terminal button stores neurotransmitters. When the
electrochemical wave arrives at the terminal button, the neurotransmitter is released onto the synapse,
the tiny gap between neurons. The neurotransmitters carry the message across the synapse to the
receiving dendrite or cell body of the next neuron. Dendrites and some soma have receptor sites, which
are neurotransmitter specific. The most common analogy is that of a lock and key. The neurotransmitter is
the key and the receptor site is the lock. When the neurotransmitter latches onto a receptor site, it initiates
an electrochemical wave in the receiving neuron. This is how neurons communicate! However, some
neurotransmitters are inhibitory, which means that when they latch onto a receptor site, they keep the
next neuron from starting an action potential. The neurotransmitters that stimulate other neurons to start
the action potential are referred to as excitatory. Chapter Three includes a discussion of six
neurotransmitters that are very important in the human nervous system: acetylcholine, GABA,
norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and endorphins. Some drugs called agonists mimic or increase a
neurotransmitter's effect; antagonists are drugs that block a neurotransmitter's effects. Glial cells provide
support and nutritive functions for neurons.
The neural communication is the foundation of our psychology. Whenever we have an experience, say
stepping on a sharp stone, a number of neurons are stimulated and neural communication takes place
throughout the nervous system. Some of those neurons will control your movements as you retrieve your
foot and regain your balance; they will communicate again in the future when you recall the event and
when a similar experience occurs.
Contemporary technology allows neuroscientists to explore the structure and function of the brain very
effectively. Some of the techniques that are used are the study of naturally occurring brain lesioning in
humans and lesioning of the brains of laboratory animals, the staining of selective cells to distinguish
some nerve cells from others, electrical recording, such as the electroencephalograph, and brain imaging,
such as the CT scan, the PET scan, and the MRI. The brain consists of the hindbrain, midbrain, and
forebrain. The hindbrain is the lowest portion of the brain and consists of the medulla, cerebellum, and
pons. The midbrain is an area where many nerve-fibers ascend and descend and relay information
between the brain and the eyes and ears. An important structure of the midbrain is the reticular formation.
The highest region of the brain is the forebrain. Its major structures included the limbic system, thalamus,
basal ganglia, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex. Each performs certain specialized functions involving
emotion, memory, senses, movement, stress, and pleasure. The cerebral cortex comprises the largest
part of the brain and consists of two hemispheres (left and right) and four lobes (occipital, temporal,
parietal, and frontal). The cerebral cortex consists of the sensory cortex, motor cortex, and association
cortex. Two important areas in the cerebral cortex involved in language are Broca's area and Wernicke's
area. The two hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum. No complex function can be assigned
to one single hemisphere or the other. There is interplay between the two hemispheres.
A number of important body reactions produced by the autonomic nervous system result from its action
on the endocrine glands. The endocrine system is a set of glands (pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal,
pancreas, and the ovaries in women and testes in men) that regulate the activities of certain organs by
releasing hormones into the bloodstream. The anterior part of the pituitary is called the master gland; it is
controlled by the hypothalamus. The adrenal glands play an important role in mood, energy, and stress.
Plasticity refers to the brain's capacity for modification and reorganization following damage. The amount
of damage is a key factor in determining the degree of recovery. Collateral sprouting, substitution of
functioning, and neurogenesis are repair mechanisms that can lead to the brain restoring some lost
functions. Brain grafts and implants may help individuals with brain damage such as in Parkinson's
disease and Alzheimer's disease.
Our psychology has genetic and evolutionary foundations. The last part of Chapter Three explores the
basic concepts of genetics and heredity. The nucleus of each human cell contains 46 (23 pairs) of
chromosomes that contain DNA. Genes, the units of hereditary information, are short segments of
chromosomes. Genes combine with other genes to determine our characteristics. There are dominant
and recessive genes. Polygenic inheritance is the effect that multiple genes have on behaviors and
mental processes. The study of genetics has progressed from the basic experiments of Mendel to
molecular genetics and the development of genomes. The Human Genome Project strives to describe the
complete set of instructions for making a human being. There are great expectations for this project to
contribute to the understanding of physical disease and mental disorders. Genetic methods include
selective breeding and behavior genetics. Psychologists now face the challenge of finding theoretical
frameworks that successfully integrate the biological foundations of psychology and research in genetics
and neuroscience with the wealth of psychological theories that explore the influences of the environment
and experiences on human psychology.