Principles of Tree Improvement

Basic Ideas of Tree Improvement: Tree improvement Tree genetics (Forest genetics) 
variation in flowers (Hunsoor Teak, Kiravatti Teak) Tree Breeding  Applied
science Tree Improvement  Improving the characters Deals with improving yield
using genetics and breeding. Tree Genetics Deals with genetics study of forest
tree such as understanding genetic control of character, assessment of variation
with respect to character, determining genetic diversity of a population,
understanding genetic and evolutionary relationship among different species of
trees. It is essentially a kind of basic science. Forest Tree Breeding Refers to
activities that are geared to solve specific problem and to produce a desirable
end product. Eg. Developing lines with specific wood quality etc. It is essential
an applied science. Forest Tree Improvement Is a combination of all tree breeding
skills with forest management skills. It is a hybrid science where forest
management is clubbed with controlling tree parentage. Basic Objectives or overall
goals Production of desired quality product in maximum amount in the shortest
period of time at a reasonable cost. Camptothecin active ingredient in
Acuminata(0.03) Mappia is rich source(1%) but in China Camptotheca

Steps in Tree improvement programme 1. Determination of the species or geographic

source within a species that should be used in a given area. 2. A determination of
amount, kind and cause of variability within a species. 3. Packaging of desired
qualities into improved individuals such as to develop trees with combinations of
desired characteristics 4. Mass producing improved individuals for reforestation
or commercial purposes. 5. Developing and maintaining a genetic base population
broad enough for the needs of advanced generation.
Step 1: The problem of which species to start with is unique to tree improvement
because most of the forest tree species are not genetically improved. Sustained
commercial importance of a species, sustained product profile of a species and
future projection of the same need to be consider before selecting a species for
genetic improvement since, genetic improvement activities may take long number of
years. Which geographic source Malaria -----drug cinchona Cinchona rergeriana
Bolivia “Peru”Peruvian bark While developing varieties for different agroclimatic
zones use of right kind of geographic source is very important. The source from
which planting material was developed should be match with the target area where
commercial planting can be taken up. Variation in tree species are influenced by
both genetic aspects and environmental factors. Assessing quantitatively the
amount of genetic and environment component of variation is an important step.
Much of the techniques in tree improvement address these issues. In tree
improvement programmes using hybridization and vegetative propagation of the
hybrid has been successful in few species. Through artificial hybridization has
several advantages it is a difficult proposition in tropical broad leaved species
such as teak. For this reason a tree breeders major it for commercial plantation.
Vegetative propagation or tissue culture provides quick and large genetic gain and
are employed for mass multiplication. In species where tissue culture is not
possible development of seed orchard, development of seed production areas can be
used to multiply genetical improved material. Maintenance of large genetic base
and conserving genes in breeding programmes is an important step. This step is
missing in many earlier tree improvement programme because of that valuable
genetic resources have been lost. Approaches of tree improvement programme 1.
Market oriented approach 2. Farmer oriented approach There are two approaches for
the genetic improvement of tree species Market oriented approach High input and
output situations where genotypes that provide best quality material, fertilizer
responsive, irrigation responsive are focused. Farmer oriented approach Genotypes
can be developed that will grow satisfactorily on a land which is currently
marginal. Strains of trees withstand biotic and abiotic stresses are developed.
Phases of a Tree Improvement 1. Research (Developmental) Phase 2. Operational
(production) Phase Every successful tree improvement programme has two phases, the
first one relates to obtaining an immediate genetic gain by intensively applying
principles of genetics to get a desired product.
The second phase consist of improvements for the long term sustenance of genetic
gain. 1. Research ( Developmental ) phase Survey and exploration of variation,
selection of suitable types, standardization of hybridization, building broad
genetic phase etc. are taken up. The major objective of this phase to combining
the desired characteristics into one line and to retain broad genetic phase. 2.
The operational phase focuses on production of improved material in a shortest
period of time and the distribution to the public. Advantages of Tree Improvement
1. One major advantage of genetic improvement of forest tree is that once change
is obtained it can be kept over a number of generations. As against this, if an
improvement is made through silviculture they will have to be done every rotation.
This quality of permanence of genetic improvement reduces recurring cost of tree
production. 2. Most of the forest stands show a great amount of genetic
variability which needs to be identified, isolated and multiplied for operation
level planting. 3. Genetic improved material develop through selection can be kept
intact for indefinite time period through the methods of vegetative propogation.
Limitations of Tree Improvement 1. Difficulties associated with longevity of the
tree 2. Size- which creates problem in measurement, management, seed collection
and crossing etc. 3. Slow generation time- Poor juvenile to adult association
specialy for growth characteristics. 4. Availability of seed with known or desired
genetic background is frequent problem 5. Lack of knowledge about biology of tree
species is often a big problem. 6. Another major problem is permanence of
organization and movements of research personnel. When did the tree improvement
started? MesopotamiaDate palm (Dioceous) First civilization Controlled
pollination to maintain parentage. Coorge  mandeling  orange ( now maintained
by IIHR) 1. The cartiest evidence for controlling parentage in tree species is
depicted in bas-relief in the palace of Nimrod on the east bank of Tigri river
(current day Iraq) this relief portrays the act of a winged god pollinating the
date palm with a specially selected male tree. The belief is that it increases the
yield and improves the quality of date palm. In this religious practice selection
of a male parent and controlling the parentage of the offspring can be seen.
Chanakya, the prime minister of Chandragupta Maurya, has mentioned in his
Arthashastra that 18 variation of sandal wood categorized based on aroma and
colour of wood. This is perhaps first record of geographi variation or provenance
variation in a tree species.
Chronology of Tree Improvement (Tree Genetics) :

Year
1717 1761 1840 1905 1909 1918 1930 1935 1976

Scientist
Bradley Koehreuter De-Vilmorin Dengler Johanssen Sylven Larsen Nilson-Ehle Hyun

Country
England Germany France Germany Sweden Sweden Denmark ----------Korea

Contribution
Importance of seed origin in trees First plant hybridization Hybrids in Fir
Provenance test for Fir Recognized Elite Stands Seed orchard Controlled
pollination in Larch Triploid Aspen Interspecific hybrid of Pine

Kedarnath  Teak Improvement Kyushu Terminology used in Tree Improvement :  

Progeny: Tree produced from seed of a tree is called its progeny. Family
Individuals that are more closely related to each other to other individuals in a
population. Generally this term is applied to denote individuals who have one or
more parent common Half sib family Full sib family

Sibblings : A group of individuals within a family are called siblings. The group
related siblings with only one parent common is called half sib family. A group of
related individuals when both the parents are common are called full sib family.
Open pollinated family: When siblings are raised from seeds of a cross pollinated
trees the family is called as open pollinated family. Theoretically it is a
mixture of both full sib and half sib. How ever for all practical purposes open
pollinated family is considered as half sib family. Population: The term
population is loosely used in tree improvement to designate a group of
interbreeding individuals of a species.

Vegetative Propagation:
1. To maintain genotype/ uniformity 2. Faster growth 3. Early flowering Uses of
vegetative Propagation 1. General uses in forestry 1. Preservation of genotypes
through the use of clone banks 2. Multiplication of desired genotypes for special
uses such as seed orchards or breeding orchards. 3. Evaluation of genotypes and
their interaction with the environment through clonal testing. 4. Capture of
maximum ‘genetic gain’ in operational planting programmes. 5. Accelerating
reproduction cycle for faster breeding and testing. 6. Development of *Arboreta
for scientific studies. 7. Use of vegetative *propagules for operational planting.

The ‘donor tree or mother tree’ from which vegetative propugules have been taken
is called ortet. Individuals propugules derived from an ortet are called ramet. A
group of ramets derived from one donor tree (ortet) is called a clone. Hence only
clone can be derived from one ortet.

In tree improvement tree stand is synonymously used to designate a population. 6.

Race Groups of populations that generally interbreed with one another and that
intergrades more or less continuously are called races
Many kinds of races are recognized a) Elevational races b) Geographic races-
synonymously used as Provenance. c) Edaphic races d) Climatic races 7. Native Vs
Exotic Grenet- Seed originated plant or propagule originated from a seed. An
exotic spp is the one which is grown out of its natural geographic range. Ex.
Himalayan Chirpine grown in Karnataka is exotic. Defining a native species is
difficult because of connotation to political boundary. Ex. Chirpine is native to
India but exotic to Karnataka. A species growing well within its historical
natural range is native species. 8. Item a. No. of characteristics considered to
explain b. Pattern of variation c. Cause of variation d. Uses Cline One trait at a
time Continuous Mostly environmental Mostly used for purpose not for breeding
Ecotype Several traits Distinct or Discontinues Mostly genetically based because
of natural selection Used as both descriptive and breeding purpose.

Variation in natural Stands: Stand Population of tree species Cohart= similar age
trees Forester are exceptionally fortunate to work with a pool of high natural
variability. If the selection in natural stands to be successful it is necessary
to identify and quantify variations due to 1. Age ( Developmental cause) 2.
Genetic make up 3. Environmental causes. From the view point of tree improvement
variation due to genetic causes are very important. Unfortunately there is no
simple method of estimating variations due to genetic and environmental causes.
Experience over years has suggested that first a determination of amount and kind
of variability should be done correctly. For this a sampling method called “Nested
sampling method” should be used. A nested sampling method/procedure involve
determination of
variability i.e. due to province effect, site effect, due to stand and ultimate to
individual trees hence it is necessary to understand the nature of variation in
the following levels. 1. Geographic variation ( Provinance variation) 2. Variation
between sites within a provenance 3. Variation between stands within site 4.
Variation among individuals within a stand 5. Variation within individuals. The
study of natural variation of a given species should start with the determination
of geographic differences (Provinance variation) and then variation might be
present in lesser categories. Knowledge of where the bulk of variation present
will help in the developmental of specific traits. It is necessary to understand
features associated with different levels of variation and their utility in tree
improvement. 1. Geographic Variation Genetically controlled differences are often
large, specially for adoptability traits. Knowledge and use of geographic
variation within species is key for success of tree improvement. 2. Variation
between(among) sites within a provinance Most of the variations are not
genetically fix and only represent the effect of varied environment. Not very
useful for tree improvement programme. Ex. Bole characteristics of tree species in
a coastal site will be crooked and bent due to constant wind action/pressure.
Although the progenies may show clear and straight bole when grown inland. 3.
Variation between stands within a site. The genetic differences are usually, small
usually stand to stand differences are small even though they are genetically
controlled and hence can be conveniently ignored. Stand to stand variation is also
contributed by past history of logging 4. Variation among individuals within a
stand. This is one of important level of variation because plus tree
identification in a natural stand has shown that individual tree difference with
respect to quality traits and resistance traits are largely genetically
controlled. In general, most economic characters show variation between
individuals and hence it has special value in tree improvement. An exception among
forest tree species which does not show large variation between individuals is
Pinus resinosa (red pine) 5. Variation within a tree occurs for few
characteristics such as leaf size, wood quality, fruit set, parent etc. This is an
important level from the viewpoint of sampling Within tree variation is important
because it influences the types of measurement and position of sampling for sound
comparison of individuals.

Provenance Site Stands individuals Within individuals

Wood specific gravity(%) 15 5 0 70 10

Cold tolerance (%) 70 0 0 30 --

In general provenance variation and tree to tree variation accounts for bulk of
genetic variation found in natural stand. As shown by Zobel in pine variation for
wood specific gravity which is an economically important trait 70% total variation
is found among individuals. While most of variation for cold tolerance which is an
adoptive trait is found between provenances. Hence while sampling for maximizing
genetic variation appropriate corrections could be made to sample either more
provenance or more individuals within a stand based on characteristic of interest.
Variation in pedigree Stand: Half sib families or full sib families when grown as
tree stand known as pedigree stand. Since the genetic relatedness among family is
known, we can estimate genetic parameters of particular trait. Hence phenotypic
variation can be divided into genetic and environmental components only when
pedigree stands are available. For a long term tree improvement programme it is
essential that pedigree stands are developed and maintained. MUTATION Gene flow
fragmentation Mutation
Tree stand

Natural selection

Forces that increase variation

F
Gene base

Forces that narrows down genetic variation

Gene flow

Genetic Drift

All variations in natural stand has occurred because of natural forces. It is

important to recognize forces that increase or decrease the genetic base of a
population to understand and mange natural variation. The above schematic diagram
represents four forces that influence the genetic base of population 1. Mutations
are ultimate source of variation for any natural variation. They are sudden
heritable change in an organism at the level of gene. Today mutations are
deleterious to the organism. The range of variation that we see an organism is a
result of fixation of useful mutation in the population. 2. Gene flow (Gene
migration) Migration of genes or alleles from one population to another population
can occur through natural process of cross pollination or through seed dispersal.
In certain cases gene flow can occur between two species through the process of
“introgression” introgression leads to inter specific hybridization. We can
utilize the concept of gene flow in tree improvement.
Ex. Pinus jefferii and P.coulteri are two major species of pine. Jefferii is
silviculturally better performing and susceptible to *pine weevil where as
coulteri is resistance to pine weevil because of thick bark but has poor
performance. An inter specific hybrid has been created which has been backcrossed
with jefferii to create a new line with weevil resistance. 3. Natural selection It
is a strong natural force which reduces genetic variation, because it is
directional (selection of best fit) but it is a slow process and often difficult
to measure in short time period. 4. Genetic drift Is a complex mechanism that
operates through chance fluctuations as a result of natural calamities and leads
to unpredictable changes in gene frequencies. It is non directional and can lead
to severe loss of genetic variation. In addition to the natural forces many
changes in genetic variation can be brought about by human beings. Dysgenic
selection is defined as a process of selection (human beings) where best genotypes
are removed (killed) and poor once are left for reproduction. This process
ultimately skews the gene frequencies to cause loss of best alleles. “No matter
how sophisticated breeding methods, the largest, the cheapest and the fastest
gains in TIP are obtained by the use of “right kind of seed source” -Zobel 1980
Provenance: Denote the original geographic area from which seeds or other
propagule are obtained. Seed source is the immediate source from which seeds or
other propagules are collected. However they need not be original native origin.
Some scientist use these terms synonymously. Identifying , delineating the
provenance variation to match the breeding objectives is an important area of
research in tree improvement programmes. A reliable provinance is the one which
produces a descent crop with 90% probability rather than producing an outstanding
crop only 50% of the times *Geographic race is a sub division of species
consisting of genetically similar individuals and they are related by common
descent and occupying a particular territory to which it is became adopted by
natural selection. *Racial Development it is important to recognize the conditions
in which racial developments takes place rapidly, because such areas can be
focused for sampling fine scale sampling for genetic variations. 1. Species
growing in wide altitudinal range generally develop more races. Eucalyptus species
in Australia show higher racial difference than the plains of Brazil. 2. Species
that are growing in diverse soil, soil moisture, and aspect. 3. Species that are
growing in diverse environment over a large latitudinal range. Land Race Is a
population of introduced individuals that has become adopted specific environment
in which it has been planted. In other words, a group of best adopted individuals
with desirable growth and form of specific land races can also give quicker and
large genetic gains in exotic forestry. EXOTIC FORESTRY:
Advantage of exotics in forestry: 1. Exotic species more uniform, easy to handle
silvicultural and the products are known and accepted. Every exotic species have a
reliable market. As against these tropical hardwood forest specieses are variable,
non-uniform, difficult to manage ecologically. The products are not consistent
with respect to demand. 2. Exotics have been subjected to genetic improvement,
they have short rotation period, high adoptability. ( to moisture stress) As
against this tropical hardwood specieses are not very well adopted to drier
regions, if adopted they are very slow growers. 3. Exotics are suited for
intensive management and plantation culture, many indigenous species cannot be
grown on plantation scale because of a. Non- availability of seeds b. Unknown seed
biology c. Unknown parentage 4. Wood quality of many of the exotics is very well
understood and suitable for industrial applications. Many of tropical hardwood
species have not at been worked for industrial purpose. Problems of exotic
forestry 1. Immediate failure of plantation of introduced species. 2. Delayed
failure which is a common problem among exotics for following reasons. a. There is
good survival and growth in initial years but plantation develops into useful
forest. This often occurs because of planting a high latitude species or high
altitude species in lower regions. b. There is a good survival and growth of
introduced species but the wood is not suitable for purpose to which was planted.
c. Exotics show good initial survival and growth but there is a delayed by a pest.
i. A previously unknown pest/disease may affect plantation ii. A known pest of
native region of exotic may become important in introduced plantation. iii.
Previously uneconomical pest may become an important economic pest/ disease. 3.
The major problem of exotics is continued substandard performance finally the
growth of introduced species may be hindered due to a shortage and absence of a
suitable mycorhiza. This has been major problem can be overcome by the use of
habitat soil in the growing media. Broad generalization for Exotic Introduction.
1. Do not move the species/ provenances from Mediterranean climate to continental
climate. It is some what safer to move sources from continental to near coastal
regions. 2. Do not move provenances/ species from areas of uniform climate with
small fluctuation with respect to rainfall and temperature, to those areas with
severe and large fluctuations.
3. Do not move provenances/ species from higher elevation or high latitude to
areas of lower elevations or lower latitudes and vice-versa. Sometimes sources of
higher elevations in lower latitude can be moved to areas of lower elevation of
higher altitudes and vice – versa. LATITUDE HIGH LOW

HIGH NILGIRI LOW

NORTH INDIA

4. Do not plant provenances/species originating from basic soil on to acidic soil

and vice versa. This rule also holds good for sand to clayey and clayey to sand
condition. 5. It is safe to move a provenance up to elevation of 300m or 160 km
latitude. Selection methods 1. Mass Selection or individual selection. Unit of
Selection – Individual Criteria – Performance (phenotype) of that individual. Mass
selection involves choosing individuals based on their phenotypic characteristics
(without regarding any information on performance of sibs or relatives). This is
the most often a staring point for tree improvement of wild species. This can be
practiced in both natural forest and plantations. However mass selection is rarely
followed in those plantations where pedigree is known. This method works very well
for those characteristics which have high heritability. 2. Selection through
progeny testing. Progeny testing involve selection of parent trees based up on the
performance of their progeny. This is precise method of selection. This is also a
ultimate way of selecting an individual selection for low heritable characters can
also be made very effective. This method allows direct estimation of breeding
values of individuals. However this is not a very popular method of selection in
initial period of tree improvement programme. It takes a lot of time for
evaluating progenies. 3. Sib selection. Is a form selection in which individuals
are chosen based on the performance of their sibling and not based on their own
performance. In situations where destructive harvesting is must for measuring an
economic trait (such as heartwood oil content) this sib
selection is adopted. However this method of selection is used in forestry because
of destructive sampling. Here the unit of selection is part of the family criteria
for selection is performance of sib. 4. Family selection Involves choise of entire
family on the basis of their phenotypic mean. There is no selection of individuals
within a family. This method is adopted only when we have either half sib or full
sib family structures. Family selection is itself is not used in forestry because
of increased inbreeding due to rejection of entire families. Family selection best
even for low heritable traits because we are considering average performance which
minimizes environmental variation. 6. within family selection Here individuals are
chosen on the basis of their deviation from family mean and family value percent,
family means are not given any weightage. Individuals performing better from poor
performing families are selected. This method increases the genetic variability in
breeding population and gives slowest rate of inbreeding. 6. Family and within
family selection This is two stage selection method which involves firstly,
selection of family based on average value followed by selection of individuals
based on mean deviation. It consists of choosing best families and best
individuals within them. It is predominant method of selection most of the tree
improvement programmes. As a refinement of this method ‘combined selection method’
is used in which an index is completed by giving different weightages to family
mean and individuals performance. This works well even for characteristics with
low heritability. Selection methods based on number of characters. In most of the
improvement programmes several traits are considered simultaneously for
improvement however each of these trait may have different importance, may have
different heritability. Further when introduced species should adapt well to the
new area and survive. Then only improvement of other economic trait can be
considered. Based on number of character considered and the sequence of selection.
Three methods are as follows . 1. Tandom selection 2. independent culling 3.
selection index 1. In tandom selection, breeding for one trait is done at time
until a desirable level of improvement is achieved which is followed by breeding
for other economically important traits. When exotic species is introduced
survival and adoptability is tested and achieved or certain level of pest and
disease resistance is achieved which then followed breeding for economically
important traits. 2. Minimum standard values are set for every trait and all those
individuals which meet this minimum criteria will be selected and others are
culled or rejected. Vigour 1 Bole 2 Wood density 4 Pest/disease 3
3. selection index is a kind of multi trait selection system that combines the
information on all trees into a index value. This helps the breeds to assign a
total score to a individual and rank them. Generally a trait with high economic
importance will be given more weightage ( vigour). Those characteristics such as
wood density given lower weightage. Apart from the economic weights, heritability
of a character is also considered while giving the weights. Construction of
selection index itself is an important job which uses multiple regression
techniques. In most of the improvement programme selection of trees through
selection index is being followed. Selection Methods:

Un improved wild plantation Uneven aged stands Even aged stands Objective of a
selection propramme is to obtain significant amounts of genetic gain as quickly
and as inexpensively as possible while at the same time maintaining a broad
genetic base, selection is the key part of all tree improvement programme. The
gain obtained from the selection depends on the quality of parent material. A
number of selection methods are available to a tree improvement. Based on the
pedigree information we have and urgency of selection different methods could be
adopted while initiating a tree improvement progamme, selection can be applied in
two contrasting situation. 1. Even aged stand/ plantation-raised from seeds of
unknown parentage. 2. Un even aged wild stands which are often growing with
associated species. There are several advantages in selecting in even aged stands.
1. Breeds can be sured that age will not differ greatly among trees. 2. Relative
expression of growth rate, bole form, disease/pest tolerance will not be
confounded with the effect of age. 3. Most of the times in a plantation tree are
growing under competitive situations which are similar to commercial plantation.
4. By adopting comparison tree method trees considered for selection or graded the
best available trees in stand. Which result in highest genetic gain. Candidate
Tree A tree that has been considered for grading because of its desirable
phenotypic traits but that has not yet been graded or tested. These trees are also
called as ‘pre select’ trees. Plus Trees It is also called as ‘select
tree/superior tree’. It is a tree that has been recommended for further breeding
work for seed orchard etc. following the process of grading and testing. It has
superior phenotypic with respect to growth, form, wood quality, resistance etc. at
the phenotypic level. However it has not been tested for its genetic worth. Elite
Tree Is a term reserved for select trees that have proven to be genetically
superior by means of progeny testing. It is ultimate winner in a selection
programme. It is most desire kind of tree for mass production of seeds/ vegetative
propagules. Selection of an elite tree may take ¼ to ½ rotation period.
Comparison/ check Tree While grading a candidate tree many trees are chosen as
comparison trees which are locoted in the same stand and are of same age.
Candidate trees are compared with these check tree for their superiority.
Guidelines For Locating Plus Tree In Even Aged Stand Or Plantation: 1. search for
plus trees should be concentrated on plantation that have better growth,
straightness and other economic traits which are of interest to breeder. In other
words from among different plantations available, selection should 2. Plantation,
in which trees are selected, should be located on the same variety of sites where
commercial plantations will be established from the improved seed obtained in
other words, the stand should match with target sites. 3. When selections are made
from plantations, it is better to know seed source from which plantation was
established. However, this information is lack for many plantations. 4. Plantation
should not be too old or too young compared to economic rotation period. In
general should not older than 15 years and younger than 15 years of rotation
period. X 15-------- 30 ---------45X 5. Selection should be made only when the
stands are pure with respect to species composition. Never select in a mixed
species plantation because differential growth rates among species may complicate
selection. 6. Never select in a stand/plantation which was earlier logged. 7.
Preferably only one tree will be selected in a even aged natural stand. This
restriction does not apply to plantation. 8. Always systematic search should be
made to eye-ball and to arrive at the best phenotypically good looking tree. 9.
Always adopt check tree/ comparison tree method while grading. This helps in
minimizing environmental differences and increases the efficiency of selection.
Methods For Plus Tree Selection In Un-Even Aged Or Natural Stands: Three methods Y
I. Regression system of selection II. Mother tree selection G III. Subjective
evaluation/grading i r t h Regression line

X Age The most useful method of tree selection in uneven aged natural stand is the
regression system. It consists of developing a regression curve for growth with
respect to different ages of trees. Using such regression individual trees which
show rapid growth is identified and then select it for further breeding. Following
are the steps involved.
1. Development of tables relating character of interest and age 2. Development of
regression line or graph.

Best Girth (cm)

0 Age (years)

100

3. Identifying trees with rapid growth and then selection. To develop a regression
line data on an age and growth rate should be obtained from 50 trees from every
provenance. Although regression system works well it requires considerable
preliminary work of developing regression equation of every major provenance. To
complicate the situation age cannot be estimated for all the species specially for
those are growing on wet region diffused porous species. II. Mother tree selection
When there is no immediate urgency of selection of good trees this method could be
adopted. It involves the following protocol. 1. locate phenotypically good trees
(about 50) 2. Collect seeds individually from every mother tree and conduct a
progeny trail ( with adopting statistical design with good number of replications
for at least half a rotation period) 3. based on the performance of progeny mother
trees are selected and diploid into seed orchard. The product of mother tree
selection is an elite tree Limitation 1. Time required for mother tree selection
is very long III. Subjective grading system Some persons who are very familiar
with specific species can judge and grade individual trees which are
phenotypically better without a comparison or check tree method. Based on
expertise of the grades subjective grading method results in moderately good
genetic gains. In the absence of pludged tree improvement programme, this method
can be adopted to get quick gains.
Simple Recurrent Selection:

Step I Natural stand X X X X X X X X X X X X Generation ‘0’ New base

O O O

O O O

O O O

O O O

Generation 1

As suggested in recurrent selection many cycles of selection and interbreeding

among selected individuals is followed. Recurrent selection is followed in those
species which have less rotation period, easy to make artificial cross
pollination, those industrial important and for those characteristic which have
low heritability. Steps 1. Selection of superior phenotype from natural stand or
plantation 2. collection of seeds from selected individuals and establishing new
breeding population called generation ‘o’ 3. Again select superior phenotype from
generation ‘o’ and intermate with all selected individuals seeds from such a cross
are selected and bulked to create ‘generation 1’ 4. Repeat selection and
intermating among the selected parents to create ‘generation 2’. It is called as
simple recurrent selection. Reciprocal Recurrent selection;

Indirect Selection Ex. Trunk borer. Trait of interest: resistance trunk borer
Trait of selection: thick bark
For certain characteristics instead of direct selecting it is easier to select
another character which is correlated with it whenever selection is made for a
target character based on another trait which is correlated with then such
selection is called indirect selection. Ex. Selection of resistance to (target)
trunk borer. Based on bark thickness of individual Selection of individual
resistance to pest and diseases in Pine based on ‘Terpine’ content in stem. This
approach is specially valuable in those condition when expression of desired
character is delayed due to development problem or does not occur because of lack
of environment. (pest & diseases occurrence) Condition For Successful Operation of
Indirect Selection: 1. There must be a highly co-related character that can be
easily measured with the target trait. 2. Heritabilty of target and selected trait
should be high. 3. The variability for selected trait should be as good as or
better than variability of the target trait. Mass Production of Improved material:
The apllied aspect of tree improvement consist of development of improved trees
followed by mass production of improved material. No tree improvement programme
will be successful in the absence of a proven mass production technique. Every
tree improvement programme must have a seed production programme at some stage of
their development. If this is not achieved the fruits of tree improvement
programme will not reach commercial sector and tree improvement programme will
reach at genetic dead-end. The most difficult problem related to the seed
production for an operation level programme is to determine amount of seeds
needed. The best approach is to plant and produce 30% more seeds than the current
requirement. All organizations must give at least 3 year of supply seeds in
advance. 1. Meeting the immediate needs a. seeds from superior stand b. seeds from
superior provenance or stands c. see production area (SPA) 2. Meeting the long
term needs Several methods can be obtained genetically improved seed for
commercial sector. In those species which have become commercially important in
the near past ‘interim’ methods have been adopted to get immediate genetic gain.
Following three methods can be adopted. a. Seeds from superior individual
identified or in the plantations. b. Seeds from good stands or proven provenances.
c. Seeds from seed production areas. a. This is available approach for immediate
from wild or stand. Mark the tree and collect the seeds from them. Seed collection
is done during the logging time. Genetic characters are considered for limb (bole)
characteristics. Not > 5-10 trees for acre, 12-25 trees/ha will be suitable for
seed collection. b. Seeds from good stands or proven provenance Making mass seed
collections only from the best stands (plus stands). If the results of the
provenance trail are already available. Large quantity of seeds quickly obtained
from proven provenance and can be released as improved material. In many species,
seeds obtained from good provenance have given better results.
c. Seed production Areas:

SPA: is a stand i.e. generally upgraded and opened by removal of undesirable trees
and managed for early and abundant seed production. Seed production areas are also
called as ‘seed stands’ Three important features of SPA: 1. Seeds collected from
SPA will have better genetic qualities with respect to adoptability, bole and
crown characteristics and pest resistance when compared to seeds from commercial
collections. 2. SPA’s are reliable sources of well adopted seeds at modest costs.
3. When SPA’s are established in natural stand the geographic origins of parent
trees is known hence it has a greater value than the commercial collections 4.
Very rarely seed production areas are progeny tested Specification for Seed
Production Area: 1. The plantation should be nearly full stocked 2. They should be
never logged earlier 3. Individual trees must have sufficient crown area so that
they can yield large ‘seedcrop’ 4. The plantation should not be too old or too
young. In case of Pine, it should be between 20-30 years. In case of Eucalyptus 4-
5 years, teak 30-40 years. 5. A minimum of 10 acres or 4 ha should be size of
stand. 6. generally 50 trees per acre or 125 per hectare are retained
(Phonotypicaly superior) 7. For most species an isolation zone or pollen dilution
zone should be maintained. Selection of Trees for SPA’s: 1. The tree should have
high level of vigour, straight good bole formation, free from insect pest and
disease attack 2. No tree below the standard will be retained regardless of
spacing. 3. The tree should have good crown structure and released for full
sunlight. Thinning of SPA: Timing and caution are at most importance when removing
undesirable phenotypes from SPA. Timing is important because it determines when
the SPA is going to produce the
I-commercial seed crop. Generally it requires at least 3 years for abundant seed
production after thinning. Caution should be taken while thinning not to damage
the retained individuals at any cost. Management of SPA 1. Removal of logging
residues. It is required to minimize the risk of fire hazard and to make SPA’s
more accessible reduce building up of pest and disease, some times necessary
collect the fallen seed crop 2. Spraying of pesticides to reduce the risk of
attack on seed crop. (weevils). Timing of spray should be such that it should not
interfere with insect pollination. 3. Application of fertilizers to induce heavy
flowering and increased fruit set. 4. Development of fire line (10m) 5. Careful
removal of canopy to induce lateral growth of branches and expose of flowering
branches to the sunlight. Harvesting of seeds from SPA’s Among SPA’s some are
considered as semi permanent when an SPA is established before the economic
felling of the plantation, under such circumstances harvesting is done along with
a logging. Permanent SPA’s are those which are managed year after year for seed
production. In these permanent SPA’s harvesting should be done carefully not to
affect the future seed production and generally tree shakers are used. In tropical
area harvesting is done with climbing crews. (People) Seed Orchards: Seed orchard
is a plantation of selected clones or progenies which is isolated and managed to
reduce pollination from outside sources and managed to produce frequent, abundant
and easily harvested seed crops. Objective of Seed orchard: The basic of
assumption of establishing seed orchard is that there will be exchange of gamets
among selected superior parents only. Because of isolation and in the process the
resulted progeny will yield good genetic gains. Objectives: 1. To get genetically
superior progenies in abundant quantities year after year. 2. In case of bio
clonal orchards, production of hybrid seeds is also achieved. 3. In case of
seedling seed orchards establishment of seed orchard genetic testing of parent can
also be done. 4. Many a time’s seed orchards act as repositories of elite clonal
material. Types of Seed orchards 1. clonal seed orchard 2. Seedling seed orchard
3. Evolving seed orchard
Clonal seed orchard 1. Type of planting material used for Establishment of clonal
origin (vegetative propagated) 2. Genetic similarity with planting material
(ortet) 100% Similar due to veg.prop 3. Genetic diversity of orchard depends on
number of clones used however always lesser than seedling seed orchard.
4.Magnitude of genetic gain obtained will be larger in C.S.O 5. Opportunity for
inbreeding is more because a genotype occurs more than once in C.S.O 6. Time of
first flowering much shorter 7. Combining establishment of orchard and genetic
testing of the parentsNot possible, a separate and concurrent genetic testing of
parent need to be undertaken 8. Problems with the conversion of progeny test plot
into a seedling seed orchard

seedling seed orchard seed materialGenet

50% similar because of open pollination in the wild Larger than C.S.O

Less than C.S.O Inbreeding possibilities are minimum because of the seed origin of
planting material Period is larger It is possible to club both provided orchard
establishment is done in isolation and suitable designs are adopted

1. Establishment of progeny testing plot should be undertaken in an area which is

more suitable for flower and fruit production. 2. Following genetic rouging large
space occur and hence uniform spacing is not maintained. 3. Since commercial
spacing is adopted while establishing progeny test plot, silviculture thinning of
plots is necessary to increase spacing between individual trees in order to
encourage profuse flowering. 3. Evolving seed orchard: These are essentially seed
orchard upgraded with newly identified clones in those places where previous
clones have been genetically rouged because of their poor performance in progeny
testing. In ESO, comparison of clones keeps changing as and when genetic test data
is obtained and newer plus tree are identified. 4. Bioclonal hybrid seed orchard
As name suggests, CSO consist of two most superior clones grown to encourage
random mating between the clones to get desirable hybrid seeds. Since most of the
tree species are self incompatible. Seeds collected from either of the parents is
a truly hybrid seed. While selecting the clones for hybrid seed orchard testing
for their high specific combining ability (SCA) is must.
Seed Orchard generations: I-generation seed orchard usually results from selection
of superior individual from natural stands or unimproved plantation adopting of
parent trees are not known. II-generation S.O are advanced generation seed orchard
is established from obtaining planting material from I-generation S.O based
progeny test data. Genetic gain obtained from II-generation S.O is much larger
than first. Some scientist erroneously refer to 1.5 generation orchard to
designate a clonal seed orchard which has been genetically rouged, essentially
they are highly improved first generation seed orchard. Seed orchard location: It
is crucial to have an ideal location for the establishment of seed orchard
considering following 1. Climate should be congenial for insect activity during
flowering. Most of commercial trees like teak flowers during rainy season. 2.
Topography : location should be flat and easily accessible and minimizing soil
work 3. Soils: Soils with good drainage, medium depth and moderate levels of
nutrition are highly preferred since they encourage profuse flowering. Highly
fertile soils often delay the onset of first flowering. 4. Water supply should not
be a problem in the location 5. Areas with known pest and disease hot spot should
not be selected. 6. Pollen dilution zone and isolation distance. The orchard must
be located in a location which is completely free from outside pollen grain. A
dilution zone of 150 m for Pines and 500m for Teak should be maintained. 7.
Location should be such that, there not be destructive animal problem material and
availability of labour should be good. Seed orchard Size: Ideally seed orchard
size depends on the demand for quality planting material and seed set percent and
seed size of the species availability of land. 2ha -------minimum size----Pine 2-
3ha-----Eucalyptus 20ha------Teak Seed orchard management: Seed orchard management
is a complex protocol varies with respect to species, location of orchard,
condition encountered in a year. Broad thumb rules are given below. 1. Seed
management: Soil texture management to increase drainage, nutrient availability
and reduce root parasites is a must. During early stages of seed orchard
development measures to increase soil fertility by growing soil enriching plant.
Ex. Velvet bean 2. Seed Orchard fertilization: Based upon soil analysis, foliar
application or soil amendments are to maintain plant vigour and to promote
flowering. Application of nitrogen and phosphorous has promoted flowering and
fruit set in many heartwood species. Maintaining optimum soil pH by application of
lime is one of the most important aspect to increase nutrient availability.
3. Irrigation: To protect and to promote early growth is must. Once the orchard
reaches flowering stage moisture conservation measures could be taken up. 4. Pest
problem: Eradicating pest from seed orchard is a must. To obtain economically
feasible seed crop control of orchard pest is a must. Seed Orchard Management:
Main objective of seed orchard is to produce abundant quantity of seeds.
Improvement in the genetic quality of seed crop is ensured only when there is
random pollination among clones specific seed orchard designs are adopted. Seed
Orchard Design: Is layout of allocation of every ramet of clone in a orchard
designs are complicated and generated through computer such that no two ramets of
the same clone are planted side by side. There are more than 200 designs are
available based on number of clones used in a orchard. The simplest is randomized
block design in which number of ramets per clone and total number of clones are
equal. Ex. If 24 clones are used they will be replicated in 24 times and every row
is a block.

Ramets of diff clones

- - - - 24 25 Block The only condition laid out while planting is that the ramets
of same clone should not be the neighbor. 2. Completely randomized Design 3.
Moving Circle design

2 3

4 -

Is a computer generated design with no block but it ensure that neighbouring

ramets are always from two different clones Management Practice that increase
flowering: 1. Spacing Teak-------5-6 mt between ramets and rows
2. Bole management Topping –to get more flowers. In a seed orchard trees are
managed to increase their flowering branches, canopy depth such that good amount
seeds can be collected per individual. For this even though the clones are derived
from superior phenotypes of clean bole ramets in an orchard often looks acquard
with respect to bole structure. 3. Fertilization: N/P 4. Creating Stress Creating
abiotic stress such as drought during flowering induction period increases
intensity of flowering. 5. Growth regulators Foliar spray of GA2/7, paclobutrozol
it is xylem compatible floweriegen. Micronutrients—also induce. 6. Girdling
Partial girdling of flowering branches can be practiced to increase flowering. Ex.
Pine 7. Soil Working around tree Partial disturbance of a root system increases
growth regulator concentration endogenously there by increasing flowering. Seed
Orchard Records: Seed orchard record provide a history of all the management
practices Such as they identify genetic material, graft compatibility, etc. which
are of high importance in genetic up gradation of orchards. Two types of records
are maintained. I. Those related to orchard as a unit such as a. Irrigation and
fertilization—Frequency of irrigation, kinds of fertilization, date of
fertilization. b. Sub soiling work c. Protective sprays for insect and disease
control d. Date and type of pruning e. Rouging and thinning f. General condition
of orchard with respect to weather condition, frost, drought heavy rain etc. g.
Incidence of wild animals II. Those related individual clones and trees. a. Method
and date of propagation b. Degree of graft compatibility c. Flowering- Time of
first flower - Intensity of flowering - Date of pollen shed and female
respectivity. d. Fruit production and germinability - Amount of seeds production -
Date of seed production e. Susceptibility to pest and diseases f. Special
instruction for individual handling of ramets.
Research Seed Orchard/ Clone bank. A research seed orchard or a clonal bank is
established to generate academic information on important clones with respect to
their resistance characters, drought tolerance, wood quality parameters etc. a
small number of clones 10-15 clones are maintained by planting 5-6 ramets each at
a closer spacing to facilitate handing of flowers etc. experiment hybridization is
also followed. They form important set of germ plasm for further breeding purpose.
Contained Seed Orchard Are practiced in temperate countries where all the ramets
of all clone are grown in large pots and maintain under controlled condition of
green house. Every ramet clone can be moved to any position to facilitate
artificial hybridization. Commercial important such as Nutmeg which is dioecious
in nature are employed in containerized seed orchard. Hybrids in Forest trees:
Hybrid: is offspring of crossing between genetically dissimilar parents of the
same genus. In case of forest tree species, the term hybrid is referred to the
product of a cross between two related species. In forestry, a hybrid is always an
‘interspecific hybrid’ ex., hybrid of 1. Acacia mangium X Acacia auriculiformis
Fast, heart rot crooked, resistance 2. Pinus coulteri X Pinus jeffereyi Slow,
resistant to weevil fast, susceptible 3. Loblolly pine X long leaf pine 4.
Eucalyptus spp. In case of forestry hybrids have been exploited to combine
desirable characteristics of two related species into one offspring. ex., Acacia
mangium X Acacia auriculiformis heart wood resistance is combined with good girth.
Pine—Resistance to pine weevil is combined with better growth. Loblolly pine—
Resistance fusiform rust long leaf---faster Development of artificial hybrids is
tedious and time consuming effort. It is rather hit-or-mis approach. When
hybridization is done between two parent a great variability is produced among
offspring it is upto the tree breeder to select the desirable combination of
characteristics. Further even if a desirable hybrid is identified mass
multiplication of that individuals to develop planting stocks for operational
level programmes is difficult. For this reason hybrids in forestry are mostly
restricted to natural hybrids. Hybrid Vigour—hetrosis Generally hybrid vogour
refers to superiority of the hybrid over its parents. However not always the
vigour of the F1 hybrid may not be than the parents. Natural Hybrids in Forest
tree species. Prerequisites for natural hybridization 1. Existence of related
species of a genus which show relative degree of compatibility 2. Intergrading
( over lapping of geographical distribution) of one population with other 3.
Overlap of flowering phenology of species 4. Survival and adaptation of natural
hybrids
5. introgression of introgressive hybridization is defined as limited spread of
genetic material from one species into another as a result of hybridization
followed by replicated back crossing of the hybrid and its progeny to one or both
the parents. Introgression has been used as one of the technique artificially
develop hybrid. Making artificial hybrid is not easy. Use of special techniques
such as embryo rescue technique is adopted where in fully developed embryo is
existed from a flower whish is pollinated with pollengrains of related species.
This embryo is then grown under as artificial medium. It is followed in case of 1.
Pinus lamberstiana X Pinus armandii 2. Supplemental mass pollination (SMP)(Hyun)
In Cariya control pollination between Pinus talda X Pinus rigida have been done on
a mass to develop artificial interspecific hybrid (Hyun) Both hand pollination and
SMP are adopted to produce a hybrid Long leaf Pine and Loblolly Pines are also
produced using SMP. 3. A method has been successfully developed to produce hybrid
Eucalyptus in Florida and in Brazil which consist of establishing a orchard of one
species within which individuals of another species are planted and from which
hybrid seeds are collected. Following the development of a hybrid mass production
of planting stocks has to be produced using vegetative propagation or tissue
culture. Only in case of Pine and Eucalyptus hybrid seeds have been used just like
F1 hybrids of agricultural crops. There is no universally accepted nomenclature
for hybrids in forestry. Since the hybrids have general both the parents it is
necessary to represent the species name of the parent. There are 3 broad norms for
naming hybrid. 1. Use of a collective name with the sign X Ex. Pinus X rigida. 2.
Using the names of both the parents. Such as—Pinus rigida X Pinus radiate The
names are alphabetically organized in such a way that the female parent should
come first. 3. Name of the cultivar (hybrid) begins with a capital latter along
with nomenclature followed in to Ex. Pinus (rigida X radiate )= P Cv rigida Why
hybrid production is restricted…? 1. Inability to produce mass produce through
seeds 2. Lack of suitable methods to produce hybrids vegetatively on mass scale 3.
Inability to carry on F1 generation to F2 as in the case of field crop species.
Wood and Tree Improvement: Wood is a biological tissue made of cells (trachieds)
that are composed of lignified cell wall. Quality of wood is highly linked to the
utility or the purpose to which wood is put into. Based on usage number of quality
parameters can be derived. However wood density or wood specific gravity is the
most important property that influences the wood quality in nearly all products.
Wood density/ Sp. Gravity Specific gravity = Weight of a given volume of wood
Weight of an equal volume of water Density = Weight of the wood per unit of
volume. In metric system Kg/m4 In metric system Density = Specific gravity 1000
Specific gravity of wood Influenced by. 1. Cell Size: The specific gravity of wood
increases with number of cells per unit area. Smaller the cell size more number of
cells can accommodate. 2. Cell wall thickness: Larger the cell wall higher will be
the density because of higher cellulose content in the cell wall. 3. Amount of
summer wood: The amount of summer wood which is also called as late wood
contributes density of wood because of their thick cell wall. Hence overall sp.
Gravity of wood will be higher if percentage of summer wood is larger. The amount
of summer wood produced varies in species. Between provenances of species, in some
extent between individuals of a population. Wood specific gravity, tree wood
quality parameter since it influences the yield and quality of product as well as
it is strongly inherited. Juvenile wood vs. mature wood It has been long
recognized that wood properties within an individual. Generally speaking density
of wood from upper canopy will be much lesser compared to the density of wood from
tree bottom. This is because of variation of amount in juvenile wood and matured
wood. Essentially juvenile wood formed when the tree was in juvenile stage and
hence it is nearer to the pith. The mature wood on the other hand is formed when
tree becomes older. The following properties of juvenile wood influence the wood
quality. 1) Juvenile wood has lower specific gravity than matured wood. 2) The
trachieds of juvenile wood are shorter. 3) The juvenile wood is unstable when
dried and shrinks longitudinally. 4) Juvenile wood is weak compared to matured
wood. 5) Because of within tree variations in specific gravity of wood it is very
essential to sample wood from the same height of all individuals to be compared.
Genetic improvement of wood specific gravity 1) Use of variations in specific
gravity across geographic area or provenance selection. Wood specific gravity is
highly heritable and highly influenced by provenance features. Selection of the
right provenance would result in almost 100% genetic improvement. E.g. in Pines,
provenances in northern latitudes have lower density and shorter tracheids than
southern latitudes in America. Further in land provenances have lower specific
gravity than coastal ones. 2) Between individual, variation within a provenance is
lower and hence, individual selection may not be important. 3) Since the trait
shows high within individual variation. Sampling should be done at a constant tree
height. 4) Whenever a tree leans a kind of different wood is formed to strengthen
the tree. These woods are collectively known as reaction wood. The amounts of
reaction wood in individual largely over estimate the density and influence the
uniformity of wood. Further knots associated with branching pattern and canopy is
also influenced by tree form. For this reason genetic improvement of tree form can
lead to more uniform wood specific gravity. Forest Genetic Resources: Resource is
a commodity that can be used for welfare of human society. Genetic resource is a
living organism that has either current or potential use because of its specific
genetic traits. Germ Plasm: Is a material harboring genes for present or future
use. Principles of conservation and utilization Following are the principle steps
in conservation and utilization of forest genetic resource. A forest genetic
resource manager is generally involved in following activities. 1. Exploration of
genetic resource. 2. Collection of genetic resource for evaluation. 3. Evaluation
of genetic resources. 4. Conservation of genetic resource. 5. Utilization of
genetic resources. For practical purpose field activities associated with
exploration can be divided into 1. Botanical exploration 2. Geneocological
exploration 1. Botanical exploration includes correct taxonomic identification of
species, knowledge about its geological distribution specially with respect to
isolated population, phonological information and regarding actual collection. In
gene ecological exploration the entire range of phenotypic variation of a species
are studied pilot basis and a sampling strategy is prepared to make further
collection. 2. In this step small amounts of germplasm are collected from
relatively large number resources covering the entire natural range of species. In
other words, range –wide collection of germplasm is made. Collections are made
from natural population as well as introduced material. 50-75 distinct locations
have to be covered and in each location seed samples of 30 individuals have to be
collected. 3. Evaluation:
establishment of provenance trail aimed at revealing potential useful variability,
degree to which a genotype can adopt to itself and economic value of provenance.
Every step in the provenance trail needs to be followed strictly. 4. Conservation:
Conservation in its practical sence includes preservation and utilization of
genetic resources. Conservation of forest genetic resource is an aspect of
rfesource management which ensure the utilization of resource is sustainable at
the same time safeguarding the genetic diversity essential for the maintenance.
Main strategies of conservation are as follows 1. Conserving ecosystems by
carefully selecting the areas of adequate size with suitable management policies.
That would conserve the all elements of ecosystem. 2. Conservation of rare and
threatened species that require urgent attention. This strategy automatically
incorporated in the first strategy. 3. prevention of genetic erosion or prevention
of depleting genetic variability. Two methods of conservation: 1. In-situ
Conservation – Conservation of species or a provenance as a part of viable, exotic
ecosystem. This is most desirable form of conservation method. In practice
conservation of forest tree genetic resources in-situ, are combined with other
elements of eco system such as charismatic animals. All protected areas-
sanctuaries, national parks, tiger reserves, ecologically sensitive area,
conservation reserves, community reserves, natural heritage sites, biosphere
reserves. 2. Ex-Situ Conservation – Although in-situ conservation is more ideal,
there are instances where in-situ protection is not possible for all the species
because of technical, biological, political or social difficulties. Ex-situ
conservation is especially useful when dealing with certain species that are
amenable for this approach. Ex-situ conservation methods may include the
following. a. Seed Orchard b. Clonal banks c. Conservation stand d. Storage of
seed and other reproductive material. e. Storage of DNA. Under ex-situ
conservation stand, three types exist 1. Static conservation stand- where original
natural stand is duplicated. 2. Evolutionary conservation stand - in which natural
selection is allowed to operate. 3. Selective conservation stand- where gene
frequency in stand are deliberately changed to recover economically important
traits. 5. Utilization: It is the ultimate objective of all activities concerned
with forest genetic resources. It comprises of use of genetic resources to breed
better adopted and economically desirable genotypes. Every step of tree
improvement programs comprises this activity.
Breeding for Insect Pest and Diseases

One of the important objectives in tree improvement is to reduce, manage by

decease and insect pest and to produce genotypes that are particularly suited to
grow under adverse environment. In general following three terms are used to
describe levels of resistance to pest or decease. 1. Immunity- refers to total
lack of any symptom or damage due to the pest. Very rarely immunity is expressed
in forest tree species. 2. Tolerance refers to degree to which a tree can grow
with a pest or decease symptom and still retain its economic value. 3. Resistance-
is a specific term that refers to ability of a specific genotype of the host to
tolerate a specific race of the pest. However, resistance and tolerance are
interchangeably used. While breeding for decease resistance, the following two
terms are used. 1. Horizontal Resistance 2. Vertical Resistance. Vertical
resistance refers to complete resistance of a specific clone to a few of the
disease causing organism or pathogen (clones showing vertical resistance to
certain pathogen are susceptible to other pathogen Horizontal Resistance. In this
type, host genotypes are moderately resistant to a broad range of pathogen races.
The term horizontal and vertical resistance have been coined based on the
graphical illustration for these two types of resistance.

The objective of breeding for pest resistance is to reduce the damage to a

tolerable level. Breeding for pest resistance is important for following reasons.
1. Once a genotype with specific resistance is obtained it can be used for a long
commercial cultivation without breaking down of resistance (resistance is
relatively permanent) 2. Controlling a decease or a pest through management is
often expensive and environmentally unfriendly.
There is no simple answer about how to proceed in a breeding program against pest.
The knowledge of the following is necessary while constructing a breeding program
1. Economic worth of a host. 2. Potential economic loss from pest. 3. Biology and
genetic variation within a host species. 4. Biology and genetic variation of a
pest. 5. Interaction of an environment with tolerance of host virulence of pest.
6. Interaction between the pest and the host. Special features of Selection- pest
resistance and disease 1. The selection must be done in heavily infested stand
whenever mass selection is undertaken. This reduces the chance of escape of trees
i.e. a non resistant tree passing the test. 2. Susceptibility to the pest is
highly depended character on the age of the host. It is always necessary to
specify the correct age of plantations for selection. 3. Whenever genetic tests
are conducted (such as progeny test and provenance test) all trees must be
subjected to at least moderate levels of pest attack. Breeding methods for Disease
resistance: 1. Family selection-Much success has been obtained by adopting family
selection in temperate species. Resistance to phytopthora in Pines, resistance to
fusiform rust in pines, resistance to leaf rust in sweet gum have been obtained by
family selection. 2. For rust and canker diseases individual selection in wild
populations has been successful. 3. Developing of hybrids through inter specific
crosses has been successful. Ex. Short leaf pine X loblolly pine However in
chestnut little improvement is achieved through hybridization. 4. Selection in the
laboratory through forced attack or through creating artificial pest and disease
condition What are the mechanisms of resistance to diseases…? 1. Exclusions: -
Certain host genotypes escape the attack by disease or pathogen merely because of
phonological events such as early leaf flushing not coinciding with high humidity.
Late flowering or late fruit set etc. this is not a true resistance feature
exclusion reduce or minimize the economic loss. 2. Walling off: - Restriction of
the growth and spread of pathogen by different mechanism after pathogen has gained
entry. This is an active resistance mechanism. 3. destruction of the pathogen
after the entry into the system: -secondary metabolites such as terpene, phenols
have been shown to reduce the growth of pathogen inside the plant system. Breeding
for insect pest Reasons for less progress in insect resistance in forest trees. 1.
mobility of the insects.- manipulation of the insect is extremely difficult. 2.
Lack of ability to predict where and when an insect attack will occr.
3. Lack of knowledge of insect genetics. 4. Lack of knowledge about what causes
insect resistance. 5. Difficulty in creating artificial infestations under
controlled conditions. Resistance mechanism for insect pest: 1. Non- preference –
Is nothing but the insect pest not attacked to the host even if it is attracted it
is repelled from feeding and oviposition. 2. Antibiosis – Life cycle after feeding
3. Tolerance - A tree recovers from insect attack after certain period and
produces normaly. Methods for breeding pest Resistance: 1. Selection of geographic
races and individual families against the pests. Ex. Resistance to white Pine
weevil through selection geographic races. 2. Resistance on an individual tree
basis is the most important control of tree damage. Ex. Selection of black Pine
against Pine gall midge. Selection of teak clones against teak trunk borer. Clones
with higher bark thickness are resistant. Since young larvae can not bore into the
heartwood. Genetic variation, Heritability and Combining Abilities: Variation in
tree population can be partitioned into genetic and environmental components hence
the basic model of variation is Phenotypic value= genotypic value+ Environmental
value P=G+E The same model can be extended as follows Phenotypic variation=
Genotypic variation + Environmental variation Which can be written symbolically
as. VP=VG+VE Genetic values are influenced by both additive and non-additive
effects. Additive effects are those due to additive effect of the genes hence they
are fixable in a population. Additive effects are due to general combining ability
(GCA). Non-additive components are heritable but not fixable in a population. Non-
additve effects are due to, specific combining ability (SCA). Thus the model for
phenotypic variation can be written as VP=[ VA+VNA] + VE Heritability: The concept
of heritability is most important and most used in quantitative genetics.
Heritability value express the proportion of variation in the population i.e.
attributable to genetic differences. It is expressed as the following ratio. H2=
VG/VP x 100= Broad sense heritability. The value of H2 vary from 0-100 when
expressed as percentage. However it varies from 0-1 Narrow sense heritability is
the ratio of additive genetic variance to the total phenotype variance. h2 = VA/VP
x 100 where, Va= variation due to additive genetic component. = Narrow sense
heritability.
The value browd sense heritability is always higher than narrow sense
heritability. For tree improvement programme narrow sense heritability are
considered than broad sense heritability. Features of heritability: Heritability
is conceptual issue and they are estimated by statistical tools. Values of
heritability are only suggesting the relative strength of the genotype influence.
Heritability values are character specific. For instance, wood specific gravity is
more heritable than heritable for height. (Wood Specific gravity varies from 0.55-
0.80 & 0.1-0.3) General Combining Ability (GCA) It is defined as average
performance of progeny of an individual mother tree when it is mated with number
of individuals in a population. Higher the GCA for the parent better is it to be
included in a seed orchard. Specific Combining Ability (SCA) refers to average
performance of a progeny of a cross between two parents.

SCA is utilized to select the trees for hybrid production because they have higher
VNA component. Biotechnologies and their application in forest tree improvement
Biotechnology is not a science; it is a bunch of techniques and tools used to take
the target organism for the benefit of human society. Scientific basis of modern
biotechnological tools is studied under molecular technology. Molecular biology
provides scientific basis and understanding necessary for genetic tailoring of
organisms. Important technologies relevant to tree improvement. 1. Micro-
propagation 2. Somaclonal Variation 3. Protoplast fusion 4. Gametophyte cultures
5. In-vitro Selection 6. In-vitro embryo rescue 7. Molecular markers 8. Genetic
engineering 9. Cryo-preservation and in-vitro storage 1. Micro-propagation (tissue
Culture) is a generic term that includes in-vitro growth and population of
relatively unorganized cells( cell culture), of callus (callus culture), of
particular tissues such as roots and shoots(organ culture). In forestry most organ
culture is commonly used to propagate forest tree species.
Major advantages of Tissue Culture. 1. Rapid and exponential proliferation of
materials to produce plantlets of desired types. 2. Ability to store small number
of cultures from every clone under dormant condition while clones are being tested
and rapidly multiplying these clones after selection. 3. Well standardized
protocols for micro-propagation is necessary before any genetic engineering
techniques are adopted. Micro-propagation protocols have been established for
>1000 plant species under which only hundred are of forestry importance. For a
large number of tropical broad leaved species, the protocols are not yet
available. It concluded that the research efforts are necessary to standardize
micro-propagation protocols of economically important tree species. e. g. SPECIES
PLACE Tectona grandis NCL, Pune. Santalum album Indian Institute of Sciences,
Bangalore. Tamarindus indica NCL, Pune Dalbergia sissoo Delhi University Dalbergia
latifolia NCL, Pune Eucalyptus tereticormis Regional Research Centre, Jammu Heavea
brasilensis NCL Pune. Bamnusa arundinaceae Delhi university Albizia lebbeck Delhi
university Pinus wallichiana NCL Pune 2. Somaclonal variation Variation induced
during cells/callus culture has been reported in several species. Some of the
economically important trades such as salt tolerance, Resistance to disease and
pests have also been reported in some species. Use of somaclonal variation is very
important while selecting in vitro at the cellular level. Ex. Tolerance to cold
has been selected in Eucalyptus. Screening for resistance to high phytotoxin
levels is under the spruce. There is no immediate applicability of this technique
to the known tropical hardwood and non-industrial species because the total
genetic variability available for many species is not known and standardized
protocols of micro propagation are not available. 3. In vitro selection In vitro
selection can be made at different levels such as whole parents, pollen grains,
embryos, and cells. In general In vitro selection involves selection of cells or
protoplasts using an artificial induction of stress. The following are the in
vitro selection for a. Disease resistance, herbicide tolerance, salt tolerance,
tolerance for heavy metals, tolerance for water stress, tolerance for high and low
temperature, for a successful in vitro selection system following criteria are
necessary. 1. Presence of a correlated trait i.e. correlation between performance
of adults and performance in vitro 2. measurement of both the traits should be
easy. The variability within target and selection trait should be easy. 3.
heritability of both characters should be high
Application in forest tree improvement 1. Cold tolerance is an important selection
criteria in tree species such as Eucalyptus when ever it is introduced to
temperate area. 2. tolerance to salt and metals is important in a large scale
rehabilitation in wastelands, salt affected areas and mined areas. 3. herbicide
resistance is an important trait in forest tree species that are introduced as
tree component under agro-forestry system. 4. large scale mechanized plantation.
5. in vitro selection for cold tolerance is successful in E. gunnii. Application
of forest tree genetic engineering 1. There are two strategies for improving the
forest tree species using genetic engineering. Transforming the existing genotypes
with novel genes that impart special qualities such as herbicide tolerance, insect
tolerance, cold tolerance etc. 2. Transforming existing genotypes with genes
leading to blocking of protein synthesis. Ex. Reducing the production of unwanted
metabolites, metabolise that are responsible for pollen production. Production of
male sterile lines is an important area of research using this approach. Target
trait that are important for gene manipulation. 1. Insect resistance 2. bacterial
& fungal resistance 3. virus resistance 4. nematode resistance crises that are
important-B.T gene/ protienase inhibitive 1. Herbiside tolerance 2. Cold tolerance
Imp—genes—Detoxifying gene, Antifreezing gene. 3. Wood Properties –Reduction in
lignin through enzyme regulation. Modification of lignin production. In case of
pines, 3 enzymes have been characterized that reduce the lignin production. 4.
Male sterility-Has been indused in Poplar, Eucalyptus, Pinus spp, by modifuing
genes responisible for another bursting. Molecular markers: In general two kinds
of molecular markers are used. 1. Molecular genetic markers 2. Biochemical markers
Molecular genetic markers are derived from the analysis of polymorphic DNA
sequences. The biochemical markers are derived from biochemical products in a
plant system such as proteins. Ex. Molecular genetic markers RAPD- Randomly
amplified polymorphic DNA RFLF - Restriction fragment length polymorphism
Microsatellites= SSR –Simple sequence repetes. Biochemical markers Isozymes.
Application of molecular marker in tree improvement: 1. Assessment of genetic
diversity for conservation purpose. 2. Verification of genotype and delineation of
genotype 1. Delineation of genotypes: New release of verities and separation of
genotypes which are of controversy can be done using molecular markers. Genetic
finger printing of clones in a seed orchard rouging of mistypes maintenance of
genuinity etc can be done. 2. Application in taxonomy and phytogenetics studies.
Molecular markers can be used in understanding the phytogenetic relationship
between two related species or genera. It can also be applied to naming an
Interspecific hybrid. 3. Market assisted selection (MAS) QTL—Quantitative trait
loci. Marker assisted selection involve recognition of strong association between
a set of loci called QTL’=qualitative trait loci and economically important trait
such as yield, resistance to pest and disease tolerance to abiotic stresses etc,
QTL s have been developed for Pinus lambertiana to select a resistance to disease.
MAS has been applied to selection of lines with higher pest resistance in Pinus
hybrid. Cryopreservation and invitro storage: Application in T.P 1. Germplasm
preservation Transport of germplasm, maintenance of juvenility, preservation,
pollen quality, seed storage etc. Ex. Trough cryo preservation, embryos of
follwing species have been preserved includes—Artocarpus. Quercus, Fagus,.
Embryonic cell lines have been preserved of Picea alba, Pinus taida, seeds are
preserved of Pinus silvastris, pollens of Betula pendula. In case of, Eucalyptus
gunnii encapsulated shhot tips are preserved.
Cornell's Sugar Maple Tree Improvement Program The amount of sugar in maple tree
sap is variable. Some trees, especially those grown in the open, may have high sap
sugar concentrations, ranging from 3 to 4%. There are also differences in sap
sugar concentration from year to year. One year, a tree might have 2% sugar and
the next year 3%. What factors might influence sap sweetness? Why are these
differences in sap sugar concentration so important? The answer is simple: the
higher the sugar concentration, the less water needs to be boiled off to produce
syrup (~66-67% sugar), and the less the producer will need to pay for the fuel
used in the boiling process. Knowing that trees grown in the open generally have
higher sugar concentrations would help maple producers decide which trees to tap,
or even where to plant young trees. But
what about all the trees growing in the forest? Is there any way we can increase
their sugar content? For many years, maple scientists and farmers wondered if
there might be genes that controlled sugar content in maple trees. If you’ve had
biology in school, or simply observed family and friends, you know that tall
parents are more likely to have children who grow to be tall. But is a maple tree
with high sugar content more likely to produce seeds that will grow into new trees
with high sugar content? Or are environmental variables, things like whether a
tree is grown in the open or yearly variations in the weather, the only thing that
controls sugar content of sap?

Starting in the late 1950’s, maple scientists began to search for an answer to
this question: Can high sugar content be inherited from a parent tree? Before you
read the next section that describes how the scientists tried to answer this
question, you might want to imagine you are a scientist investigating this
question. How would you go about finding out if parent trees pass on a trait for
high sap sugar to their offspring? Field Examination and Selection The first thing
the maple scientists did was find trees that had high sugar content. Scientists
from the US Forest Service worked with county foresters to test 21,000 trees from
throughout the Northeast. They measured the sugar content of sap from each tree
using hydrometers and refractometers (click here for details on these
instruments). Many of the trees they tapped were identified by maple producers,
who knew from years of working their sugar bushes which trees were "sweeter" than
others. You might also want to measure sugar content in sap of maple trees in your
area, and perhaps help find sweet trees that could become part of the Sugar Maple
Tree Improvement Program. Click here for details.
Screening to Select the Very Best Trees Of the 21,000 original trees tapped, the
scientists identified 53 trees that they felt had promise for the tree improvement
program. These trees had higher sap sugar content than their immediate neighbors
and were healthy and free of any defects. Clonal Bank Do you remember "Dolly," the
cloned sheep? Foresters have been cloning trees for years. This allows them to
produce trees that are genetically identical to the parent tree. Trees are also
produced by seeds. Seeds have a portion of their genetic material from pollen,
which may come from a different tree than the tree producing the female flowers
and seeds. Thus, trees grown from seed have only half of their genetic material
from the mother tree. In the Sugar Maple Tree Improvement Program, scientists knew
that the sugar content of sap was influenced by the environment. They wanted to
determine whether the genetics of the tree also influences sugar content of sap.
If the scientists had used seeds from the 53 original trees, the pollen would
likely have come from a tree with lower sugar content than a tree selected for the
Sugar Maple Tree Improvement Program. Thus, trees produced from seeds would have
been less likely than trees that were cloned from the original trees to have high
sap sugar content, if sap sugar content is genetically controlled. Therefore, the
scientists wanted to test trees that were genetically identical (clones) of the
original 53 "sweet" trees. But how do you get clones of trees? The first step in
cloning a tree is taking a "cutting" or branch of the parent tree. The cuttings
can then be "grafted" or allowed to grow onto roots ("root stock") of an existing
tree. If you are familiar with grafting apple trees, you know that any genetic
characteristics of the apple tree cutting will be expressed above the point where
the cutting is grafted onto the rootstock. For example, if you take a cutting from
an apple tree with crisp, green apples, and graft it onto rootstock from a tree
with mushy, red apples, the new tree will produce crisp, green apples above the
point where it is grafted. This same principle would hold for maple trees. If sap
sweetness is genetically controlled, then a grafted tree should have similar sap
sweetness to the parent cutting above the point where the tree is grafted.
Alternatively, cuttings can be "rooted." This involves treating the cuttings with
hormones under special greenhouse conditions so that the cuttings form their own
roots. It can be a tricky business as it involves growing the cuttings under just
the right temperature, moisture, light, and nutrient conditions. Scientists from
the U.S. Forest Service and Cornell University have pioneered new methods of
developing roots on sugar maple cuttings.
Another advantage of using cuttings rather than seeds has to do with how fast the
next generation of seeds is produced. Whereas a tree produced from a seed takes
more than 20 years to produce its own seeds, a tree produced by grafting or
rooting cuttings can produce seeds in just three or four years. In 1968, the
cuttings from the trees selected for the Maple Tree Improvement Program were
grafted onto root stock in Grand Isle, VT, at a site owned by the US Forest
Service. In 1983, a second group of cuttings were grafted onto root stock or
"rooted" in the greenhouse and planted at Cornell’s Uihlein Sugar Maple Field
Station in Lake Placid, NY. These two plantings of the 53 original trees are
called clonal banks. Their purpose is to provide seeds and cuttings to grow more
"sweet" trees. Every year researchers at the Uihlein Station plant seeds of adult
clonal bank trees in small pots. These seeds grow into saplings in the greenhouse
during the spring and summer, and are stored in the underground storage bunker
during the winter (funding for the bunker was provided by the New York State Maple
Producers Association). The cycle is repeated until they have completed two full
winters; at this point they are available for outplanting. Contact, Uihlein
Station Director, for more information. The clonal banks thus represent years of
work involving examining over 20,000 trees and research to determine how to
propagate them. They are valuable genetic resources that we need to maintain for
the future. Progeny Tests When they established the clonal banks, the scientists
didn’t actually know whether trees grown from seeds of the cuttings would have
high sap sugar content. Can you figure out a reason why they couldn’t be sure?
Maybe the 53 trees selected for the clonal bank all happened to be growing in a
slightly different environment than other trees nearby. For example, there could
be slightly more light or higher nutrients in the soil. If sugar content were only
controlled by factors in the environment, then the trees produced from cuttings,
growing in a different environment, would not be expected to have high sugar
content. To determine whether sap sweetness is genetically controlled, the
scientists established "progeny tests" using seeds from the clonal bank in
Vermont. The progeny tests were established in 1983 at two sites: the Uihlein
Sugar Maple Field Station in Lake Placid, NY, and on private land in West
Salisbury, PA. A progeny test is an experiment in which seeds are taken from a
number of different trees that were originally growing in different environments.
The seeds are planted at a site that has a uniform environment. The differences
between the trees are then measured. Because the environment in which the plants
are grown is constant, any differences between the trees in a progeny test are
genetic. The trees in the sugar maple progeny tests were grown from the seeds of
trees in the clonal banks. Because the trees in the clonal banks are isolated from
other sugar maples, it was assumed that the pollen that fertilized the seeds came
from sweet trees in the clonal bank. Once the progeny test trees were about seven
years old, they were large enough to test for sap sweetness. The scientists
measured their sap sugar content. They determined that sap sweetness was indeed
partly controlled by genetics. (Remember, the scientists already knew that
environmental factors, such as weather and light, also influence sap sweetness.
Many characteristics of humans as well as trees are controlled both by the
environment and genetics.) First Generation Seed Orchard Once the scientists knew
that it was possible to breed trees with higher sap content, they set out to
produce more trees from the original "sweet" trees. Scientists at the Cornell
Uihlein Sugar Maple Field Station selected the best trees from the progeny test to
plant in the Lake Placid seed orchard. Eventually this orchard will produce seed
for growers throughout the Northeast. Establishing Maple Seedlings Most maple
producers tap trees that reproduced naturally from seeds in the forest. In the
future, maple producers may want to plant trees that have been bred for sap
sweetness and other characteristics. Because many farmers in the Northeast have
recently taken land out of farming, abandoned fields are abundant and could be
used for sugar maple plantations. But not much is known about growing maple
seedlings in open areas like abandoned fields. Thus, the next step in the Sugar
Maple Tree Improvement Program was to test different ways to establish seedlings
in abandoned agricultural fields. Currently, twelve farmers from New York State
and Pennsylvania are conducting experiments in cooperation with the Maple Team of
the Cornell Sugar Maple Program, to see how well maple seedlings grow in abandoned
fields in different regions of these states. We are hopeful that in the not too
distant future, a commercial or state nursery will grow sugar maple seedlings from
the seeds of the best trees in the Uihlein seed orchard. Maple
producers will be able to buy the seedlings grown from the seed of trees with high
sap sugar content, and plant them on their land. When this occurs, research
conducted by universities, the federal government, and private landowners working
together over the past 40 years will have benefited maple producers throughout the
northeastern US. Growing Maple Seedlings in Fields Once the maple seedlings are
taken from the nursery or greenhouse and planted in the field, they are exposed to
many factors that could affect their survival. Therefore, another set of
experiments is being conducted to test different means of protecting maple
seedlings from deer and other animals that might browse on them. Included in this
field experiment are also several treatments to test the effect of different ways
to control weeds and of applying fertilizers to seedlings. These experiments are
being carried out at the Cornell Uihlein Sugar Maple Field Station in Lake Placid,
NY, and the Cornell Arnot Teaching and Research Forest in VanEtten, NY. Can you
think of different ways to control weeds when growing sugar maple or other
seedlings? How about ways to prevent deer or rabbits from browsing on seedlings?
You might want to design your own experiment on growing maple seedlings. The
Future of the Sugar Maple Tree Improvement Program Of the 21,000 maple trees
originally tested for sap sweetness, 53 of the best trees were selected to be part
of the Sugar Maple Tree Improvement Program clonal banks. Some of the original 53
have not performed well and are no longer part of the program. Eventually,
commercial seedlings may be produced from the seed orchard trees and planted by
maple producers throughout the Northeast. Can you think of any problems that might
occur in the future? In any species of plants or animals, individuals differ in
many genetic traits. For example, some trees may be susceptible to a disease or
particular insect, while others are able to resist attack. Beech bark disease is
killing most beech trees in forests over much of the Northeast. Less than 1% of
beech trees are genetically resistant to attack by the scale insect that allows
the disease to develop. What happens if you have maple trees planted throughout
the Northeast from less than 50 seed sources? It is possible that none of the
selected trees will be resistant to an insect or disease that will attack maple in
the future. Past research has shown that an ideal genetic breeding program for
trees includes about 300 seed sources. Thus, the Sugar Maple Tree Improvement
Program is seeking new "sweet trees" from throughout the Northeast to add to the
clonal bank. As more clonal bank trees produce seeds, these too will be added to
the progeny tests. Comparing sap-sugar concentrations: The Comparison Tree Method
The Comparison Tree Method (also referred to as the Five-Tree Tester Method) is
used to identify trees with higher than average sap content. Follow the steps
below to use the
Comparison Method to identify high sap sugar trees. The Cornell Sugar Maple
Research Program is actively looking for trees with high sap sugar concentrations.
1) Select as many trees as possible to test for sugar content. The larger the
number of trees that can be tested per location, the higher the potential for
identifying candidate trees. We have found that out of 100 trees, we might be able
to identify two candidate trees. 2) Keep as many factors constant as possible.
Factors such as slope, aspect, contour, and microsite are possible sources of
variation and should be kept constant. 3) Keep tapholes uniform. Drill tapholes at
the same relative location (height and compass orientation) on all trees. If you
are going to test immediately after drilling, drill all tapholes within a one or
two hour time period. Drill tapholes as close to the beginning of the spring sap
flow as possible. If trees are tapped too late, early sap flows may be missed; if
they are tapped too early, the taphole may "dry out" before the season ends. If
the tree is tapped when it is frozen, it may be seriously damaged because the bark
is more likely to split when the spout, or spile, is installed. 4) Sample all
trees within the same time period. Sampling and testing of all trees should occur
within a relatively short time period (one hour if possible). This way you control
for changes in sap content that may be caused by weather or different times during
the sap season. 5) Sample during the spring sap season. Early to mid-season is
when sap sugar concentration is likely to be at its maximal level. Sampling during
this period offers the best opportunity for detecting differences in sap sugar
concentration between trees. Because maple sap may flow in late fall when weather
conditions are right, some producers have attempted fall sap collection. However,
tapholes drilled in the fall produce only about half as much sap as in the spring.
Also, sugar concentrations from fall tapping are about two-thirds below that
expected from a spring tapping. Fall tapping for sugar production is therefore not
recommended. 6) Test healthy trees. To be selected for the Sugar Maple Tree
Improvement Program, a tree must be of good form and free of defects, evidence of
harmful insects and disease, and other factors that could influence sap sugar
concentration. 7) Test trees that are capable of flower and seed production. Trees
selected for the Sugar Maple Tree Improvement Program should be capable of flower
and seed production. This way twigs taken from the tree and cloned will produce
individuals capable of immediate seed production. Sugar maples acquire flowering
and seed production potential at about 30 years of age, which generally coincides
with the minimum commercial tapping diameter. Although sap sugar concentration can
be measured on small diameter, immature trees, only trees that meet minimum
commercial tapping diameter (10 inches
diameter at breast height) should be tested as potential candidates for the Sugar
Maple Tree Improvement Program. 8) Tap trees with crowns close to the ground.
Candidate trees should have well-developed crowns within 30 feet of the ground.
This allows the use of pole pruners for cutting twigs from the tree crown. These
twigs are used to clone the trees by rooting of cuttings or grafting. 9) Determine
the sap content of the tree using a hydrometer or refractometer. Follow the
instructions on the hydrometer and refractometer sections of the web page. 10) If
you identify a tree with higher than normal sugar content, test neighboring trees.
When a tree is suspected of having sap with above average sugar content, test the
sap content of the five nearest trees. Record the results on the Sugar Maple
Testing Form. Make sure to mark the tree with higher sap content and the
neighboring trees with plastic flagging or in some other way. If possible, measure
the selected tree and candidate tree several times during the sap season. The sap
sugar content of the candidate tree must be at least 30% sweeter than the average
of five surrounding trees (standards) and must exceed the sweetest standard tree
by a minimum of 0.5 percent. 11) If you have a tree you think qualifies for the
Sugar Maple Tree Improvement Program, contact your Cooperative Extension agent or
the Cornell Uihlein Maple Program. Extension agents in many counties are familiar
with the Sugar Maple Tree Improvement Program and should be able to help you to
determine if you have a candidate tree. If your county Extension agent is
unfamiliar with the Sugar Maple Tree Improvement Program, have him or her contact
the