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Medium Access Control Sub Layer

Networks can be divided into two categories
1. point-point channels
2. Broadcast Channels
MAC Layer deals with broadcast channels.
The data link layer divided into two sub-layes
1. MAC.
2. LAC/Data link Layer.
MAC is the Bottom Sub-layer.
LAC is the upper Sub-layer.
LAC deals with point-point channels. p p
MAC deals with broadcast channels.
In any broadcast network, the key issue is how to determine who
gets use the channel when there is a competition for it.
For Ex: Conference call between more than two people.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
It is very clear that when one of them stops speaking, two or more
will start speaking at once, leading chos.
In a face-face meeting chos are avoided by externally.
But in system, when only a single channel is available, determing
who should get next is much harder who should get next is much harder.
Many protocols are developed to solve the problem.
Broadcast channels are sometimes referred to as multi access
channels or r andom access channels.
The protocols used to determine who goes next on a multiaccess
channel belong to a data link layer sub-layer called MAC sub-layer.
The MAC sub layer is important for LANs The MAC sub-layer is important for LANs.
In general WAN is point-point, except satellite networks.
Multiaccess channels & LAN are closely related, so MAC deals with
LAN.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Static Channel Allocation in LAN & WAN
Let us assume single channel for multiple competing users.
It using FDM.
If there N users, the bandwidth divided into N equal portions, each
i i user using one portion.
When number of users is large and continuously varying or traffic
is bursty FDM exist with some problems.
1. If fewer than N users using the large bandwidth is wasted.
2. If more than N user try to access, for some other permission is
denied due to lack of bandwidth.
D il bili f l b d id h h 3. Due to availability of less bandwidth, some user even they wont
sent or receive any thing.
static channel allocation methods are not efficient for bursty
traffic.
Dynamic channel allocation is more efficient for bursty traffic.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Dynami c Channel Allocati on i n LAN & WAN
Before going to discuss about dynamic channel allocation, five key
assumptions are described below
1. Stati on Model
A i h N i d d i A system with N independent stations.
A station can be any device cable of send or receive or both.
Each with a program or user that generate frames for
transmission.
Stations are also called terminals.
The probability of a frame being generated in interval of length t
i is t.
Where is constant.
Once a frame has been generated, the station is blocked and does
nothing until the frame successfully transmitted.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
2. Si ngle Channel Assumpti on
A single channel is available for all communication.
All stations can transmit and receive on it only.
3. Colli si on Assumpti on
If two frames are transmitted simultaneously, the overlap in time
and the resulting signal is garbled.
This event is called collision.
All stations can detect collisions and collided frames must be
retransmit.
4a. Conti nues Ti me
Frame Transmission begin at any instant of time.
There is no matter clock dividing time into discrete intervals.
4b.Slotted Ti me
Time is divided into discrete intervals.
The frame transmission begin at the start of the slot.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
A slot contains o, 1, or more frames.
A slot can be idle, a successful transmission, or a collision.
5a. Car r i er Sense
A station can tell if the channel in use before trying to use it.
If the channel is sensed as busy, no station will attempt to use it
until it goes idle.
5b. No Car r i er Sense
A station cant sense before trying to use it.
They just go ahead and transmit.
Later they will check whether the transmission was successful or
not.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Multi ple Access Pr otocols
Access Control defines
When a station can access the medium.
What to do when the medium is busy.
How to determine if the transmission is a success or failure How to determine if the transmission is a success or failure.
What should be done if there is an access conflict.
ALOHA Pr otocol
ALOHA, the earliest random access method.
It was developed at the university of hawaii in early 1970.
It was designed for radio(wireless) LAN, but it support any shared
media.
There is a possibility of collision in this mechanism.
There are two types of ALOHA.
Pur e ALOHA
The original ALOHA protocol is pure ALOHA.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
The idea is that each station sends frame whenever it has frame to
send.
There is only one channel to share, there is the possibility of
collision.
The following diagram shows the pure ALOHA with 4 stations The following diagram shows the pure ALOHA with 4 stations.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Some of these frames collide because of multiple frames are in the
contention for the shared channel.
To determine collided, damaged or lost fames pure ALOHA relies
on ACK from the receiver.
If the ACK is does not arrive after time out period the station If the ACK is does not arrive after time-out period, the station
assumes frames lost or damage and then retransmit.
Suppose more than two stations try to resent at the same time
again collision is occurred.
Instead of resent immediately, a station wait random amount of
time and then resent.
The random amount of time for minimizing collisions we will call The random amount of time for minimizing collisions, we will call
this back-off time T
B.
Pure ALOHA resent several number of times(K
max
) and try later for
retransmission.
The following flowchart shows the functionality of pure ALOHA.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Pure ALOHA Flowchart.
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Limitation of pure ALOHA
1. There is no rule when the station can sent a frame.
2. Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure
ALOHA.
Sl d ALOHA Slotted ALOHA
Time is divided into slots and force the station to send only at the
beginning of the slot.
If station misses this moment, it wait until the beginning of the
next time slot.
There is still the possibility of collision, if two stations try to send
at the same time slot at the same time slot.
The following diagram shows the collision in slotted ALOHA.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Collision in slotted ALOHA
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Car r i er Sense Multi ple Access(CSMA)
To minimize the collision and improve the efficiency, the CSMA
method was developed.
In this mechanism, a station sense the medium before trying to use
it it.
CSMA requires that each station first listen the medium before
sending the frame.
CSMA based on the principle sense before transmission or listen
before talk.
CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision, but it can not
eliminate it eliminate it.
Propagation delay may still result in collisions.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Per si stence Str ategy
It defines procedures for a station that senses a busy medium.
Nonper si stent :
A station that has a frame to send sense the line.
If the line is idle it send immediately If the line is idle, it send immediately.
It the line is not idle, it wait random amount of time again sense
the carrier.
It minimize the collisions, but two or more stations wait same
amount of time there is chance of collision.
Per si stent:
station sends a frame after sensing the line
1-persistent station sends immediately
p-persistent station sends with probability p if it finds the line
idle based on a random number.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Flow diagram for persistent methods.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
The CSMA does not specify the collision during transmission.
CSMA/CD handle the collision.
Car r i er Sense Multi ple Access wi th Colli si on Detecti on(CSMA/ CD).
Station sends a frame, then monitors the medium to see if the
transmission was successful.
If a collision is detected, jamming signal is transmitted and exponential
backoff method is used to determine when to resend.
There is also a collision possibility in CSM/CD algorithm.
The following diagram shows the collision in CSMA/CD.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Flow Graph of CSMA/CD
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Car r i er Sense Multi ple Access wi th Colli si on
Avoi dance(CSMA/ CA)
It is used in wireless LANs.
To need collision avoidance on wireless LANs, because they can not
detect collisions detect collisions.
Collisions are avoided through three strategies
1. Interframe space
2. Contention window
3. ACK.
1. Interframe Space
For avoiding the collisions, when the idle channel is found, the
station does not send immediately, it will wait a period of time
called the i nter far mespace(I FS).
The IFS time allow the inline frame (transmitting frame) to reach
the destination.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
2. Contention Window
If after IFS, channel is idle, it will further wait time equal to the
contention time.
The contention window is an amount of time divided into slots.
Th b f l i i d h di b k ff The number of slots in a window changes according to back-off
strategy.
If the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart the timer
of the contention window, but it stops the timer and restart it
when the channel becomes idle.
3. Acknowledgement
With all these precautions still there is a possibility of collision With all these precautions, still there is a possibility of collision
occurred during transmission or corrupted during transmission.
CSMA/CA uses positive ACK & time-outs for efficient
transmission.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Flow diagram of CSMA/CA
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
MAC Addr ess
A Media Access Control address (MAC address) is a unique
identifier assigned to network interfaces for communications on
the physical network segment.
MAC addresses are most often assigned by the manufacturer of a MAC addresses are most often assigned by the manufacturer of a
network interface card (NIC) and are stored in its hardware.
It may also be known as an Ethernet hardware
address (EHA), hardware address or physical address.
MAC addresses are formed according to the rules of one of three
numbering name spaces managed by the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE): MAC-48, EUI-48, and EUI-64. g ( ) 4 , 4 , 4
The standard (IEEE 802) format for MAC-48 addresses is in
human-friendly form is six groups of two hexadecimal digits,
separated by hyphens (-) or colons (:), in transmission order,
e.g. 01-23-45-67-89-ab or 01:23:45:67:89:ab.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
For Ex:
MAC address: like Social Security Number
IP address: like postal address
MAC flat address => portability
can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portable
depends on network to which one attaches
The original IEEE 802 MAC address comes from the original
xerox Ethernet addressing scheme.
This 48-bit address space contains potentially 2
48
or p p y
281,474,976,710,656 possible MAC addresses.
Addresses can either be universally administered
addresses or locally administered addresses
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Universally administered and locally administered addresses are
distinguished by setting the second least significant bit of the most
significant byte of the address.
If the bit is 0, the address is universally administered. If it is 1, the
address is locally administered address is locally administered.
In the example address 06-00-00-00-00-01 the most significant
byte is 06 (hex), the binary form of which is 00000110, where the
second least significant bit is 1. Therefore, it is a locally
administered address.
the MAC address can be either unicast or multicast.
If the least significant bit of the most significant octet of an address g g
is set to 0 (zero), the frame is meant to reach only one
receiving NIC, This type of transmission is called unicast.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
If the least significant bit of the most significant address octet is set
to 1, the frame will still be sent only once.
however, NICs will choose to accept it based on different criteria
than a matching MAC address, This is called multicast addressing.
MAC address structure MAC address structure
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
I EEE802.X
Local Area Network (LAN) network connecting devices in a
limited geographic area, usually privately owned and limited to a
single office, building, or campus
Four typical architectures used: yp
Ethernet, Token Bus, Token Ring, and Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI)
Ethernet most dominant protocol.
Each protocol is based on HDLC.
IEEE 802.x standard specifying functions of the physical layer and
data link layer (as well as some functions in the network layer) in
LAN LAN.
802 define project was started in the year 198o of 2
nd
month.
X defines various protocols related to LAN.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Data link layer is further subdivided into two sublayers:
Logical Link Control (LLC/LAC).
Medium Access Control (MAC).
Pr oj ect 802 and OSI Model
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Various protocols corresponds to MAC are
Data Link Layer Sublayers
Logical Link Control (LLC) upper layer
Non-architecture specific
dl l i l dd i l i f i d d Handles logical addressing, control information and data
Medium Access Control (MAC) lower layer
Proprietary to specific LAN product (e.g. Ethernet, Token Ring, Token
Bus, etc.)
Resolves contention for the medium, provides synchronization, flow
control, physical addressing, and error control specifications
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Ether net (I EEE802.3)
Ethernet is dominating protocol on LAN.
The name Ethernet refers cabling and other specifications.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
i d di ffi i i i lli i d i i is used to coordinate traffic, minimize collisions, and maximize
number of frames delivered successfully.
EthernetFrameFormat
It Consists of seven fields
No mechanism for acknowledging received frames and also
considered an unreliable medium.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Preamble seven bytes of alternating 0s and 1s to notify receiver of
incoming frame and to provide synchronization.
Start frame delimiter (SFD) one byte signaling the beginning of
the frame.
Destination address (DA) six bytes containing the physical Destination address (DA) six bytes containing the physical
address of the next destination; if packet must reach another LAN,
this field contains the physical address of the router; upon reaching
the target network, field then contains the physical address of the
destination device.
Source address (SA) six byte field containing physical address of
last station to forward packet, sending station or most recent
router
Length/type two bytes indicating number of bytes in coming
PDU; if fixed length, can indicate type
Data 46 to 1500 bytes
CRC CRC-32 error detection information
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
EthernetFrameLength
Requiresaminimumlengthof512bits(64bytes)toallowfor
correctoperationofCSMA/CD
Minimumpayloadlength46bytes
Maximumlengthissetto12,144bits(1518bytes)
Maximumpayloadlength1500bytes
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Ether net Addr essi ng
Each station on the network must have a unique physical address
Provided by a six-byte physical address encoded on the network
interface card (NIC).
N ll i i h d i l i Normally written in hexadecimal notation.
MAC address are Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addressing
Unicast belonging to just one station
Multicast defines a group of addresses
Broadcast recipients are all stations on network
Ethernet uses Manchester Encoding for signaling.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Ether net I mplementati on
All Ethernet LANs are configured as logical buses.
Physical implementation may be star or bus.
Protocol broadcasts frame to every station but is read only by
i hi h i i dd d station to which it is addressed.
Categor i es of tr adi ti onal/ standar d Ether net
There are four different standard ethernets.
Name Cable Max.Seg Nodes/
seg
advantages
10base5 Thick coax 500m 100 Original cable, long distance
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5 5 g , g
10base2 Thin coax 185m 30 No hub needed
10base-T Twisted Pair 100m 1024 Cheapest system
10base-F Fiber Optic 200m 1024 Best between buildings
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
First number indicates data rate in Mbps.
Last number indicates maximum cable length or type.
Baseband digitalsignalsusingManchesterencoding.
10base5 popularly called thi ck ether net or thi cknet
10base2 is called thin ethernet or thinnet.
10Base5 - Thi cknet
A rigid coaxial cable (RG-8) approx. 0.4 in. thick used in the
original Ethernet networks
Bus topology LAN using base signaling with a maximum segment
distance of 500 meters
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Thi cknet Char acter i sti cs
Supports transmission rates up to 10 Mbps in Baseband mode
Less expensive than fiber-optic cable, but more expensive than
other types of coax
Wide diameter and excellent shielding make it more resistant to Wide diameter and excellent shielding make it more resistant to
noise than other types of wiring
Physical connectors and cables include coaxial cable, NIC cards,
transceivers, and attachment unit interface (AUI) cables
10Base5 Connector s
Transceiver intermediary device; also called a medium
attachment unit (MAU)
Performs CSMA/CD function; may contain small buffer
Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) also called a transceiver cable
15-wire cable which performs physical layer interface functions
between station and transceiver
Plugs into NIC and transceiver
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Transceiver tap allows connection to a line at any point.
10Base5Topology
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
10Base2 Thi nnet
Cable diameter is approximately 0.64 cm (RG-58).
More flexible and easier to handle and install than Thicknet.
2 represents a maximum segment length of 185m (~200m).
Less expensive than Thicknet and fiber-optic cable; more expensive
than Twisted Pair wiring.
More resistant to noise than Twisted Pair; not as resistant as
Thicknet.
Major advantages are its very low cost and relative ease of use.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Thi nnet Characteri sti cs
Shorter range (185 meters) and smaller capacity.
Bus topology LAN.
Connectors and cables include: NICs, thin coaxial cable, and BNC-
T connectors.
Transceiver is moved into NIC; tap replaced by connector splicing
directly into the cable, eliminating need for AUI cables.
BNC-T connector T-shaped device with 3 ports: one for the NIC
and one each for input/output ends of cable.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Thi nNet Cabli ng & Connectors
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
10Base-T: Twi sted Pai r Ethernet
Third implementation is 10base-T.
easiest to install and reconfigure.
Star topology LAN using UTP cable and no need of AUI.
Supports data rage of 10 Mbps with a max hub to station
length of 100 meters
Transceiver operations are carried out in an intelligent hub.
NIC reads destination address of frame and only opens if it
matches that address.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
10Base-T
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
10Base-F: Fi ber Li nk Ether net
Uses star topology to connect stations to a hub
External transceiver called a fiber-optic MAU connects processing
device to fiber-optic cables via a 15-wire transceiver
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Other ether nets
1. Bridged Ethernet.
2. Switched ethernet.
3. Full-Duplex ethernet.
4. Fast ethernet
5. Gigabit thernet.
6. Ten-Gigabit ethernet.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Wi r eless LAN
I EEE define the specifications for the wirelessLAN, called IEEE
802.11.
It covers the Physical Layer & Data Link Layer.
A hi Ar chi tectur e
wirelessLANdefines two kinds of stations
1. Basic Service Set (BSS).
2. Extended Service Set(ESS).
BSS
Basic service set (BSS) stationary or mobile wireless stations and
l b i k i (AP) a central base station known as an access point (AP).
AP is option and BSS without an AP is an ad hoc architecture.
BSS with an AP is referred to as infrastructure network.
BSS with out AP is a stand-alone n/w and can not send data to
other BSSs.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Basic service Sets(BSS)
ESS
Extended service set (ESS) two or more BSSs with APs connected
through a distribution system (wired LAN) in an infrastructure
network.
ESS uses two types of stations mobile & stationary.
The mobile stations are stations inside BSS.
The stationary stations are AP stations that are part of wired
LAN.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
The stations are connected with in BSS without using AP, but
across BSS via two APs.
The ESS architecture are
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Stati on Types
IEE802.11 defines three types of stations based on their mobility in
WirelessLAN
1. No-tr ansi ti on mobi li ty either stationary or moving only
inside a BSS inside a BSS.
2. BSS-tr ansi ti on mobi li ty can move from one BSS to another,
but confined inside one ESS.
3. ESS-tr ansi ti on mobi li ty can move from one ESS to another.
Physi cal Layer i n WLAN
There are six specifications in WLAN.
Th f ll i di h h i l l i l t ti The following diagram shows physical layer implementations
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
FHSS
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum in a 2.4 GHz band.
Carrier sends on one frequency for short duration then hops to
another frequency for same duration, hops again to another for
t f ti d same amount of time and so on
Spreading adds security since only sender and receiver agree on
sequence of allocated bands.
The following shows the order of data flow
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Contention is handled by MAC sublayer since all stations use the
same subbands.
Pseudorandom number generator selects the hopping sequence.
Modulation is FSK resulting in a data rate of 1 or 2 Mbps.
DSSS DSSS
Direct sequence spread spectrum in a 2.4 GHz band.
Each bit is replaced by a sequence of bits called a chip code,
implemented at the physical layer.
Sender splits each byte of data into several parts and sends them
concurrently on different frequencies .
Modulation is PSK, BPSK, or QPSK; data rate is 1 or 2 Mbps. , , Q ; p
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
802.11a OFDM
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing using a 5-GHz
band.
Same as FDM except all subbands are used by only one source
i i at a given time.
Security increased by assigning sub-bands randomly.
UsesPSKandQAM,yieldingdataratesof18Mbps(PSK)and54Mbps(QAM)
802.11b HR-DSSS
High-rate DSSS using a 2.4 GHz band
Similar to DSSS except for encoding method
Uses complementary code keying (CCK), encoding 4 or 8 bits to
one CCK symbol
Defines four data rates: 1, 2, 5.5, and 11 Mbps
Modulation techniques are BPSK and QPSK
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
802.11g OFDM
Uses OFDM with 2.4 GHz band.
Achieves a 54-Mbps data rate.
It defines forward error correction.
Works with same 802.11b equipment.
MAC sub-layer
IEEE820.11 MAC layer is divided into two sub-layer.
1. Distributed Coordination Function(DCF).
2. Point Coordination Function(PCF).
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
DCF
DCF uses CSMA/CA.
It deals with frame exchange time line in WLAN.
1. Before sending a frame , the station sense the channel for status.
2. The channel uses a persistence strategy with a back-off limit.
3. After the station is found to be idle, it wail it for a period of time
called the distributed interframe space( DIFS).
4. The station sends a control frame called the request to send(RTS).
5. The receiver, after receiving the RTS wait a period of time called
short interframe space(SIFS) and the sends a control frame called
h l d(CTS) the clear to send(CTS).
6. The station send data after waiting an amount of time equal to
SIFS.
7. The receiving station after SIFS, send ACK to show that the frame
has been received.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
The following diagram shows the data flow in WLAN.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
PCF
Is an optional layer in WLAN.
It is implemented on top of DCF and is for time sensitivity
transmission.
PCF h li d i f lli h d PCF has a centralized, contention-free polling method.
wireless transmission is very noisy, corrupted frames need to
transmit.
The WLAN divide the large frames into small fragments and it is
more efficient to handle small frames than large one.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Frame Format
The MAC layer frame consists of 9 fields
Fr ame Contr ol
It is two byte filed and defines type of frame & some control y yp
information.
The purpose of each sub-filed explained below.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
The FC subfileds are
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
D:
In all the frames this filed defines duration of the frame.
But in control frame, this field defines ID of the frame.
Addr esses
There are 4 address filed each of 6-byte long.
The meaning of each filed depends on direction of data flow.
Sequence Contr ol:
It define sequence number of frames used in flow control.
Fr ame Body
This filed contains data in between 0 to 2312 bytes. 3 y
It contains information based on the type of the frame.
FCS:
It is 4 byte filed.
It uses CRC-32 for error detection.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Types of Fr ames
A wireless LAN defines three types of frames and are management,
control & data frames.
For Ex: control frames for accessing the channel & ack.
Th l f i d ifi d b d & b fi ld The control frames are indentified based on type & sub-type fields
in FC filed.
Type value o1 indicates control frame.
The different control frames are
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Addr essi ng Mechani sm
Addressing mechanism specifies 4 cases.
The cases are defined by using two flag fields ToDS & FromDS in
FC.
E h fi ld b i h d l i f diff Each field can be either 0 or 1 and resulting four different cases.
Case 1: 0 0
In this case ToDS is 0 and FromDS is 0.
This means the frame is not going to DS & frame is not coming
from DS.
The frame is going from station to another station in side BSS.
Address1 contains destination address.
Address2 contains source address.
Address3 contains BSS-ID.
Addrees4 not in use.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
The following diagram shows the communication of case1.
Case 2: 0 1
In this case ToDS is 0 and From DS is 1.
The frame is coming from DS, it means frame is going to station
and coming from an AP.
Address1 destination station address.
Address2 sending AP address.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Address3 source station address.
Addess4 not in use.
Following diagram shows the data flow in case2.
Case 3: 1 0
In this case ToDS is 1 and From DS is 0.
The frame is going to DS, it means frame is coming from station
and going to an AP.
Address1 Receiving AP address.
Address2 source station address.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Address3 destination station address.
Addess4 not in use.
Following diagram shows the data flow in case3.
Case4: 11 4
In this case ToDS is 1 and From DS is 1.
The frame is going from one AP to another AP.
Address1 destination AP address.
Address2 source AP address.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Address3 destination station address.
Addess4 source station address.
Following diagram shows the data flow in case4.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
The following table shows the address in each case.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Br i dges
LAN may need to cover more distance than the media can
handle effectively.
Number of stations may be too great for efficient frame delivery
f h k or management of the network.
An internetwork or internet is two or more networks connected
for exchanging resources.
Common devices used: repeaters, bridges, routers and gateways.
Connecti ng Devi ces
Five types:
Repeaters
Hubs
Bridges
Two- and three-layer switches
Gateway
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17
Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Connecting devices operate in different layers
Note : gateway operate in all five layers of the internet model. g y p y
JPR COMPUTER NETWORKS
Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Br i dge functi ons
Operate in both physical and data link layers.
Used to divide a network into smaller segments.
May also relay frames between separate LANs.
Keeps traffic from each segment separate and useful for
controlling congestion and provides isolation, as well as
security.
Checks address of frame and only forwards to segment to which
address belongs.
The following diagram shows the bridge functionality g g g y
JPR COMPUTER NETWORKS
Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Br i dge
JPR COMPUTER NETWORKS
Medium Access Control Sub Layer
The bridge can transmit the frame across the network.
The bridge has a table used in filtering.
A bridge does not change the MAC address, it means MAC address
transport across the bridge.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Types of br i dges
1. Tr anspar ent br i dges.
2. Sour ce r outi ng br i dges.
Tr anspar ent br i dges
In this network stations are completely unaware of the bridges
existence.
If the bridge is added or deleted completely transparent to the
stations.
A N/W with transparent bridges must meet three criteria
1. Frames must forward from one station to another.
2. The table is automatically made by learning frame movements in
the network.
3. Loops in the system must be prevented.
JPR COMPUTER NETWORKS
Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Lear ni ng Br i dges or dynami c constr ucti on of Br i dge Table
To construct dynamic table, we need bridge that gradually learns
from frame movements.
To do this, bridge inspects both the destination & sources
addresses addresses.
The destination address for the forwarding decision.
The source address for adding entries in the table.
The learning process explained with the following example.
JPR COMPUTER NETWORKS
Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Loop Pr oblem
Transparent bridges work fine as long as there are no
redundant bridges in the system.
Redundant bridges means more than one bridge between pair
of LANs.
Redundant bridges are standby bridges for handling bridge
failures.
The following diagrams shows creation of loop in a system
with two LANs.
For Ex: A System exits with two bridges & Two LANs For Ex: A System exits with two bridges & Two LANs.
JPR COMPUTER NETWORKS
Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Station A sends a frame to station D, both the bridges are
empty , both of them forward frame & update its tables.
Now two copies of frame on LAN2.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Now the two copies of frame on LAN1 and both the copies flood the
network.
This process continues and so on and form a loop.
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Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Spanni ng Tree
Spanning Tree is graph with no loops.
To construct n/w as a graph with bridges are vertices & LANs
are edges.
From the graph construct minimum spanning tree.
Redundant bridges may be installed to provide reliability.
To prevent infinite looping of packets between bridges, a
spanning tree algorithm is used to identify any redundant
paths.
Path with lowest cost will be identified and used as the Path with lowest cost will be identified and used as the
primary route that communications will be routed through;
in the event of blocking or bridge failure, secondary routes
may be used.
JPR COMPUTER NETWORKS
Medium Access Control Sub Layer
Sour ce Routi ng Br i dges
The presence of bridges in a system are aware of stations.
The source routing bridges are eliminate the loops.
Sender of packet defines bridges and routes that packet should
take before reach the destination.
Complete path of bridge IDs and destination address is defined
within the frame.
Bridge routing table is not used.
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