5 High+Voltage+Generation+and+Testing+2 0+updated+2012

BEX 44503 / BEK4113 BEX 44503 / BEK4113 BEX 44503 / BEK4113 BEX 44503 / BEK4113
High Voltage Engineering High Voltage Engineering

Generation of High Voltage
High Voltage Engineering High Voltage Engineering
Generation of High Voltage g g g g
BEE 3243 Electric Power Systems Module 1
Lecture Plan Lecture Plan
Objectives Objectives
To provide student with the knowledge of the
High Voltage generation
Also to introduce required testing techniques on
insulation that used the generation equipments
2
Learning Outcomes Learning Outcomes
At the end of this subject, the student should have the
ability to adopt the knowledge as follows:
(1) Understand the HV generation types
(2) Plan high voltage measurement and testing works of
high voltage electrical equipment
(3) Perform high voltage experiment setup or project to
complete a specific measurement
3
(4) Show concern to safety regulations in high voltage
measurement and testing works
Syllabus Syllabus yy
Subject 2 Subject 2 Generation of High Voltages
Subject 3 Subject 3 High Voltage Measurements Subject 3 Subject 3 High Voltage Measurements
and Diagnostic Testing of Insulation
4
HV Generations : Introduction HV Generations : Introduction
High voltage is a field of engineering linking the
scientific principles and industrial practice scientific principles and industrial practice.
The major use of high voltage is in the area of power
systems systems.
Increasing demand in power requires modern-system
operates at higher voltage operates at higher voltage.
DC is used in long transmission lines and equipments
such as electron microscope, x-ray units, particles p , y , p
accelerator, electrostatic precipitators and etc.
Power system equipments (e.g. transformer, circuit
5
y q p ( g ,
breaker, insulators, bushings etc.), cables and
overhead line with higher ac voltage ratings.
HV Generations: Problem HV Generations: Problem
Erecting the higher voltage levels exposing
equipment with high voltage / current stresses equipment with high voltage / current stresses
Major concern in insulating / separating these
equipment from the potential and earthed equipment from the potential and earthed
structure / object
The insulation provided must not only be able to The insulation provided must not only be able to
withstand the normal system voltage (with factor
of safety) but also from abnormal overvoltages
(i e imp lse stresses) (i.e. impulse stresses)
In this case, the system exposes with high
t it d f f
6
stresses magnitude from power frequency,
lightning and switching overvoltages
HV Generations : What to do? HV Generations : What to do?
Hence, these equipments need to be
tested at higher voltages (normal and
overvoltages levels) before they can
actually put into use.
It is therefore imperative that there must
be high voltage generators available to be high voltage generators available to
test an insulation system.
7
**High Voltage **High Voltage Generations Generations** ** High Voltage High Voltage Generations Generations
8
HV Generations: Types HV Generations: Types
The common types of High Voltage The common types of High Voltage
generators:
1) 1) HVAC HVAC Generators Generators
2) 2) HVDC HVDC Generators Generators
3) 3) Impulse Impulse Generators Generators 3) 3) Impulse Impulse Generators Generators
9
HVAC Generator HVAC Generator
The principle of the generator is to generate
an HVAC voltages. Uses transformer to step
up the voltage up the voltage.
They are three common types of HVAC They are three common types of HVAC
generator (transformer) which are:
Straight transformer
Cascaded transformer
10
Resonant transformer
HVAC Generator: General Characteristic of HVAC Generator: General Characteristic of
Testing Transformers Testing Transformers Testing Transformers Testing Transformers
Equipment used in power system is usually in
three-phase type, however, a generated test
voltage applied to the testing equipment / voltage applied to the testing equipment /
sample is in single-phase.
Thus, only one phase of the insulation
equipment can be tested at a time.
At same voltage rating, testing transformers
typically have a much lower kVA rating than
th t f
11
the power transformers.
HVAC Generator: General Characteristic of HVAC Generator: General Characteristic of
Testing Transformers Continue Testing Transformers Continue Testing Transformers Continue Testing Transformers Continue
This lower kVA rating is due to the usual short g
duration testing and smaller current produced
(varies within tens of mA to few amperes).
Thus, cooling of the windings will not be a major
problem.
Also the flux density in the testing transformer is
kept lower than the power transformer. This to
avoid high magnetising current that contain avoid high magnetising current that contain
harmonics that may distort the output test voltage.
T ti t f l t i d i
12
Testing transformer also more compact in design
with well insulated high-voltage windings.
Construction of Testing Transformers Construction of Testing Transformers
Using oil-insulated natural cooling test
transformers.
Usually is constructed as two types:
1) Tank type
2) Insulated enclosure type
13
14
Fig: Oil Fig: Oil- -insulated test transformer. (a) Tank type (b) Insulated enclosure type. insulated test transformer. (a) Tank type (b) Insulated enclosure type.
1) Tank type:
The core and the windings are enclosed in a metal The core and the windings are enclosed in a metal
container, the surface which provides natural
cooling.
Problem with high voltages due to high cost of
bushing and the large space requirement.
May contain less quantity of oil than the insulated
enclosure type, thus have small thermal
constants.
Heat dissipation through insulated enclosure is
high.
15
high.
Require bushing
2) Insulated enclosure type:
The core and the winding are surrounded by an
insulating cylinder.
Contain a relatively large quantity of oil and so
have large thermal time constants. g
The heat dissipation through the insulated
enclosure is small.
16
No bushing is required
HVAC Generators HVAC Generators
The principle of the generator is to generate The principle of the generator is to generate
single-phase HVAC voltage. Uses
transformer to step up the voltage.
They are three common types of HVAC
generator (transformer) which are: g ( )
1) Straight transformer
2) Cascaded transformer
17
3) Resonant transformer
1) Straight Transformer: Concept 1) Straight Transformer: Concept
Concept similar to the normal step-up transformer.
The transformer is having a single phase HV potential
at one-end side winding and usually being earthed on
the other end side winding the other end-side winding.
The iron-core and the enclosure / tank also being
th d earthed.
The low voltage winding maybe fed to the voltage g g y g
regulator (variac) for producing variable high voltage
level.
18
The rating of the primary winding is usually up to 230
V r.m.s and the high voltage output rating can be up
to 200 kV r.m.s.
Straight Transformers: Circuit Straight Transformers: Circuit
(a)
(b)
(c)
19
Fig: HVAC straight transformer. (a) Single unit circuit (b) Equivalent electrical Fig: HVAC straight transformer. (a) Single unit circuit (b) Equivalent electrical
circuit with a capacitive test object (c) Simplified circuit at high circuit with a capacitive test object (c) Simplified circuit at high- -voltage voltage--side side
HVAC Single Straight Transformer:
Manchester University Manchester University
20
12 kV HVAC Single Straight Oil 12 kV HVAC Single Straight Oil- -Immersed Transformer (Insulated Enclosure Type) Immersed Transformer (Insulated Enclosure Type)
100 kV TERCO HVAC & HVDC Set: UTHM
AC Generator AC Generator
21
1) Straight Transformer: Problem 1) Straight Transformer: Problem
Caution must be taken when using a straight transformer. It
is possible the use of the transformer with a particular load s poss b e t e use o t e t a s o e t a pa t cu a oad
capacitance will lead to a resonance condition being
developed.
In general, resonance occurs when the inductive reactance
and the capacitive reactance are of equal magnitude (L =
1/C), so:
1
This resonance condition may result in a higher than
LC
1
= e
required test voltage being applied across the test object
with an obvious damaging result.
22
Also, the resonance condition may not just accentuate the
fundamental frequency of the supply voltage, it can also
amplify harmonics causing distortion of output waveform.
Resonance Occurs in Straight Transformers Resonance Occurs in Straight Transformers
Note:
23
Fig: Illustration of resonance condition occurring in straight transformer Fig: Illustration of resonance condition occurring in straight transformer
Note:
LV resistance R = 0.25ohm, LV inductance L = 50mH
Load capacitance: 1000pF, Vi = 1kV
What happen during resonance? What happen during resonance?
In RLC series circuit, during resonance XL = XC
This causes applied V and I in-phase, giving VL=Vc
Giving Z = R (thus circuit totally dependable on R value) Giving Z = R (thus circuit totally dependable on R value)
This condition causes current at its maximum as I=V/R
Since = 2f, resonance occurs at frequency fr;
1
This condition also causes voltage overshoot or
LC
f
r
t 2
1
=
24
This condition also causes voltage overshoot or
magnification/ magnified many times greater than the supply
voltage (i.e. V
i
).
Calculation Example: Calculation Example: Calculation Example: Calculation Example:
A i l h HVAC RLC i it i t f A single phase HVAC RLC circuit consist of
inductance L of 50mH, capacitance C of 1000pF
and resistance of R of 0.25ohm. The supplied
voltage Vi is at 1kV r.m.s.
a)Determine the maximum current I the voltage a)Determine the maximum current Imax, the voltage
overshoot VL and Q factor of the circuit during the
resonance frequency fr condition. Neglect any
losses in the circ it losses in the circuit.
b)Find the Q factor of the circuit at 50Hz frequency
25
b)Find the Q factor of the circuit at 50Hz frequency.
Calculation Solution: Calculation Solution: Calculation Solution: Calculation Solution:
kV V ohm R
F pF C
H mH L
1 25 0
10 1000 1000
, 10 50 50
12
3
= =
= =
resonance At
1
; _
kV V ohm R
i
1 , 25 . 0 = =
Hz fr At 50 =
( )
f
LC
f
r
r
10 1000 10 50 2
1
2
1
12 3

=
=

t
t
( ) V V
L f I L I X I V V
Hz fr At
H C H L
Hz r L Hz C Hz L
10 50 50 2 10 4
2
, 50 _
3 3
50 50
50 _ max max max 50 _ 50 _
= =
= = = =
=
t
t e
V V
resonance at Also
kHz f
r
; _ _
51 . 22 =
( )
kV
kV
V
V
V
V
Q
kV V
V V
i
o
i
Hz L
Hz factor
Hz L
Hz C Hz L
83 . 62
1
83 . 62
83 . 62
10 50 50 2 10 4
50 _
50 __
50 _
50 _ 50 _
= = = =
=
t
kA
ohm
kV
R
V
I
R Z
V V
i
C L
4
25 . 0
1
max
= = =
=
=
u p Q
Hz factor
i i
. 63
50 __
~
( )
MV V V
V V
L f I L I X I V V
C L
r L C L
29 28
10 50 10 51 . 22 2 10 4
2
3 3 3
max max max
= =
= =
= = = =
t
t e
Value similar to the one shown in the graph
26
u kp
kV
MV
V
V
V
V
Q
MV V V
i
o
i
L
fr factor
C L
. 29 . 28
1
29 . 28

29 . 28
_
= = = =
= =
Resonance Occurs in Straight Transformers Resonance Occurs in Straight Transformers
Note:
27
Fig: Illustration of resonance condition occurring in straight transformer Fig: Illustration of resonance condition occurring in straight transformer
Note:
LV resistance R = 0.25ohm, LV inductance L = 50mH
Load capacitance: 1000pF, Vi = 1kV
2) HVAC Cascaded Transformer: General 2) HVAC Cascaded Transformer: General
Generating higher voltages requires large g g g q g
insulation level placing inside the straight
transformer (cost increases rapidly with
voltage) voltage).
Typically to generate a voltage level above 200
kV i i i l d h kV, it is more economical to cascade more than
one transformer in series.
In this case, by insulating the tank of the
second (and any subsequent) transformer from
earth can significantly reduce the insulation
28
earth, can significantly reduce the insulation
level in this transformer (thus reduce the cost!).
2) HVAC Cascaded Transformer: Principle 2) HVAC Cascaded Transformer: Principle
F h f th i l it t h i th For each of the single unit stages having three
windings; the low-voltage, high-voltage and
exciting windings. g g
The low-voltage and high-voltage windings
are follow the auto transformer concept while are follow the auto-transformer concept while
an exciting winding is used to supplies the low
voltage potential to the next stage low-voltage
inding winding.
Illustrations of the cascaded transformer
29
Illustrations of the cascaded transformer
concept can be seen in the next figures.
30
Fig 1: An Illustration of Three Stage HVAC Cascaded Transformer Fig 1: An Illustration of Three Stage HVAC Cascaded Transformer
31
Fig 2: Cascade arrangement for 300 kV Transformer Fig 2: Cascade arrangement for 300 kV Transformer
2) Cascaded Transformer Concept: Stage 2) Cascaded Transformer Concept: Stage- -II
Stage Stage- -I I
The low-voltage winding is connected to the
primary of the first transformer and its one-end p a y o t e st t a s o e a d ts o e e d
terminal is connected to the earthed transformer
tank.
Also one-end of the high-voltage winding is
earthed through the tank. The high-voltage output
from this first stage is V (i e 100 kV in Fig 2) from this first stage is V (i.e 100 kV in Fig. 2).
The exciting winding of this stage supplies (i.e 1
kV i Fi 2) h l l i di f II
32
kV in Fig. 2) the low-voltage winding of stage-II.
2) Cascaded Transformer Concept: Stage 2) Cascaded Transformer Concept: Stage- -II II
Stage Stage--II II gg
The high-voltage winding in this stage and that for the
previous stage-I are connected in series so that voltage p g g
2V is produced / available at the end of the high-voltage
winding of stage-II.
i e 2 x 100 kV = 200 kV such as shown in Fig 2 i.e. 2 x 100 kV = 200 kV such as shown in Fig. 2
The tank of the stage-II must be insulated (separated)
from earth (bear in mind that tank in stage-1 is earthed) from earth (bear in mind that tank in stage 1 is earthed).
This condition provides the HV output potential of
2V with respect to earth at one-end of the stage-II
33
2V with respect to earth at one-end of the stage-II
high-voltage winding.
2) Cascaded Transformer Concept: Stage 2) Cascaded Transformer Concept: Stage - - III III
Stage Stage- -III III
Similar condition as stage-I, an exciting winding
tapped from HV-winding supplies in stage-II tapped o d g supp es stage
potential to the low-winding of stage-III transformer.
The high-voltage winding in this stage and that for the
previous stage-II are connected in series so that
voltage 3V is produced / available at the end of the
high-voltage winding of stage-III.
i.e. 3 x 100 kV = 300 kV such as shown in Fig. 2
Similar as stage-II, the tank of the stage-III must be
34
Similar as stage II, the tank of the stage III must be
insulated (separated) from earth, to ensure voltage 3V
is obtained.
2) Cascaded Transformer Concept: Stage 2) Cascaded Transformer Concept: Stage- -IV, V and IV, V and
so on (if any) so on (if any) so on (if any) so on (if any)
Stage StageIV, V and so on(if any) IV, V and so on(if any) gg ( y) ( y)
Processes / conditions follow the concepts shown
in previous stages (stage-II and stage-III) in previous stages (stage-II and stage-III)
The exciting winding tapped from HV-winding in
th i t t f t ti l the previous stage transformer ensures a potential
is supplied to the low-winding of the next
transformer.
Also the tank of the every stage in this case and so on
must be insulated from earth, to ensure voltage
increment of 1V in every stages with respect of earth
35
increment of 1V in every stages with respect of earth
(i.e 4V, 5V and so on) is obtained.
2) HVAC Cascaded Transformer 2) HVAC Cascaded Transformer
36
HVAC Cascaded Transformer HVAC Cascaded Transformer
3) HVAC Resonant Transformers: General 3) HVAC Resonant Transformers: General
Also kno n as series resonant set or series and Also known as series resonant set or series and
parallel resonant sets.
These transformers are designed to overcome two
shortcoming straight transformer that are:
Firstly, resonance is used to reduce the voltage
supply demand at the primary winding of the
t f transformer
Secondly, it also used to ensure that a pure 50 Hz is
d li d f t f
37
delivered from a transformer
Continue Continue Continue Continue
In effect resonant set make used the one that In effect, resonant set make used the one that
previously stated as disadvantages (resonance
condition) for the straight transformer set.
Resonance condition in this transformer allows higher
voltage to be produced using significantly lower current
that would otherwise be needed that would otherwise be needed.
The development of fundamental frequency resonance
condition in this transformer ensures a waveform low in condition in this transformer ensures a waveform low in
total harmonics distortion.
Thi l d th i i t
38
This also reduces the maximum power requirement
from the voltage winding of test supply.
Continue Continue Continue Continue
Resonant alternating set can be produced using Resonant alternating set can be produced using
series or parallel inductances.
U ll th i bl t (X ) i d d Usually, the variable reactance (X
T
) is produced
using variable inductance (X
Ls
) rated at low
voltage with step-up transformer.
More recent design, however, used high voltage
variable reactors that have been designed without variable reactors that have been designed without
the need of step-up transformer.
Typical circuit of this condition (reactor usage) is
39
Typical circuit of this condition (reactor usage) is
shown in Fig. 3.
HVAC Resonant Generator Set: Circuit
(a)
(b)
(a)
40
Fig 3: Typical schematic of a HVAC resonance set. (a) series resonance circuit (b) equivalent circuit Fig 3: Typical schematic of a HVAC resonance set. (a) series resonance circuit (b) equivalent circuit
HVAC Resonant Generator Set:
41
HVDC Generator HVDC Generator
The principle of the generator is to generate single-
phase HVDC voltages Uses HVAC transformer for phase HVDC voltages. Uses HVAC transformer for
main/primary supply, the HVAC voltage is then
converted to HVDC via rectifier circuit.
They are four common types of HVDC generator
circuit which are:
Half Half--period period rectifier circuit
Full Full- -period period rectifier circuit
C k ft C k ft W lt W lt D bl D bl i it Cockcroft Cockcroft--Walton Walton Doubler Doubler circuit
Cockcroft Cockcroft- -Walton Walton Multiplier Multiplier circuit
42
j| ux w|vxw | {| xvx j| ux w|vxw | {| xvx
1) HVDC: Half 1) HVDC: Half--Period Rectifier Circuit Period Rectifier Circuit
The concept similar to the normal single-phase half-
wave / bridge rectifier circuit, such as shown in Fig. 4.
This is a simplest and most basic rectifier circuit. It is
adequate for large amount of testing and uses
relatively simple component.
Connection Connection::
A hi h lt t f ith d f th d A high voltage transformer with one-end of earthed
HV winding is connected to the test object via a
capacitor.
This capacitor C is used to reduce the ripple factor.
Effect with and without this unit can be seen in Fig. 4.
43
A diode is connected at the high tension of the
terminal of the transformer. R
L
is the load resistance.
Fig. 4: Typical Half-wave Rectifier Circuit
(a) Half-wave rectifier circuit
(b)
44
(b) No smoothing capacitor cause large ripple factor
effect seen on load voltage
(c) With smoothing capacitor reduces ripple factor effect
seen on load voltage
2) HVDC: Full 2) HVDC: Full--Period Rectifier Circuit Period Rectifier Circuit
The concept is similar to single-phase full-wave /
bridge rectifier circuit such as shown in Fig 5 bridge rectifier circuit, such as shown in Fig. 5.
This is also among simplest and most basic rectifier
circuit It is adequate for large amount of testing and circuit. It is adequate for large amount of testing and
uses relatively simple component.
Connection Connection: :
Both ends of high-voltage winding of the transformer
are connected with individual diode D1 and D2.
Each of diode D1 and D2 conduct one cycle.
In the circuit the ripple is reduced The ripple
45
In the circuit, the ripple is reduced. The ripple
frequency is twice the value of the supply frequency.
Fig. 5: Typical Full-Period Rectifier Circuit
(b)
(a) Full-period rectification (b) Load voltage
46
Demo of Rectifier Circuit
TERCO 100 kV r.m.s HVAC & 140 kVpeak
HVDC Set: UTHM HVDC Set: UTHM
48
3) Cockcroft 3) Cockcroft--Walton Walton Doubler Circuit: General Doubler Circuit: General
Both of the previously discussed full-period
and half-period rectifier circuits produce a DC
voltage less than the AC maximum voltage voltage less than the AC maximum voltage
(peak).
Th d bl i it d DC lt The doubler circuit produces a DC voltage
almost double the peak AC voltage under the
loaded condition.
The circuit has been named after its creator
Greinacher or also known as Cockcroft
49
Greinacher or also known as Cockcroft-
Walton.
Fig. 6: Typical Cockcroft-Walton Doubler Circuit
(a) Cockcroft (a) Cockcroft--Walton doubler circuit Walton doubler circuit
(a) Simple Cockcroft (a) Simple Cockcroft- -Walton doubler circuit Walton doubler circuit
50
(b) Simple Cockcroft (b) Simple Cockcroft- -Walton doubler circuit Walton doubler circuit
(a) Cockcroft (a) Cockcroft--Walton doubler circuit Walton doubler circuit
51
(b) Voltage curve under no load (b) Voltage curve under no load (b) Voltage curve under load (b) Voltage curve under load
CC--WWDoubler Circuit Explanation: Doubler Circuit Explanation:
No Loading Condition No Loading Condition No Loading Condition No Loading Condition
One terminal O of high tension One terminal O of high tension
(secondary) winding is earthed.
When the potential O becomes When the potential O becomes
negative with respect to O (i.e. during
first negative half cycle of the voltage
wave), the diode D conducts. ),
This causes the portion O-A-O in a
half period rectifier circuit state half period rectifier circuit state.
Also at this stage causes the
capacitance C charges up to a
52
capacitance C, charges up to a
voltage V
max
(i.e. the peak value of AC
voltage)
No Loading Condition Continue I No Loading Condition Continue I No Loading Condition Continue I No Loading Condition Continue I
By neglecting the diode drop (e.g
switch close) the potential of A which switch close), the potential of A, which
V
A
is zero during conduction of D.
The potential of O which is V The potential of O, which is V
o
reaches V
max
when the supply
voltage is at its negative peak.
Also by neglecting any loss of charge
from C, its potential (V
A
to V
o
) should
always be equal to +V after the always be equal to +V
max
after the
instant X.
Hence V will oscillate between 0 to
53
Hence V
A
will oscillate between 0 to
2V
max
as Vo oscillates from V
max
to
+V
max
.
No Loading Condition Continue II No Loading Condition Continue II No Loading Condition Continue II No Loading Condition Continue II
The diode D start conducting when
D stops conducting at instant X.
The capacitor C is charged to
+2V
max
at the instant of Y of the V
A
curve.
At this instant, D stop conducting.
If there is no loading (i.e. R=), g ( ),
the output voltage will be constant
at +2V
max
from the instant Y
onwards.
54
Loading Condition Loading Condition Loading Condition Loading Condition
Vout will be less than +2V
max
when
R (i.e. circuit having a load). ( g )
Reduction of the voltage magnitude
based on two reasons/conditions:
Firstly, due to during non-conduction
period, C supplies the load current,
and load voltage will be less than
2V d t i l +2V
max
due to ripple.
Secondly, during each cycle, the y g y
capacitor C replenishes the charges
lost by C in supplying the load.
55
This results of V
A
never attains at
potential +2V
max
(capacitor C is not
charges to +2V
max
at all).
(b) Voltage curve under no load (b) Voltage curve under no load
56
(b) Voltage curve under no load (b) Voltage curve under no load
(b) Voltage curve under load (b) Voltage curve under load
57
3) Cockcroft 3) Cockcroft--Walton Walton Doubler Circuit Doubler Circuit
General Connection General Connection::
One input of the HV winding is earthed. The circuit is
arranged with position of the diodes D1 and D2 and
the capacitance C1 and C2 are arranged such as the capacitance C1 and C2 are arranged such as
illustrated in Fig 6.
I th i it (Fi 6(b)) th di d D1 t th In the circuit (Fig. 6(b)), the diode D1 prevents the
voltage at point A from becoming negative with
respect to earth.
This results in sine wave of 0V to twice the peak of
transformer secondary appearing at this location (e.g.
if V ac output HV side = 100 kV gives positive
58
if V
peak
ac output HV side = 100 kV gives positive
sinusoidal voltage output of +200 kV
max
).
General Connection Continue General Connection Continue::
The changing of the positive and negative half
cycles of ac sinusoidal supply voltage allows cyc es o ac s uso da supp y o tage a o s
(depending on components position) the
conduction / non-conduction of these diodes and
charging / discharging process of capacitances. g g g g p p
These configurations enable the production of a
DC waveform with an output voltage of +2V DC waveform with an output voltage of +2V
max
.
The produced DC waveform voltage having a
2V l di di i i h i Fi
59
+2V
max
at no loading condition is shown in Fig
7(b).
Problem Problem::
Voltage drop occurs during loading condition (load
resistance) resulting in voltage output less than
+2V
max
, such as shown in Fig. 7(c).
Caused by two reasons:
During the conduction period, the smoothing
capacitor C2 supplies the load current will be less
than +2V
max
due to ripple.
max
pp
During each cycle, the capacitor C1 replenishes the
charges lost by C2 in supplying the load, causing the
60
g y pp y g , g
V
A
(at node A in Fig. 6) to never attain a potential
+2V
max
. So the capacitor C2 is not charge to +2V
max
at all.
4) Cockcroft 4) Cockcroft--Walton Walton Multiplier Circuit Multiplier Circuit
General: General:
Also known as the Cockcroft-Walton Cascade Circuit Also known as the Cockcroft Walton Cascade Circuit.
Is an extension of the previously discussed Cockcroft-
Walton doubler circuit That circuit is actually being Walton doubler circuit. That circuit is actually being
extended in series to become the voltage multiplier
circuit.
Fig. 8(b) shows the two stages cascade circuit. This
configuration produces an output voltage at +4V
max
during no loading condition.
Fig. 9 shows the n-stage cascade circuit (output =
+nV
max
under no loading).
61
max
g)
The method of connection of this circuit is will not be
discussed in this subject.
Fig. 8: Two-stage Cockcroft-Walton Multiplier Circuit
(a) Cockcroft (a) Cockcroft--Walton doubler circuit Walton doubler circuit (b) Two (b) Two- -stage Cockcroft stage Cockcroft--Walton multiplier circuit Walton multiplier circuit
62
Fig. 9: n-stage Cockcroft-Walton Multiplier Circuit
63
Fig. 9: The n Fig. 9: The n- -stage Cockcroft stage Cockcroft- -Walton Multiplier Circuit. (a) charging of a Walton Multiplier Circuit. (a) charging of a
smoothing column (b) charging of oscillating column smoothing column (b) charging of oscillating column
4) Cockcroft 4) Cockcroft--Walton Walton Multiplier Circuit Multiplier Circuit
Problem: Problem:
1 Similar to previously mentioned for doubler circuit an 1. Similar to previously mentioned for doubler circuit, an
extended circuit stage also having a problem with a
voltage drop during loading condition.
2. Every voltage multiplier stage that used in a DC
system adds on an extra voltage drop to the system.
3. The voltage drop is proportional to the load current
and is inversely proportional to the supplied
frequency frequency.
4. The net result is that it is not economic to use more
th d 5 lti li t i i DC t
64
than around 5 multiplier stage in series. DC sets
within HV laboratories also often use higher
frequency power supplies to limit this voltage drop.
Impulse Generator Impulse Generator
The principle of the generator is to generate an The principle of the generator is to generate an
impulse voltages/current waveform. Uses
combination of capacitors and resistors and
spark gaps in generating the impulse waveform spark gaps in generating the impulse waveform.
Depending upon the capacitors and resistors Depending upon the capacitors and resistors
values and circuit configurations, the +ve and
ve polarity lightning and switching waveforms
can be generated from the set can be generated from the set.
Unit typically produces standard impulse 1.2/50
65
yp y p p
s for lightning and 250/2500 s for switching.
The voltage / current magnitude of the impulse g g p
waveform is depending upon the number of stages
circuit that being used.
Higher magnitude requires multiple stage circuits
(e.g. up to 10 stages circuit is required to generate
about 1 5 MV impulse waveform) about 1.5 MV impulse waveform).
The impulse generator set can be categorised into p g g
two:
Single Single stage circuit
66
Multiple Multiple stage circuit or Marx Marx Generator
Problem:
1 U it i i i ll f lti l i it 1. Unit is very expensive especially for multiple circuits
set and handling the test is dangerous. The
handling person must be competent enough to set /
conduct the unit and test experiment conduct the unit and test experiment.
2. It is difficult to produce the voltage magnitude at
required level (accurate at 100 % efficiency) required level (accurate at 100 % efficiency),
especially at the higher voltage levels.
3 The efficienc the oltage generated lies from 0 6 to 3. The efficiency the voltage generated lies from 0.6 to
0.9.
4 Al i ffi i t l t t (l b t )
67
4. Also requires sufficient large test area (laboratory)
equipped with good safety components /
procedures in-place.
Single Single--stage Impulse Voltage Generator: Equivalent stage Impulse Voltage Generator: Equivalent
Circuit Circuit Circuit Circuit
The single-stage circuits are mainly used for generation
f l ti l l i l lt of relatively low-impulse voltage.
The TERCOs single-stage voltage impulse generator g g g p g
at UTHMs HV Laboratory capable to produced
lightning impulse at maximum 140kV
peak
.
The impulse circuit commonly consist of two individual
components:
- charging component causing the wavefront
- discharging component causing the wavetail
68
Simplified circuit such as shown in Fig. 10 and Fig. 11
Impulse Generator: Equivalent Circuit Impulse Generator: Equivalent Circuit
Cs : Charge / Tail capacitor Cs : Charge / Tail capacitor
Cf : Front capacitor Cf : Front capacitor
Rc : Charge resistor Rc : Charge resistor
Rf : Front Resistor Rf : Front Resistor
69
Fig. 10: Single Fig. 10: Single stage impulse generator equivalent circuit stage impulse generator equivalent circuit
Rf : Front Resistor Rf : Front Resistor
Impulse Generator: Equivalent Circuit Impulse Generator: Equivalent Circuit
70
Fig. 11: Single Fig. 11: Single stage impulse generator equivalent circuit stage impulse generator equivalent circuit
Connection: Connection:
Effectively, two circuit (Fig. 11(a) and Fig. 11(b)) form
the overall waveshape (rise and decay lines)
The stage capacitor Cs is initially charged to
predetermined HVDC voltage and is then discharged
via a switch or spark gap (e.g. spark voltage around
15kV i t d t ll i b tt t d 15kV is created externally using battery operated
circuit).
When the switch / spark gap is triggered (closed),
immediately the capacitor voltage appears across the
tail resistance Rt and then gradually start to reduce its
magnitude (tail waveform is created)
71
magnitude (tail waveform is created)
This is a wavetail circuit such as shown in Fig. 11(a)).
Connection continue: Connection continue:
Upon the conduction of the wavetail circuit, at the same
time, the voltage across the tail resistance Rt causes
the voltage to begin to build up across the front
Cf ( f ) capacitance Cf (creating rise waveform).
The Cf is usually the voltage divider. The test object is y g j
connected across the front capacitance and it is due to
this part of the circuit that the voltage waveform cannot
rise to peak instantaneously.
The time constant of the front capacitance Cf and front
resistance Rf will usually be much lower than the time
t t f th t it Ct d th t il
72
constant of the stage capacitance Ct and the tail
resistance Rt (therefore producing rise and tail impulse
waveshapes).
Fig. 12: Switching & Lightning Voltage Impulse
Waveforms Waveforms
Vp Vp
73
Fig. 22: 140kVpeak Single-Stage Circuit
Lightning Impulse Test Setup Lightning Impulse Test Setup
74
Fig. : The TERCO Single Fig. : The TERCO Single- -Stage Circuit Lightning Impulse Test Setup Stage Circuit Lightning Impulse Test Setup
75
Fig. : The TERCO Single Circuit Lightning Impulse Test Setup Fig. : The TERCO Single Circuit Lightning Impulse Test Setup
Fig. 24: 140kV
peak
TERCO Lightning Impulse
Set: UTHM Set: UTHM
Single Single- -stage Lightning Impulse Generator stage Lightning Impulse Generator
Earth Stick Earth Stick
76
Multiple Multiple- -stage Impulse Voltage Generator: stage Impulse Voltage Generator:
Equivalent Circuit (Marx Circuits) Equivalent Circuit (Marx Circuits) Equivalent Circuit (Marx Circuits) Equivalent Circuit (Marx Circuits)
It is not possible to scale up the capacity of single-stage
i l t t t hi h lt impulse generators to generate higher voltage
magnitude (e.g. >500 kV
peak
) due to two reasons:
P bl ith th ( t) d diffi lti i Problem with the expense (cost) and difficulties in
supplying high voltage DC.
Problem with the need to increasing size of high voltage g g g
capacitors.
Thus the Marx generator is used to generate higher
it d i l lt magnitude impulse voltage.
This generator uses a number of capacitors that are
77
g p
charged in parallel (thus requiring the a lower DC
supply) through high ohmic resistances before being
discharge in series through spark gaps.
Fig. 14: Four Fig. 14: Four- -stage Marx Generator Equivalent Circuit stage Marx Generator Equivalent Circuit
( ) D i h i ( ) D i h i (a) During charging (a) During charging
(b) During discharging (b) During discharging ( ) g g g ( ) g g g
78
Connection: Connection:
Fig. 14 shows the schematic diagram of a four-stage
Marx generator, consisting of four stage capacitors Cs
and resistors Rc and four associated tail resistors Rt
and damping/front resistors R and damping/front resistors R
D
.
The DC voltage Vc charges the stage capacitors Cs
(f b i ll l) th h th hi h l (four number in parallel) through the high value
charging resistor Rc as well as through tail resistors Rt,
which are smaller value than Rc.
These charging resistors Rc act in the same way as the
tail resistors Rt when the generator discharges but are
usually of high enough value to allow the tail resistors to
79
usually of high enough value to allow the tail resistors to
dominates.
Connection Continue 1: Connection Continue 1:
After long time period (e.g. 1 minute charging), a point
A,B,C,D will acquire the potential DC source Vc with
respect the point G. respect the point G.
The points H,I,J,K will remain at earth potential, as the
voltage drops across the tail resistors Rt are negligible voltage drops across the tail resistors Rt are negligible
during charging time.
Therefore the load capacitance Cf remains at earth Therefore, the load capacitance Cf remains at earth
potential (0V) during charging of stage capacitors Cs.
The spark gaps G1 G2 G3 G4 basically are set to spark
80
The spark gaps G1,G2,G3,G4 basically are set to spark
almost simultaneously.
The discharge of the generator is accomplished by
applying an additional impulse voltage around 15
kV (sparking voltage, e.g. battery operated) to the ( p g g g y p )
spark gap (triggered gap).
Since the sphere gap are normally set to just hold- Since the sphere gap are normally set to just hold
off the charging voltage, the presence of this
additional impulse spark causes the first gap (G1)
to breakdown to breakdown.
When this occur, the potential at the base of the
second stage capacitor (point H) is changed from
81
second stage capacitor (point H) is changed from
0Vc to Vc.
Due to stray capacitance effects, the second gap
(G2) still has earth potential at the tail resistor Rt (G2) still has earth potential at the tail resistor Rt
side but the voltage of 2Vc across it causing
immediate breakdown.
This situation continues across all the way to the
top of the generator whereas spark gap G3 top of the generator whereas spark gap G3
breakdowns and potential across point C is at 3Vc,
then spark gap G4 breakdown and potential across
point D is at 4Vc.
82
p
Also contained in the generator design are damping
resistors, RD. This actually form part of the front
resistance that is install externally to the generator.
These resistors help in controlling oscillations in the
voltage waveform that may arise when inductance is
t i d i t t l d d / t t bj t contained in test leads and /or test object.
These damping resistors (or front resistors) RD are p g ( )
small in comparison to the tail resistors Rt, (e.g. the RD
is about 40ohm in comparison to 540 ohm of Rt).
83
The front capacitor Cf is used in creating the wavefront
impulse and also react as a voltage divider that
measure the waveshape produced by the generator.
Fig. 15: 2MV Impulse Generator Set:
Capacitor Divider Capacitor Divider
Prototype to test Prototype to test
84
Fig. 16: 2MV Impulse Generator Set: Big
Guy Guy
85
Part 3 Part 3
** **TERCO set TERCO set at UTHM Laboratory** at UTHM Laboratory**
86
Fig. 17: HVAC Test Setup (up to 100 kV r.m.s)
87
Fig. 9: TERCO set setup circuit for HVAC test Fig. 9: TERCO set setup circuit for HVAC test
Fig. 18: HVAC Test Setup (up to 100 kV r.m.s)
88
Fig. 19: 140kV peak Half Period HVDC Test Setup
89
Fig. 9: TERCO set setup circuit for Half Fig. 9: TERCO set setup circuit for Half- -Period HVDC test Period HVDC test
Fig. 20: 140kVpeak Half Period HVDC Test Setup
90
Fig. 21: Cockcroft-Dalton Doubler HVDC Test Setup
91
Fig. : The TERCO Cockcroft Fig. : The TERCO Cockcroft- -Walton Doubler Circuit Test Setup Walton Doubler Circuit Test Setup
92
Fig. : The TERCO Single Fig. : The TERCO Single- -Stage Circuit Lightning Impulse Test Setup Stage Circuit Lightning Impulse Test Setup
93
Fig. : The TERCO Single Circuit Lightning Impulse Test Setup Fig. : The TERCO Single Circuit Lightning Impulse Test Setup
Fig. 24: 140kV
peak
TERCO Lightning Impulse
Set: UTHM Set: UTHM
Single Single- -stage Lightning Impulse Generator stage Lightning Impulse Generator
Earth Stick Earth Stick
94
Part 4 Part 4
**HV **HV Testing Testing && Measurement Measurement** ** HV HV Testing Testing && Measurement Measurement
j| ux w|vxw | {| xvx j| ux w|vxw | {| xvx
95
Learning Outcome: Learning Outcome:
At the end of the course:
The student will capable to summarise the
concept /method uses in some standard HV
testing setup and measurement commonly
conducted in the laboratory using the
previously discussed HVAC, HVDC and p y ,
impulse generator.
96
Purpose of HV Tests: Purpose of HV Tests:
To locate the manufacturing defects. E.g. AC
t t lt 2 3 f test can use voltage some 2 p.u or 3 p.u of
the rated voltage (withstand the TOV).
To give confidence of operation inservice.
Plant is routinely expose to overvoltages
when in use when in use.
97
Differences Between Lab and In Differences Between Lab and In--
Service: Service: Service: Service:
Laboratory tests are highly regimented
(organised) applying known voltages of given
type / shape of a particular time type / shape of a particular time.
In-service voltages depend on numerous In service voltages depend on numerous
factors for both their shapes / type and
duration.
Laboratory test are used as equipment has
been shown to give good performance in
98
g g p
practice.
HV Tests Methods HV Tests Methods
The HV tests methods can be divided into two:
1) Non-destructive tests 1) Non destructive tests
2) Destructive tests
99
Part 4 Part 4--11
** **Non Non--destructive destructive Test** Test** Non Non destructive destructive Test Test
100
Non Non- -destructive Tests destructive Tests
The test is conducted on the material / apparatus
without destroying their internal and external y g
physical characteristic.
This test is used to ensure that the apparatus has pp
not deteriorated after a high voltage test even
though it has withstood the test successfully (post-
durability test).
Test also provides the information of the quality of
insulation before it forms part of an equipment (pre-
durability test) durability test).
The common tests are such like:
101
1. Measurement of the Tan of the material
2. Partial discharge measurement
Non Non--destructive Test: Measurement of Tan destructive Test: Measurement of Tan
Also known as a measurement of the dielectric loss or
dissipation factor (Tan ) of the dielectric material dissipation factor (Tan ) of the dielectric material.
On account of the dielectric loss, the current through
the capacitor does not lead the voltage across it by the capacitor does not lead the voltage across it by
90, but by angle (90 ).
In this case, a is known as loss angle such as , g
shown in phasor diagram of figure below.
102
Fig. 25: Phasor diagram and circuit model for non-ideal capacitor
Measurement of Tan Measurement of Tan : Continue : Continue
A lossy capacitor may be modelled electrically by an
ideal capacitor connected in series (also can be in ideal capacitor connected in series (also can be in
parallel depending on model) with hypothetical
resistance such as shown in Fig. 25(b).
Theoretically, the losses occur due to ionic and dipolar
polarization and may be due to partial discharge polarization and may be due to partial discharge.
The dissipation factor; tan for series and parallel
d l model:
o
1
tan =
X X
X R
series
R C
R
V
V
e o = = =
1
tan
103
X X
parallel
R C e
o tan =
X
C
se ies
C
V
e
1
Th di i ti f t t i i di ti f th The dissipation factor or tan is an indication of the
state of dielectric.
The more its value, the worse of insulation condition of
insulation will be (prone to conduction) or indication of
damage occur (carbonisation void treeing etc ) in damage occur (carbonisation, void, treeing etc.) in
material.
A i ti ( l f diff t l ) d dd Any variation (couple of different values) and sudden
change in the tan value with applied voltage is an
indication of the onset of internal discharge (may
d b b f il h i )
104
caused by above failure mechanisms).
One of commonly used methods for measurement of
capacitance and dissipation factor (tan ) is the high capacitance and dissipation factor (tan ) is the high
voltage Schering Bridge.
Fig 26 shows the Schering Bridge circuit Fig. 26 shows the Schering Bridge circuit.
Connection:
F thi i it th l f th di l t i i From this circuit, the sample of the dielectric is
represented by the series model of C
x
and R
x
,
represented as the second arm (Arm-II).
The first arm is (Arm-1) is a gas filled standard
capacitor (C
s
), the third arm (Arm-III) is a variable
resistor R and the forth arm (Arm IV) is variable
105
resistor R
3
and the forth arm (Arm-IV) is variable
capacitor C
4
in parallel with a resistance R
4
.
Fig. 26: Schering Bridge Circuit
106
Fig. 26: Schering Bridge Circuit Fig. 26: Schering Bridge Circuit
Connection continue: Connection continue:
In practice, R
4
value is constant and C
4
is variable.
This C
4
bridge value is calibrated /tuned to obtain a
constant value of frequency (may be observed by a
d ) detector).
From the circuit, the dissipation factor (tan ) can be , p ( )
determined based on the observed frequency, the C
4
and R
4
values from using an equation below.
107
4 4
tan R C R C
X X
e e o = =
Non Non--destructive Test: Measurement destructive Test: Measurement
of Partial Discharge of Partial Discharge of Partial Discharge of Partial Discharge
Also known as the PD measurement. The PD basically
takes place through only a part of the dielectric takes place through only a part of the dielectric
material.
The term partial discharge refers to a discharge that
does not completely bridge the space between
electrodes (only partial).
This mechanism is the main reason for ageing and
eventual failure of electrical insulation (natural cause) eventual failure of electrical insulation (natural cause).
How to measure? By electrical pulses for detection
( t th d) ti i i f l ti
108
(most common method), acoustic emission for location
(pick up the sound not practical in the lab).
PD include internal discharges due to the presence of PD include internal discharges due to the presence of
voids as in solid or liquid insulations, surface discharge
at the boundary of insulating materials (e.g. cable) and
treeing corona as in gaseous dielectric treeing corona as in gaseous dielectric.
These discharges are not breakdowns but have an
i t f th lif f i l ti ti l l lid d impact of the life of an insulation, particularly solid and
liquid dielectric.
For a prolong time, the insulation properties of these
dielectrics could deteriorate with discharge, resulting in
total breakdown
109
total breakdown.
Thus, by finding a relationship between a
PD and life expectancy of dielectric is
t i t t t i l ti paramount interest to insulation
designer.
110
Measurement of Partial Discharge: Problem Measurement of Partial Discharge: Problem
Problem: Problem:
Measurement of PD is not easy as it deals with a noise
(discharge) occurring in the void of the dielectric ( g ) g
material.
The measurement result may be disrupted by the The measurement result may be disrupted by the
noises originating from the surrounding, adjoining circuit
and the test equipment itself.
Occurrence of discharges may be self-extinguished due
to materials / gas interaction in the void thus producing
111
g p g
come and go results that are not easily predictable.
Partial Discharge: Concept of Measurement Partial Discharge: Concept of Measurement
The PD measurement on the dielectric can be
expressed as measuring the discharge activity expressed as measuring the discharge activity
occurring in its void / cavity (may contain gas).
The concept is as shown in Fig. 27.
Theory: Theory: Theory: Theory:
Typically, the cavity will have a relative permittivity
(
r_cavity
) of approximately unity since it is a gas, which is
lower than the surrounding medium ( < ) lower than the surrounding medium (
r_cavity
<
r
)
The field strength across the cavity is given by:
112
g y g y
a r c
E E c =
Fig. 27: Partial Discharge Concept
CC
aa
: dielectric capacitance : dielectric capacitance
CC
c c
: cavity capacitance : cavity capacitance
CC
b b
: C : C
aa
--CC
cc
VV lt di l t i lt di l t i
113
Fig. 27: Schematic Cavity in Dielectric Fig. 27: Schematic Cavity in Dielectric
VV
aa
: voltage across dielectric : voltage across dielectric
VV
cc
: voltage across cavity : voltage across cavity
Theory continue: Theory continue:
In this situation when the field in the cavity (E ) In this situation, when the field in the cavity (E
c
)
exceeded the gas in the materials breakdown strength
(E
cb
), discharge will occur. Check the Subject 1 for
information of gas breakdown information of gas breakdown.
Thus we can consider the voltage at which this field is g
reached discharge inception voltage or V
ai
.
The breakdown in the cavity will be less than that of The breakdown in the cavity will be less than that of
surrounding condensed matter, thus PD will be seen
before bulk failure occur.
114
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = 1
1
1
t
d
t E V
r
cb ai
c
Partial Discharge Equation Derivation
115
Fig. 27: Partial Discharge Concept
116
Extra info: Extra info:
H th di h d t th However, as the discharges occur, damage to the
surface of the void / cavity will results the gaseous by-
product.
This gases will increase the pressure in the void and
may eventually extinguish discharges until the void
i i i diff increases in size or gasses diffuse away.
Furthermore, the surface of the void also be chemically
changed The production of semiconductor or material changed. The production of semiconductor or material
with high permittivity on the void surface will change or
substantially reduce the electrical fields within the voids.
117
This may causing the come and go discharges and are
not easily detectable.
Fig. 28: Conventional Partial Discharge Circuit
118
Fig. 28: Conventional Partial Discharge Circuit Fig. 28: Conventional Partial Discharge Circuit
Fig. 29: Data Presentation
(a) Discharge magnitude measurement (a) Discharge magnitude measurement (b) Discharges display on p.f. ellipse (b) Discharges display on p.f. ellipse
119 (c) Discharges display on p.f. oscillation (c) Discharges display on p.f. oscillation (d) Discharges distribution on p.f. phase angles (d) Discharges distribution on p.f. phase angles
Part 4 Part 4--22
** **Destructive Destructive Tests** Tests** Destructive Destructive Tests Tests
120
Destructive Tests Destructive Tests
The test is conducted on the material / The test is conducted on the material /
apparatus with a possibility destroying /
altering their internal and external physical
h t i ti characteristic.
This test is used to ensure that the This test is used to ensure that the
apparatus has an ability to withstand the
normal and abnormal system voltage (meet
requirement by standard) requirement by standard).
Test also provides the information of the
121
p
quality of insulation an equipment / material.
Destructive Tests Destructive Tests
There are many laboratory test types available for y y yp
the destructive tests depending on their application
conducted on the gaseous, liquid and solid
materials.
Most of them are already discussed in the beginning
of subject 3.
This section will summarise the HV tests methods
for:
1) Salt fog test
2) Tracking test
3) HVAC d d t ith t d / fl h t t
122
3) HVAC dry and wet withstand / flashover test
4) Impulse dry and wet withstand / flashover test
Salt Salt- -Fog Test: Working Summary Fog Test: Working Summary- -I I
Fig. 30 shows the setup and Fig.31 shows the
arrangement of equipment located in the HV supply arrangement of equipment located in the HV supply
room and the salt fog chamber (optional).
The salt fog was generated by nozzles located inside The salt fog was generated by nozzles located inside
the chamber using a combination of pressurised air
and salt water.
The test object was placed horizontally on vertical
blocks in the chamber between the earthed frame and
the bushing. the bushing.
Electrodes were applied to the two ends of the
sample and connected to the high voltage and earth
123
sample and connected to the high voltage and earth
conductors.
Fig. 30: HVAC Salt Fog Test
124
Fig. 31: HVAC Salt Fog Test: Experiment Setup
125
Salt Salt- -Fog Test: Working Summary Fog Test: Working Summary- -II II
The high voltage was supplied to the conductor The high voltage was supplied to the conductor
from an HVAC transformer set located outside the
chamber.
A ballast current limiting water-based resistor of
1.0 Mohm was used to reduce currents to a
maximum of 15x10
-3
A at 15 kV AC voltage for maximum of 15x10
3
A at 15 kV AC voltage for
intense low current arcs.
The tests were conducted by applying the HVAC
voltage (value and duration depending on the test
method) to the specimen that being sprayed
ti l ith t ll d l lt f
126
continuously with controlled-volume salt fog.
Salt Salt- -Fog Test: Working Summary Fog Test: Working Summary- -III III
The circuit may also have additional protection
scheme in place in case of emergency.
Data are collected as voltage and leakage current
measurement through the data acquisition system
(e g Labview) and also from the damage (e.g. Labview) and also from the damage
observed on the sample surface.
As optional, the test may be conducted for a long
duration (up to 1000hrs or more) with the
combination of the UV lights (repetition exposure)
i ti th l td diti
127
in representing the real outdoor conditions.
Tracking Test: Working Summary Tracking Test: Working Summary--I I
Fig. 32 shows the setup and Fig.33 shows the
arrangement of equipment (optional).
A transformer (415 V / 11 kV) was used to supply
power to the test circuit and its output voltage was
measured using a high voltage probe.
Each sample was fed from this supply via a high p pp y g
voltage relay and a resistance. This resistance value
is depended on the test voltage and the flow rate of
the contaminant.
The test is conducted could lasted up to 6hours
(depending on the test method) or to be cut off during
t Th i it l h dditi l
128
overcurrent. The circuit may also have additional
protection scheme in place in case of emergency.
Fig. 32: Tracking test: Setup Fig. 32: Tracking test: Setup
129
Fig. 33: Equipments Arrangement for Tracking Test Fig. 33: Equipments Arrangement for Tracking Test
130
Tracking Test: Working Summary Tracking Test: Working Summary--II II
The current flowing across the sample is measured
using a resistive shunt. Overcurrent protection g p
operated, should the current exceed 60x10
-3
A
6x10
-3
A for 2 s to 3 s.
A peristaltic pump was used to create a water flow
across the inclined sample at the flow rate stated in
the standard.
The current and voltage are monitored using a
LabVIEW system having an appropriate resolution y g pp p
(e.g. 12 bits) and sampling rate (e.g. 10,000 rate per
second).
131
An optional measurement device such as a video or
thermal camera can be used to provide visual data.
HVAC Wet and Dry Tests: Working Summary HVAC Wet and Dry Tests: Working Summary--II
The test carried out to investigate any possibility The test carried out to investigate any possibility
visual corona, flashover, survival system voltage, TOV
etc.
Fig. 34 shows the setup and Fig. 35 shows the
A resonant transformer (415 V / 650 kV) is used to
supply power to the test circuit and its output voltage
is measured using a capacitance divider. g p
The volume-controlled artificial rain (with specific
conductivity and flow rate according to standard) is
132
y g )
generated by nozzles that entirely covered the sample
surfaces (e.g. insulation cross-arm in Fig. 34).
Fig. 34: HVAC Test: System Setup
133
Fig. 35: HVAC Test: Equipment Setup
134
HVAC Wet and Dry Tests: Working HVAC Wet and Dry Tests: Working
Summary Summary--II II Summary Summary--II II
The HVAC voltages (normal system or TOV level) The HVAC voltages (normal system or TOV level)
are supplied to each test for about 1 3minutes
duration.
In dry condition test, no artificial raining is provided
to the sample surface (therefore it must be the first
one to be conducted) one to be conducted).
When HVAC voltage is supplied to the specimen
(for both dry and wet tests) and data is collected
through the current and voltage measurement,
visual corona built-up on fittings / surface flashover
135
visual corona built up on fittings / surface, flashover,
occurrence of damage etc.
HVAC Wet and Dry Tests: Working HVAC Wet and Dry Tests: Working
Summary Summary--III III Summary Summary--III III
In these tests sufficient clearances of In these tests, sufficient clearances of
the testing area are required to prevent
unnecessary flashover to nearby unnecessary flashover to nearby
equipment / object that could cause
damage or danger to themselves and damage or danger to themselves and
most importantly, to HUMAN.
136
Impulse Wet and Dry Tests: Working Impulse Wet and Dry Tests: Working
Summary Summary--II Summary Summary--II
The test carried out to investigate any possibility
occurrence of an AC visual corona and flashover via occurrence of an AC visual corona and flashover via
positive / negative impulse voltages.
Fig. 36 shows the setup and Fig. 37 shows the g p g
An impulse set (set up to produce a LI or SI An impulse set (set up to produce a LI or SI
waveforms) is used to supply the positive / negative
impulse voltage to the test circuit and its output
voltage is measured using a capacitor divider.
If required, the volume-controlled artificial rain (with
specific conductivity and flow rate according to
137
p y g
standard) is generated by nozzles that entirely
covered the sample surfaces (not shown in the
figure).
Fig. 36: Switching & Lightning Impulse Test:
System Setup System Setup
138
Fig. 37: Switching Impulse Test: Experiment Setup
139
Summary Summary--II II Summary Summary--II II
The specific level impulse voltage (either positive / The specific level impulse voltage (either positive /
negative LI or SI waveform) are applied to the test
object and its flashover or withstanding ability is
monitored.
In dry condition test, no artificial raining is provided to
the sample surface (therefore it must be the first one
t b d t d) to be conducted).
Normally, data is collected through the current and y g
voltage measurement, the condition of pre and post
impulse waveshape, visual condition, streamers
propagation visual flashover occurrence of damage
140
propagation, visual flashover, occurrence of damage
etc.
Summary Summary--III III Summary Summary--III III
Similar to HVAC tests, also in impulse
tests sufficient clearances of the testing tests, sufficient clearances of the testing
area are required to prevent
unnecessary flashover to nearby unnecessary flashover to nearby
equipment / object that could cause
damage or danger to themselves and damage or danger to themselves and
most importantly to HUMAN.
141
Note References Note References
1. Subir Ray, An Introduction to High Voltage Engineering, Prentice
Hall India, 2004
2. E. Kuffel, High Voltage Engineering: Fundamentals, Newness,
2000
3. S.M.Rowland, Dielectric How They Work and Fail MSc.
Lecture Note, The University of Manchester, 2006
4 I Cotton An Introduction to High Voltage Testing MSc Lecture 4. I. Cotton, An Introduction to High Voltage Testing, MSc. Lecture
Note, The University of Manchester, 2006
5. I. Cotton, Partial Discharge, MSc. Lecture Note, The University of
Manchester 2006
142
Manchester, 2006

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