You are on page 1of 24

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD


Varactor Diode:
We know that the transition capacitance c(t) is given by c(t)=

A

In both alloy unction diode and grown unction diode as the magnitude of the reverse bias
increases! the width "w# of the transition region increases! and the unction capacitance c(t)
reduces$
%he voltage& variable nature of transition capacitance of reverse&biased pn& unction may
be utili'ed in several applications such as
() In voltage tuning of an )C resonant$
*) +elf balancing bridge circuits$
,) In parametric amplifiers etc$
-) ./ radio and %0 receivers! 1.C circuits$
2) 3sed in adustable band pass filters$
%his special diode is made especially for the above applications which are biased on the
voltage& variable capacitance are called 40aractor diode5 or 40aricap5 or 40oltacap5$

0aractor diode symbol and circuit models are shown below$

6s7 8ody series resistance$
C(t)7 8arrier capacitance$
r
R 7 6everse diode resistance$
%ypically! at a reverse bias of -v!

C(t)= *9p.! 6(s)=:$2 ohms! 6(r);(/ (usually neglected)$
Tunnel diode:

1 normal pn&unction has an impurity concentration of about ( part in (9<:$ With this
amount of doping! the width of depletion layer! which constitutes the potential barrier of
the unction! is of the order of 2 microns (2=(9
&-
cm)$

If the concentration of impurity atoms is greatly increased! say ( part in (9
,
the device
characteristics are completely changed$ %he new diode was announced in (>2: by )eo
Esaki$ %his diode is called "%unnel diode# or "Esaki diode#$

%he barrier potential 08 is related with the width of the depletion region with the following
e?uation$
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD

q N
A
V .
B
2
=


B
2V
.
q N
A


=

.rom the above e?uation the width of the barrier varies inversely as the s?uare root of
impurity concentration$
1s the depletion width decreases there is a large probability that an electron will penetrate
through the barrier$ %his ?uantum mechanical behavior is referred to as tunneling and
hence these high impurity density pn&unction devices are called %unnel diodes$ %his
phenomenon is called as "tunneling#$

Energy band structure of heavily doped pn-junction diode under open circuited
conditions:

In the energy band structure for the lightly doped pn&diode! the .ermi level E
f
lies inside
the forbidden energy gap$ In the heavily doped pn&diode E
f
lies out side the forbidden band$

We know that! Ef = Ec @ A% ln(BcCBD)
.or a lightly doped semiconductor! B
D
DBc! +o that
N
c
ln
N
D




is a positive number$ Eence E
f

D Ec! and the .ermi level lies inside the forbidden band$
.or a heavily doped semiconductor donor concentrations are more so that! B
D
; Bc and is
N
c
ln
N
D




a negative number$ Eence E
f
; Ec! and the .ermi level lies outside the forbidden band$
+imilarly!
N
v
E E KT ln .
v
f
N
A
= +





.or heavily doped p&region! B
1
; B
0
! and the .ermi&level lies in the .ermi&level lies in the
valance band$
%he energy band structure in a heavily doped pn&diode under open circuited condition is
shown in the figure$
We have
N N
V C
E KT ln
G 2
n
i
=






N N
D A
E KT ln
o
2
n
i
=






Comparing above two e?uations for heavily doped pn&diode we find that E
F
;E
G
$ %herefore!
the contact difference of potential energy E
F
e=ceeds the forbidden energy gap voltage E
G
$
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD


.ig$ energy band in a heavily doped pn&diode under open circuited condition$

%he .ermi level E
f
in the p&side is at the same energy as the .ermi level Ef in the n&side$
Bote that there are no filled states on one side of the unction which are at the same energy as
empty allowed states on the other side$ Eence there can be no flow of charge in either direction
across the unction! and the current is 'ero for an open circuited diode$
The volt-ampere characteristic:

If a reverse bias voltage is applied to the tunnel diode! the height of the barrier is increased
above the open&circuit value EF$ Eence the n&side levels must shift downward with respect to the
p&side levels as shown in the figure below$

.ig$ 3nder applied reverse bias
We now observe that there are some energy states in the valance band of the p&side which
lie at the same level as allowed empty states in the conduction band of the n&side$ Eence these
electrons will tunnel from the p to the n&side! giving rise to a reverse diode current$ 1s the
magnitude of the reverse bias increase! causing the reverse current to increase$
Consider if a forward bias is applied to the diode so that the potential barrier is decreased
below Eo$ Eence the n&side levels must shift upward with respect to those on the p&side$

%he energy band diagrams for a heavily doped under forward bias conditions are shown in
figure below$
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD


.ig$ 1s the bias is increased! the band structure changes progressively from (a) to (d)$

.rom fig (a) we can observe that the electrons will tunnel from the n to the p material giving rise to
the forward current$ 1s the forward bias is increased further! the ma=imum number of electrons
can leave from occupied states on the right side of the unction! and tunnel through the barrier to
the empty states on the left side of the unction giving rise to the peak current Ip$
If still more forward bias is applied! figH is obtained and the tunneling current decreases$
.inally if the forward bias is larger there is no> empty allowed states on one side of the unction at
the same energy as occupied states on the other side! the tunneling current must drop to 'ero$
%he v&I characteristics of tunnel diode is shown in fig$

.ig$&I Characteristics of a tunnel diode$
%he tunnel diode e=hibits a negative resistance characteristics between peak current Ip and
valley current Iv$ %he tunnel diode is e=cellent conductor in the reverse bias conditions$

8y applying small forward bias voltage to the tunnel diode the current increases and
reaches to the ma=imum level$ %he ma=imum for small forward bias voltage is called as "peak
current (Ip)#$%he corresponding voltage to the peak current is called "peak voltage (0p)#$

If forward bias voltage is increased beyond the peak voltage the current starts decreasing
and reaches to the ma=imum level$ %his minimum value of the current is called as 4valley current
(Iv)5$ %he corresponding voltage to the valley current is called as 4valley voltage (0v)5$
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD


If forward bias voltage is increased beyond valley voltage it e=hibits the same
characteristics as ordinary diode$

%he tunnel diode symbol and small&signal model are shown in fig$ below$



Applications of Tunnel diode:

($ It is used as a very high speed switch! since tunneling takes place at the speed of light$
*$ It is used as a high fre?uency oscillator$

Photodiode:

%he photodiode is a device that operates in reverse diode$ %he photodiode has a small
transparent window that allows light to strike one surface of the pn&unction! keeping the remaining
sides unilluminated$

%he symbol of photodiode is shown in figure below$

1 photodiode differs from a rectifier diode in that when its pn&unction is e=posed to light!
the reverse current increases with the light intensity$ When there is no incident light the reverse
current! I

! is almost negligible and is called the dark current$ 1n increase in the amount of light
intensity! e=pressed as irradiance (mWCcm
*
)! produces an increase in the reverse current$


%ypically! the reverse current is appro=imately ($- I1 at a 6everse bias voltage of (90 with
an irradiance of 9$2 mWcmJ$

%herefore 6
6
=0
6
CI

= (9vC($-Ia = K$(-/L

1t *9 mWCcmJ! the current is appro=imately 22 Ia at 06=(9v$

www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD

%herefore! 6
6
= 0
6
C I

= (9vC22 Ia = (:*AL

Eence the photodiode can be used as a variable&resistance device controlled by light
intensity$
%he volt&ampere characteristics of photodiode are shown in figure$


.ig$ 0&I characteristics of photo diode$

Advantages of Photo diodes:

($ It can be used as variable&resistance device$
*$ Eighly sensitive to the light$
,$ %he speed of operation is very high$

Disadvantages of Photo diodes:

($ %he dark current is temperature dependent$

Applications of photodiode:

() Mhotodiodes are commonly used in alarm systems and counting systems$

*) 3sed in demodulators$
,) 3sed in encoders$
-) 3sed in light detectors$
2) 3sed in optical communication systems$








www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD

FE!D EFFE"T T#A$%%T&#

ntroduction:

%he filed effect transistor (abbreviated as .E%) is a three terminal uni&polar semiconductor
device in which current is controlled by an electric field$ 1s current conduction is only by maority
carriers! .E% is said to be a uni&polar device$

8ased on the construction! the .E% can be classified into two types as7

a) Nunction .ield Effect %ransistor (N.E%)
b) /etal F=ide +emiconductor .ield Effect %ransistor (/F+.E%) or
Insulated Gate .ield Effect %ransistor (IG.E%)

Depending upon the maority carriers! N.E% has been classified into two types! namely!

(() B&Channel N.E% with electrons as the maority carriers! and
(*) M&Channel N.E% with holes as the maority carriers$

"onstruction of $-"hannel 'FET:
It consists of a B&type bar which is made of +ilicon$ Fhmic contacts (terminals)! made at
the two ends of the bar! are called +ource and Drain$

%ource (%) : %his terminal is connected to the negative pole of the battery$ Electronics which
are the maority carriers in the B&type bar enter the bar through this terminal$

Drain (D) : %his terminal is connected to the positive pole of the battery$ %he maority carriers
leave the bar through this terminal$

*ate (*) : Eeavily doped M&type silicon is diffused on both sides of the B&type silicon bar by
which MB unctions are formed$ %hese layers are oined together are called Gate
(G)$
"hannel : %he region 8C of the B&type bar between the depletion regions is called the
Channel$ /aority carriers move from the source to drain when a potential
difference 0
D+
is applied between the source and drain$

.IG$ N.E% construction

%tructure and symbol of n-channel 'FET:

%he structure and symbol of n&channel N.E% are shown in figure below$

www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD

%he electrons enter the channel through the terminal called "source# and leave through the
terminal called "drain#$ %he terminals taken out from heavily doped electrodes of p&type material
are called "gates#$ 3sually! these electrodes are connected together and only one terminal is taken
out! which is called "gate$

%tructure and %ymbol of P-"hannel 'FET:



%he structure and symbol of M&Channel N.E% is shown in the figure$ %he device could be made of M&
type bar with two B&type gates as shown in the figure$ %hen this will be M&Channel N.E% is similarO
the only difference being that in B&Channel N.E% the current is carried by the electrons while in M&
Channel N.E%! it is carried by holes$

&peration of $-"hannel 'FET:

%he operation of B&Channel N.E% can be understood with the help of figure below$


.ig$ Fperation of .E%$
8efore considering the operation! let us consider that how the depletion layers are formed$
)et us first suppose that the gate has been reverse&biased by gate battery 0
GG
and the drain
battery 0
DD
is not connected$

+hen V
*%
,- and V
D%
,-:

When no voltage is applied between drain and source! and gate and source! the thickness
of the depletion regions round the M&B unction is uniform as shown in figure below$


www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD

+hen V
D%
,- and V
*%
is decreased from .ero:

In this case! the M&B unctions are reverse&biased and hence the thickness of the depletion
region increases$ 1s 0
G+
is decreased from 'ero! the reverse bias voltage across the M&B unction is
increased and hence! the thickness of the depletion region in the channel increases until the two
depletion regions make contact with each other$ In this condition! the channel is said to be cut&off$
%he value of 0
G+
which is re?uired to cut&off the channel is called the cut&off voltage 0
C
$

+hen V
*%
,- and V
D%
is increased from .ero:

Drain is positive with respect to the source$ Bow the maority carriers (electrons) flow
through the B&Channel from source to drain$ %herefore the conventional current I
D
flows from
drain to source$ %he magnitude of the current will depend upon the following factors7

($ %he conductivity of the channel$
*$ %he length of the channel$
,$ %he cross sectional area "1# of the channel$
-$ %he magnitude of the applied voltage 0
D+
$
%hus the channel acts as a resistor of resistance "6# is given by!
L
R =
A


DS DS
D
V AV
I = =
R L

Where "P# is the resistivity of the channel$ 1s 0
D+
increases! the reverse voltage across the
M&B unction increase and hence the thickness of the depletion region also increases$ %herefore!
the channel is wedge shaped as shown in fig$ below$

1s 0
D+
is increase! at a certain value 0
M
of 0
D+
! the cross sectional area of the channel
becomes minimum$ 1t this voltage! the channel is said to be pinched off and the drain voltage 0
M

is called the pinch&off voltage$

1s a result of the decreasing cross&section of the channel with the increase of 0
D+
! the
following results are obtained$



.ig$ Drain characteristics$
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD

i) 1s 0
D+
is increased from 'ero! I
D
increases linearly along FM! this region from 0
D+
=9 to
0
D+
=0
M
is called the ohmic region$ In this region! the .E% acts as a voltage variable resistor
(006) or voltage dependent resistor (0D6)$

ii) When 0
D+
=0
M
! I
D
becomes ma=imum$ When 0
D+
is increased beyond 0
M
! the length of the
pinch&off (or) saturation region increases$ Eence! there is no further increase of I
D$

iii) 1t a certain voltage corresponding to the point 8! I
D
suddenly increases$ %his effect is due
to the 1valanche multiplication of electrons caused by breaking of covalent bonds of silicon
atoms in the depletion region between the gate and the drain$ %he drain voltage at which
the breakdown occurs is denoted by 80
DGF
$

+hen V
*%
is negative and V
D%
is increased:

When the gate is maintained at a negative voltage less than the negative cut&off voltage!
the reverse voltage across the unction is further increased$ Eence for a negative value of 0
G+
! the
curve of I
D
versus 0
D+
is similar to that for 0
G+
=9! but the values of 0
M
and 80
DGF
are lower$

%he drain current I
D
is controlled by the electric field that e=tends into the channel due to
reverse biased voltage applied to the gate! hence! this device has been given the name .ield Effect
%ransistor$

"haracteristics Parameters of the 'FET:

In a N.E%! the drain current I
D
depends upon the drain voltage 0
D+
and the gate voltage
0
G+
$ 1ny one of these variables may be fi=ed and the relation between the other two is
determined$ %hese relations are determined by the three parameters which defined below$

/) 0utual "onductance (or) transconductance1 g
m
:

It is the slope of the transfer characteristic curves! and is defined by!


DS
I
D
g
m
V
DS
V


=
I
D
V
GS

! 0
D+
held constant

2) Drain resistance1 r
d
:

It is the reciprocal of the slope of the drain characteristics and is defined as!


GS
V
DS
r
d
I
D
V

=


=
V
DS
I
D

! 0
G+
held constant
%he reciprocal of r
d
is called the drain conductance$ It is denoted g
d
(or) g
m
$

3) Amplification Factor1 4:

It is defined by!

D
V
DS
V
GS
I


=
V
DS
V
GS

! I
D
held constant$

#elationship among FET parameters:

1s I
D
on 0
D+
and 0
G+
! the functional e?uation can be e=pressed as

I
D
= f (0
D+
! 0
G+
)
D
GS DS
I I
D D
I V V
DS GS
V V
DS GS
V V


= +




www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD


D
GS DS
V I I
I
DS D D
V V V V
GS DS GS GS
V V

= +




If I
D
is constant! then
D
I
V
GS

=9

%herefore! we have 0
GS DS
V I I
DS D D
V V V
DS GS GS
V V

= +





1
0 ( ) g
m
r
d





= +
Eence! r g
m
d
=
g r
m
d
=

E5pression for %aturation Drain "urrent:

2
1
GS
DS DSS
P
V
I I
V




=

I
D+
= saturation Drain Current$
I
D++
= the value of I
D+
when 0
G+
=9$
0
M
= the pinch&off voltage$

"omparison of 'EFT and 6'T

($ .E% operation depends only on the flow of maority carriers @ holes for p&channel .E%#s and
electrons for B&channel .E%#s$ %herefore! they are called 3ni&Molar devices$ 8ipolar
transistor (8N%) operation depends on both minority and maority current devices$

*$ 1s .E% has no unctions and the conduction is through an B&type (or) M&type semiconductor
material! .E% is less noisy than 8N%$

,$ 1s the input circuit of .E% is reverse biased! .E% e=hibits a much higher input impedance
(in the order of (99/L) and lower output impedance and there will be a high degree of
isolation between input and output$ +o! .E% can acts as an e=cellent buffer amplifier but
the 8N% has low input impedance because its input circuit is forwards biased$
-$ .E% is a voltage controlled device! i$e$! voltage at the input terminal controls the output
current! whereas 8N% is a current controlled device! i$e$! the input current controls the
output current$

2$ .E%#s are much easier to fabricate and are particularly suitable for IC#s because they occupy
less space than 8N%#s$
Q$ %he performance of 8N% is degraded by neutron radiation because of the reduction in
minority&carrier life time! whereas .E% can tolerate a much higher level of radiation since
they do not rely on minority carriers for their operation$

K$ %he performance of .E% is relatively unaffected by ambient temperature changes$ 1s it has
a negative temperature co&efficient at high current levels! it prevents the .E% from thermal
breakdown$ %he 8N% has a positive temperature co&efficient at high current levels which
leads to thermal breakdown$
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD

:$ +ince .E% does not suffer from minority carrier storage effects! it has higher switching
speeds and cut&off fre?uencies$ 8N% suffers from minority carrier storage effects and
therefore has lower switching speed and cut&off fre?uencies$
>$ .E% amplifiers have low gain bandwidth product due to the unction capacitive effects and
produce more signal distortion e=cept for small signal operation$
(9$ 8N%"s are cheaper to produce than .E%#s$


"omparison of $-channel 7ith P-"hannel FET8s

($ In an B&channel N.E% the current carriers are electrons! whereas the current carriers are
holes in a M&channel N.E%$
*$ /obility of electrons is large in B&channel N.E%! mobility of holes is poor in M&channel N.E%$
,$ %he input noise is less in B&channel N.E% than that of M&channel N.E%$
-$ %he transconductance is larger in B&channel N.E% than that of M&channel N.E%$

Applications of 'FET

($ .E% is used as a buffer in measuring instruments! receivers since it has high input
impedance and low output impedance$

*$ .E%#s are used in 6adio .re?uency amplifiers in ./ (.re?uency /ode) tuners and
communication e?uipment for the low noise level$
,$ +ince the input capacitance is low! .E%#s are used in cascade amplifiers in measuring and
test e?uipments$
-$ +ince the device is voltage controlled! it is used as voltage variable resistor in operational
amplifiers and tone controls
2$ .E%#s are used in mi=er circuits in ./ and %0 receivers! and communication e?uipments
because inter modulation distortion is low$
Q$ It is used in oscillator circuits because fre?uency drift is low$
K$ 1s the coupling capacitor is small! .E%#s are used in low fre?uency amplifiers in hearing aids
and inductive transducers$
:$ .E%#s are used in digital circuits in computers! )+D and a memory circuit because of it is
small si'e$

0etal &5ide %emiconductor Field Effect Transistor (0&%FET)

/F+.E% is the common term for the Insulated Gate .ield Effect %ransistor (IG.E%)$
%here are two basic forms of /F+.E%! they are7

i) Enhancement /F+.E% and
ii) Depletion /F+.E%
Principle:

8y applying a transverse electric field across an insulator! deposited on the semi conducting
material! the thickness and hence the resistance of conducting channel of a semi conducting
material can be controlled$
In depletion /F+.E%! the controlling electric field reduces the number of maority carriers
available for conduction! whereas in the enhancement /F+.E%! application of electric field causes
an increase in the maority carrier density in the conducting regions of the transistor$

Enhancement 0&%FET
"onstruction:

%he construction of an B&channel enhancement /F+.E% is shown in figure (a) below and
the circuit symbols for an B&Channel and a M&channel enhancement /F+.E% are shown in figures
(b) and (c) respectively$ 1s there is no continuous channel in an enhancement /F+.E%! this
condition is represented by the broken line in the symbols$
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD


(a)



(b) B&Channel (c) M&Channel

.ig$ (a) B&Channel Enhancement /F+.E%
(b) and (c) Circuit symbols for enhancement /F+.E%

%wo highly doped B
R
regions are diffused in a lightly doped substrate of p&type silicon$ Fne
B
R
region is called the source + and the other one is called the drain D$ %hey are separated by (
milli ((9
&,
inch)$ 1 thin insulating layer of +iF
*
is grown over the surface of the structure and holes
are cut into the o=ide layer! allowing contact with source and drain$ %hen a thin layer of metal
aluminum is formed over the layer of +iF
*
$ %hus metal layer covers the entire channel region and
it forms the gate G$

%he metal area of the gate! in conunction with the insulating o=ide layer of +iF
*
and the
semi conductor channel forms a parallel plate capacitor$ %his device is called the insulated gate
.E% because of the insulating layer of +iF
*
$ %his layer gives e=tremely high input impedance for
the /F+.E%$

&peration:

If the substrate is grounded and a positive voltage is applied at the gate! the positive
charge on G induces an e?ual negative charge on the substrate side between the sourced drain
regions$ %hus! an electric field is produced between the source and drain regions$ %he direction of
the electric field is perpendicular to the plates of the capacitor through the o=ide$ $

%he negative charge of electrons which are minority carriers in the p&type substrate forms
an inversion layer$ 1s the positive voltage on the gate increases! the induced negative charge in
the semi conductor increases$ Eence! the conductivity increases and current flows from source to
drain through the induced channel$ %hus the drain current is enhanced by the positive gate voltage
as shown in figure below$



www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD


(b)
(a)
.ig 0&I (or) drain characteristics of /F+.E%$

(a) n&channel enhancement /F+.E%
(b) p&channel enhancement /F+.E%



(c) (d)

.ig %ransfer characteristics of /F+.E%$

(a) n&channel enhancement /F+.E%
(b) p&channel enhancement /F+.E%


Depletion 0&%FET:

"onstruction:

%he construction of an B&channel where an B&channel is diffused between the source and
drain to the basic structure of /F+.E%$ %he circuit symbols for an B&channel and M&channel
depletion /F+.E% are shown in figure (b) and (c) respectively$




www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD



.ig (a) B&channel depletion /F+.E%$

(b) and (b) B&channel S M&channel circuit symbols$

When 0
G+
=9 and the drain D at a positive potential with respect to the source! the
electrons (maority carriers) flow through the n&channel from source to drain$ %herefore! the
conventional current I
D
flows through the channel from drain to source$

If gate voltage is made negative! positive charge consisting of holes is induced in the
channel through +iF
*
of the gate&channel capacitor$ %he introduction of the positive charge causes
depletion of mobile electrons in the channel$ %hus a depletion region is produced in the channel$
%he shape of the depletion region depends on 0
G+
and 0
D+
$ Eence the channel will be wedge
shaped as shown in figure$

When 0
D+
is increased! I
D
increases and it becomes practically constant at a certain value
of 0
D+
! called the pinch&off voltage$ %he drain current I
D
almost gets saturated beyond the pinch&
off voltage$

%he depletion /F+.E% may also be operated in an enhancement mode7 It is only necessary
to apply a positive gate voltage so that negative charges are induced into the n&type channel$
Eence! the conductivity of the channel increases and I
D
increases$ 1s the depletion /F+.E% can be
operated with bipolar input signals irrespective of doping of the channel! it is also called as dual
mode /F+.E%$

.ig7 Drain characteristics of /F+.E%$
(a) n&channel depletion /F+.E% (b) p&channel depletion /F+.E%



www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD



.ig7 %ransfer characteristics of /F+.E%$
(a) n&channel depletion /F+.E%
(b) p&channel depletion /F+.E%

"omparison of 0&%FET 7ith 'FET

i) In enhancement and depletion types of /F+.E%! the transverse electric field induced
across an insulating layer deposited on the semi conductor material controls the
conductivity of the channel$ In the N.E% the transverse electric field across the reverse
biased MB&unction controls the conductivity of the channel$
ii) %he gate leakage current in a /F+.E% is of the order of (9
&(*
1$ Eence the input resistance
of a /F+.E% is very high in the order of (9
(9
to (9
(2
L$ %he gate leakage current of a N.E%
is of the order of (9
&>
1 and its input resistance is of the order of (9
:
L$

iii) %he output characteristics of the N.E% are flatter than those of the /F+.E% and hence! the
drain resistance of a N.E% (9$( to (/L) is much higher than that of a /F+.E% (( to 29AL)$
iv) N.E%#s are operated only in the depletion mode$ %he depletion type /F+.E% may be
operated in both depletion and enhancement mode$

v) Comparing to N.E%! /F+.E%#s are easier to fabricate$

vi) /F+.E% is very susceptible to over load voltage and needs special handling during
installation$ It gets damaged easily if it is not properly handled$

vii) /F+.E% has 'ero off set voltage$ 1s it is a symmetrical device! the source and drain can
be interchanged$ %hese two properties are very useful in analog signal switching$

viii) +pecial digital C/F+ circuits are available which involve near&'ero power dissipation and
very low voltage and current re?uirements$ %his makes them most suitable for portable
systems$
/F+.E%#s are widely used in digital 0)+I circuits than N.E%#s because of their advantage$
"omparison of $-channel 7ith P-channel 0&%FET8s:

($ %he p&channel enhancement /F+.E% is very popular because it is much easier and cheaper
to produce than the n&channel device$
*$ %he hole mobility is nearly *$2 times lowe than the electron mobility$ %hus! a p&channel
/F+.E% occupies a larger area than an n&channel /F+.E% having the same I
D
rating$
,$ %he drain resistance of p&channel /F+.E% is three times higher than that for an identical n&
channel /F+.E%$
-$ %he n&channel /F+.E% has the higher packing density which makes it faster in switching
applications due to the smaller unction areas and lower inherent capacitances$
2$ %he n&channel /F+.E% is smaller for the same comple=ity than p&channel device$
Q$ Due to the positively charged contaminants! the n&channel /F+.E% may turn FB
prematurely$ Whereas p&channel device will not be affected$

www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD


9$'9$"T&$ T#A$%%T&#:

3ni Nunction %ransistor (3N%) is a three terminal semi conductor switching device$ 1s it has
only one MB unction and three leads! it is commonly called as 3ni Nunction %ransistor$

%he three terminals are7 Emitter (E)! 8ase( (8() and 8ase* (8*)$

"onstruction and %ymbol:

%he basic structure and symbol of 3N% is shown in figure below$
It consists of a lightly doped n&type silicon bar with a heavily doped p&type material alloyed
to its one side closer to 8* for producing single MB unction$

.ig$ 3N% (a) 8asic structure (b) Circuit symbol

Eere the emitter leg is drawn at an angle to the vertical and the arrow indicates the
direction of the conventional current$

&peration of 9'T:

%he inter base resistance between 8* and 8( of the silicon bar is! 6
88
=6
8(
R 6
8*$

With emitter terminal open! if voltage 0
88
is applied between the two bases! a voltage
gradient is established along the n&type bar$

%he voltage drop across 6
8(
is given by
1
V V
BB
= ! where the intrinsic stand&off ratio

1
1 2
R
B
R R
B B
=
+
$ %he typical value of ranges from 9$2Q to 9$K2$
%his voltage 0
(
reverse biases the MB&unction and emitter current is cut&off$ 8ut a small
leakage current flows from 8* to emitter due to minority carriers$ %he e?uivalent circuit of 3N% is
shown in figure below$

.ig$ 3N% e?uivalent circuit$
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD

If a negative voltage is applied to the emitter! MB&unction remains reverse biased and the
emitter current is cut&of$ %he device is now in the "F..# state$

If a positive voltage 0
E
is applied to the emitter! the MB&unction will remain reverse biased
so long as 0
E
is less than 0
(
$ If 0
E
e=ceeds 0
(
by the cut&in voltage vT! the diode becomes forward
biased$ 3nder this condition! holes are inected into n&type bar$ %hese holes are repelled by the
terminal 8* and are attracted by the terminal 8($ 1ccumulations of holes in E to 8( region reduce
the resistance in this section and hence emitter current I
E
is increased and is limited by 0
E
$ %he
device is now in the "FB# state$

"haracteristics of 9'T:

.igure below shows the input characteristics of 3N%$


Eere! up to the peak point M! the diode is reverse biased and hence! the region to the left
of the peak point is called cut&off region$
1t M! the peak voltage V V V
P BB


= + ! the diode starts conducting and holes are
inected into n&layer$ Eence! resistance decreases thereby decreasing 0
E
for the increase in I
E
$ +F
there is a negative resistance region from peak point M to valley point 0$

1fter the valley point! the device is driven into saturation and behaves like a conventional
forward biased MB&unction diode$ %he region to the right of the valley point is called saturation
region$ In the valley point! the resistance is changes from negative to positive$ %he resistance
remains positive in the saturation region$

Due to the negative resistance property! a 3N% can be employed in a variety of applications!
vi'$! a saw&tooth wave generator! pulse generator! switching! timing and phase control circuits$
9'T #ela5ation &scillator:
%he 6ela=ation oscillator using 3N% which is meant for generating saw&tooth waveform is
shown in figure below7

.ig7 3N% 6ela=ation Fscillator$
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD

It consists of a 3N% and a capacitor C
E
which is charged through 6
E
as the supply voltage 0
88
is
switched FB$

%he voltage across the capacitor increases e=ponentially and when the capacitor voltage
reach the peak point voltage 0
M
! the 3N% starts conducting and the capacitor voltage is discharged
rapidly through E8( and 6($

1fter the peak point voltage of 3N% is reached! it provides negative resistance to the
discharge path which is useful in the working of the rela=ation oscillator$ 1s the capacitor voltage
reaches 'ero! the device then cuts off and capacitor C
E
starts to charge again$ %his cycle is
repeated continuously generating a saw&tooth waveform across C
E
$

%he inclusion of e=ternal resistors 6* and 6( in series with 8* and 8( provides spike
waveforms$ When the 3N% fires! the sudden surge of current through 8( causes drop across 6(!
which provides positive going spikes$

1lso! at the time of firing! fall of 0
E8(
causes I
*
to increase rapidly which generates negative
going spikes across 6
*
$ 8y changing the values of capacitance C
E
(or) resistance 6
E
! fre?uency of
the output waveform can be changed as desired! since these values control the time constant 6
E
C
E

of the capacitor changing circuit$

Fre:uency of oscillations:

%he time period and hence the fre?uency of the saw&tooth wave can be calculated as
follows$ 1ssuming that the capacitor is initially uncharged! the voltage 0
C
across the capacitor prior
to breakdown is given by
/
1
t R C
E E
V V e
BB C



=

Where 6
E
C
E
= charging time constant of resistor&capacitor circuit! and t= time from the
commencement of the waveform$ %he discharge of the capacitor occurs when 0
C
is e?ual to the
peak&point voltage 0
M
! i$e!


www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD

/
1
t R C
E E
V V V e
P BB BB

= =


/
1
t R C
E E
e

=

/
1
t R C
E E
e

=
1
log
1
t R C
e
E E




=



1
2.303 log
10
1
R C
E E




=



If the discharge time of the capacitor is neglected! then t=%! the period of the wave$
%herefore! fre?uency of oscillations of saw&tooth wave!


1 1
1
2.3 log
10
1
f
T
R C
E E




= =



%"# (%!"&$ "&$T#&!!ED #E"TFE#)

%he basic structure and circuit symbol of +C6 is shown in figure below$

It is a four layer three terminal device in which the end p&layer acts as anode! the end n&
layer acts as anode! the end n&layer acts as cathode and p&layer nearer to cathode acts as gate$

1s leakage current in silicon is very small compared to germanium! +C6#s are made of
silicon and not germanium$





(a) 8asic +tructure (b) Circuit symbol


.ig! 8asic structure and circuit symbol of +C6$
www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD

&peration of %"#:

%he operation of +C6 is divided into two categories!

i) +hen gate is open:

Consider that the anode is positive with respect to cathode and gate is open$

%he unctions N
(
and N
,
are forward biased and unctions N
*
is reverse biased$ %here is
depletion region around N
*
and only leakage current flows which is negligibly small$ Mractically the
+C6 is said to be "F..#$ %his is called forward blocking state of +C6 and voltage applied to anode
and cathode with anode positive is called forward voltage. %his is shown in figure (a) below$


(a) N
(
! N
,
.orward biased$
N
*
6everse biased$

With gate open! if cathode is made positive with respect to anode! the unctions N
(
! N
,

become reverse biased and N
*
forward biased$ +till the current flowing is leakage current! which
can be neglected as it is very small$ %he voltage applied to make cathode positive is called reverse
voltage and +C6 is said to be in reverse blocking state$ %his is shown in the figure (b) below$




(a) N
(
! N
,
6everse biased$
N
*
.orward biased$
.ig$ Fperation of +C6 when gate is open (a)! (b)$

www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD

2; +hen gate is closed:

Consider that the voltage is applied between gate and cathode when the +C6 is in forward
blocking state$ %he gate is made positive with respect to the cathode$ %he electrons from n&type
cathode! which are maority in number! cross the unction N
,
to reach to positive of battery$

While holes from p&type move towards the negative of battery$ %his constitutes the gate
current$ %his current increases the anode current as some of the electrons cross unction N
*
$ 1s
anode current increases! more electrons cross the unction N
*
and the anode current further
increases$ Due to regenerative action! within short time! the unction N
*
breaks and +C6 conducts
heavily$

%he connections are shown in the figure$ %he resistance 6 is re?uired to limit the current$
Fnce the +C6 conducts! the gate loses its control$


.ig$ Fperation of +C6 when gate is closed$

"haracteristics of %"#:

%he characteristics are divided into two sections7
i) .orward characteristics
ii) 6everse characteristics

i) For7ard characteristics:

It shows a forward blocking region! when I
G
=9$ It also shows that when forward voltage
increases up to 0
8F
! the +C6 turns FB and high current results$

It also shows that! if gate bias is used then as gate current increases! less voltage is
re?uired to turn FB the +C6$

If the forward current falls below the level of the holding current I
E
! then depletion region
begins to develop around N
*
and device goes into the forward blocking region$

When +C6 is turned on from F.. state! the resulting forward current is called latching
current I
)
$ %he latching current is slightly higher than the holding current


ii) #everse characteristics:

If the anode to cathode voltage is reversed! then the device enters into the reverse
blocking region$ %he current is negligibly small and practically neglected$

If the reverse voltage is increases! similar to the diode! at a particular value avalanche
breakdown occurs and a large current flows through the device$ %his is called reverse breakdown
and the voltage at which this happens is called reverse breakdown voltage

www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD



.ig$ Characteristics of +C6$

T7o Transistor Analogy:

%he easiest way to understand how +C6 works it ot visuali'e it separately into two halves!
as shown in the figure$ %he left half is a p&n&p transistor and right half is n&p&n transistor$ %his is
also called two transistor model of +C6$

%he collector current of %
(
becomes base current of %
*
and collector current of %
*
becomes
base current of %
(
$

.ig! %wo transistor model of +C6$

0athematical Analysis:

)et I
C(
and I
C*
are collector currents! I
E(
and I
E*
are emitter currents while I
8(
and I
8*
are
base currents of transistors %
(
and %
*$

www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SHAMSHABAD, HYDERABAD


)et both the transistors are operating in active region$

.rom transistor analysis we can write!

1 1 1
I IE I
C CO
= + and
2 2 2
I IE I
C CO
= +

Where I
CF
= 6everse current (or) leakage current$

1nd
1

=
+

Bow! I
E*
= I
C*
R I
8*

I
1
= 1node current = I
E(

I
A
= Cathode current = I
E*

I
G
= Gate current
Bow! I
A
= I
1
R I
G

2 2 2
I I I I I
E A G C B
= + = +

8ut I
8*
= I
C(
R I
G


2 1
I I I I I
A G C C G
+ = + +

+ubstituting I
C(
and I
C*
!

1 1 1 2 2 2
I IE I IE I
A CO CO
= + + +
( )
2 1 1 2
I I I I I I
A A G A CO CO
= + + + +


2 1 2 1 2
I I I I I I
A A A G CO CO
= + +


( )
2 1 2
1 2
1
G CO CO
I I I
I
A


+ +
=
+

In blocking state
1
and
2
are small$ %hus I
1
is small$

1s
1 2
+ approaches unit! the +C6 is ready to enter into conduction$ %hus due to
positive gate current! the regenerative action takes place and +C6 conducts$
















www.jntuworld.com
www.jntuworld.com
www.jwjobs.net

You might also like