Radio Transmission Theory Confidential

Chapter 3 Radio Transmission Theory

3.1 Rationale of Radio Transmission
Mobile telecommunications network planning and building, from band
determination, frequency assignment, coverage area, telecommunication
probability calculation, and electromagnetic interference to the final confirmation
of radio equipment parameters, depend on the study and strength forecast of the
characteristics of radio transmission. Radio transmission theory is the foundation
of system project design and subjects such as spectrum utiliation and
electromagnetic compatibility.
3.1.1 Radio Transmission Modes
!s we know, radio waves can be transmitted from transmitter antenna to receiver
antenna through different modes such as line"of"sight transmission, ground wave
transmission, troposphere scattering transmission and ionosphere transmission.
#ee $$$%igure &.&. %or electric wave, the easiest transmission from transmitter to
receiver is free space transmission. %ree space is an isotropic 'same attribute in
each a(ial direction) and homogeneous 'symmetrical structure) space.
I. Line-of-Sight Transmission
*ine"of"sight transmission is a transmission under conditions in accordance with
line"of"sight formula '+"&,). $t usually consists of perpendicular incidence waves
and ground reflected waves, and also includes diffraction waves and scattering
waves when there are obstructions and scattering objects.
II. Ground Wae Transmission
-round wave transmission consists of space waves and land surface waves.
*and surface waves transmit along the surface of the land. There are only
ground waves in places far away from transmitters.
Troposphere scattering transmission is based on the asymmetric scattering of
troposphere.
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III. Ionosphere Transmission
$n ionosphere transmission, the waves reflected from ionosphere may have one
or several leaps. #ee %igure &.&'e). This kind of transmission is used in
shortwave remote telecommunications. 3ecause of the asymmetric refractive
inde(es, scattering also occurs in ionosphere4 besides, the meteor track left in
ionosphere also leads to scattering waves.
Radio transmission in cellular system is a multipath transmission. $t belongs to
line"of"sight transmission.
'a) 5irect wave
transmitting in straight
line
'b) !pplication of
*ine"of"sight
communications
'c) -round wave transmission
'd) $rregular scattering of radio waves by
troposphere
'e) Radio wave reflected by
ionosphere
!igure 1.1 5ifferent transmission modes
3.1." Reasons for Transmission Study
There are two reasons for transmission study in cellular system design6

$t provides necessary tools to calculate the strength covering different cells.

The coverage area is usually from hundreds of meters to scores of
kilometers and line"of"sight transmission is applicable in such conditions.
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$t can calculate adjacent channel and co"channel interference.

3.1.3 Signal Strength !ore#ast Methods
There are three ways to forecast signal strength6

The first one is pure theoretical way which is applicable for separated
objects, such as mountains and other solid objects. 3ut this way overlooks
the irregularity of earth.

The second way is based on the test in various environments, including

irregular terrains and man"made obstructions, especially the high frequency
and low mobile station antenna.

The third way combines the above two together and makes certain
improvement. $t is based on measurement and the consideration of
mountains and other obstructions.
3." Radio Transmission $nironment
3.".1 !re%uen#y &and 'llo#ation
The frequency range of radio waves is from +7 to +///-7, divided into &.
bands. #ee the following table. The frequency in different band has different
transmission characteristics. Mobile telecommunications just concern 87% band.
Ta(le 1.1 Radio frequency category
&and !re%uen#y range Waelength
range
9(tremely long wave
'e(tremely low frequency, 9*%)
+ 7:+/ 7 &/
;
km:&/
,
km
#pecially long wave 'specially
low frequency, #*%)
+/ 7:+// 7 &/
,
km:&/
+
km
8ltra long wave 'ultra low
frequency, 8*%)
+// 7 "+/// 7 &/
+
km:&/
.
km
<ery long wave 'very low
frequency, <*%)
+ k7 "+/ k7 &/
.
km:&/ km
*ong wave'low frequency, *%) +/ k7 "+// k7 &/ km:& km
Medium wave'medium
frequency, M%)
+// k7 "+/// k7 &/
+
km:&/
.
m
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&and !re%uen#y range Waelength
range
#hortwave'high frequency, 7%) + M7 "+/ M7 &/
.
km:&/

m
<ery short wave'very high
frequency, <7%)
+/ M7"+// M7 &/ km:& m
micro
wave
5ecimeter wave
'ultrahigh frequency,
87%)
+// M7"+///
M7
&/
.
km:&/ cm
Centimeter wave
'specially high
frequency, #7%)
+ -7"+/ -7 &/ km:& cm
Millimeter wave
'e(tremely high
frequency, 97%)
+/ -7"+// -7 &/ km:& mm
#ubmillimeter'ultrahigh
high frequency)
+// -7"+/// -7 & km "/.& mm
=ote6 The table above is e(cepted from >9lectromagnetic ?ave, !ntenna and
9lectric ?ave 2ropagation@ written by 2an Ahongying.
3."." !ast !ading and Slo) !ading
!s described above, in a typical cellular mobile telecommunications
environment, the line of sight path is always obstructed by buildings and other
objects4 therefore, the communications between cellular base station and mobile
station is usually carried out through many other paths. $n 87% band, the main
transmission mode of electromagnetic waves from transmitter to receiver is
reflection of buildings or diffraction of natural objects. #ee %igure &.&.
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3uilding reflected wave 5iffraction wave *ine of sight wave -round
reflected wave
!igure 1.1 Multipath transmission models
I. !ast !ading
&) ?hat is %ast %ading
!ll signal components combine together and produce an interference wave. $ts
strength changes according to each component. The synthesied strength
reduces by ./:+/d3 across several bodyworks. The distance between the
places where the ma(imum strength occurs and the minimum strength occurs is
about one fourth wavelength.
! large number of transmission paths results in the so called multipath
phenomenon. The amplitude and phase of the synthesied wave changes a lot
as the mobile station moves, which is usually called multipath fading or fast
fading. #ee $$%igure &.&. Multipath fading occurs very fast, which leads to time
dispersion. 5eep fading points appear in every other half wavelength spatially
'&1 cm for B// M7, C cm for &B// M7). $f the antenna of mobile station
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happens to be at deep fading point 'when a mobile station subscriber in a car
stops at this point because of the red light), certain skills such as frequency
hopping can solve the problem of rather low voice quality.
Research shows that if a mobile unit receives wave components with random
amplitudes and phases, the probability distribution functions of phase D and
amplitude r of the synthesied signal are as follows6
p( ) =
1
2
/E

E. '+"&)

p(r) =
r

2
e
(
r
2
2
2
)
rF/ '+".)
$n the formulae above, G
.
is standard deviation. 2hase distributes uniformly
from / to . and the probability distribution function of amplitude follows
Rayleigh distribution4 therefore, multipath fading is also called Rayleigh %ading.
.) 7ow to 5eal ?ith %ast %ading
The primary measures to deal with fast fading include time diversity, frequency
diversity and space diversity 'or polariation diversity)6

Time diversity mainly depends on symbol interleaving, error detecting code

and error correcting code. 5ifferent code has different anti"fading properties.
$t is also the leading subject in todayHs mobile telecommunications study.
-#M air channel coding scheme, see the related section in chapter ..

%requency diversity theory is based on bandwidth, which means when the

difference between two frequencies e(ceeds certain value, they are
regarded as two independent band classes. #ufficient data shows .// k7
or above difference between two frequencies demonstrates this
independency. %requency diversity mainly takes spread spectrum
measures. -#M simply takes frequency hopping to obtain frequency
hopping gain, while C5M! itself is a kind of spread spectrum
communications with each channel in a relatively broad band class
'narrowband C5M! is &..; M7).

#pace diversity uses main diversity antenna receiving to solve the problem
of fast fading. The base station receiver diversifies and consolidates the
signals received through main and diversity channels with ma(imum
likelihood sequence estimation equalier 'M*#9). This main and diversity
receiving quality is ensured by the independency of main and diversity
receiving antennas. The so called independency means the signals
received by main antenna and diversity antenna fade at different time. $n
space diversity, the distance between main antenna and diversity antenna
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e(ceeds ten times of the wavelength of the radio signal. 2olariation
diversity can also ensure the independency of the main and diversity
antennas. %or mobile station, because it has only one antenna, it has no
such space diversity function. The equaliation of base station receiver to
different delayed signals in certain time window is also a kind of space
diversity. 5uring the soft handoff in C5M!, mobile station contacts several
cell stations at the same time and choose the best signal to send to the
switch, which is also a kind of space diversity.
II. Slo) !ading
*ots of researches show that the median of received signal strength, e(cept the
Rayleigh %ading of transient value, changes slowly with the shift of locations.
This kind of phenomenon is called slow fading. #ee %igure &.&. #low fading is
caused by shadow effect, so it is also called shadow fading. ?hen the
transmission is obstructed by high buildings, forests, fluctuant terrain,
electromagnetic shadow occurs. $f this happens to the mobile station, the median
of the receiving electromagnetic field strength changes. The degree of changes
depends on the obstruction and frequency4 the change rate depends on both
obstruction and speed of vehicles.
#tudy of this slow fading shows that the change of value follows logarithm
logarithmic normal distribution.
The reflection coefficient of electric waves changes because of the change of
weather with time and the slow change of vertical slope of air dielectric constant,
which results in the slow fading of the median of signal strength with time in the
same place.
#tatistics shows that the median value follows logarithmic normal distribution in a
large scale as time or place changes4 therefore, the synthesied value also
follows logarithmic normal distribution. $n land mobile communications, the
degree of median value affected by time is much less than that affected by place,
so the influence of time in slow fading can be ignored. 3ut in designated
communications, the time factor should be considered in slow fading.
!igure 1.1 %ast fading and slow fading
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-enerally speaking, two factors influence the cellular system6
The first one is multipath. #ignals reflected or diffracted from buildings or other
objects show slow fading and move scores of meters. The second one is the
slow change of main received signal strength in line of sight path, that is, the
long term signal strength change. ?hich means, signal transmission follows
Rayleigh distribution of fast fading and logarithmic normal distribution of slow
fading
3.".3 Transmission Loss
The signal power level received by the receiver is a main characteristic in
telecommunications. The decrease of transmission signal due to the influences
of transmission path and terrain is called transmission loss.
I. Transmission Loss in !ree Spa#e
$n electric wave transmission study, the primary task is to research the
characteristics of two antennas in free space '$sotropic symmetrical medium with
dielectric constant being one and no absorption). Take the ideal omni"directional
antenna as e(ample, the path loss in free space is as follows6
L
p
= 32.4 + 20lg lg
(
f
MHz
)
+ 20lg lg
(
d
km
)
'+"+)
$n the formula, f is frequency, d is distance. This formula is inversely proportional
to d. when d increases by one time, path loss increases by 0 d3. ?hen
wavelength decreases, that is, frequency f increases, the path loss increases.
The loss can be compensated by radiation increase and receiver antenna gain.
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*istan#e +m,
Re#eied po)er +d&m,
1- "- 3-
-"-
-.-
-/-
Slo) fading
!ast fading
Radio Transmission Theory Confidential
?hen the working frequency is known, the formula above can be rewritten as
follows6
L
p
= L
0
+ 10 lg lg
(
d
km
)
'+",)
$n the formula, = 24 is path loss gradient. $n the actual cellular system, the
range of is between + and ; according to measurement.
II. Transmission Loss in !lat Terrain
?ith path loss formula, the study of actual transmission between two antennas in
flat but not ideal surface is possible. #uppose the surface of the entire
transmission path is absolutely flat. The heights of base station antenna and
mobile station antenna are
h
c
and
h
m
respectively. #ee %igure &.&.
'a) Multi reflection 'b) #ingle reflection 'c) $maging to find the difference between
line"of"sight and land reflection
!igure 1.1 Transmission upon flat surface
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Compared with the path loss of free space, the path loss of flat ground is as
follows6
L
p
= L
0
+ 10 lg lgd 20 lg lgh
c
20lg lg h
m '+";)
$n the formula,
= 4
. $t shows the increase of the antenna height by one time can
compensate 0 d3Hs loss. The receive power of mobile station changes with the
fourth power of the distance d, which means if d increases by one time, the
received power decreases by &. d3.
III. Transmission Loss in Comple0 Terrain
#ince terrains and clutters differ greatly, their influences on the loss of electric
wave transmission are also complicated. There is no absolutely flat terrain in real
life. Comple( terrain is usually divided into two types6 quasi"flat terrain and
irregular terrain.
Iuasi"flat terrain is the terrain with mildly fluctuant surface. $ts fluctuation height
is equal to or less than ./ meters without too much height difference. Jkumura
defines fluctuation range as the height difference between ten percent height
curve and ninety percent height curve within ten square meters in front of mobile
station antenna along the transmission direction. CC$R defines it as the height
differences between more than ten percent height curve and more than ninety
percent height curve within &/:;/ square meters in front of the receiver. Ten
percent height curve is a horiontal line4 the height of ten percent segments in
terrain section e(ceeds this line. =inety percent height curve has the similar
meaning. The rest is irregular terrain that can be divided into highland, isolated
mountains, slopes and terraqueous terrain.
I1. Transmission Loss in 2r(an and Surrounded 'reas
!s for the transmission loss in urban and surrounded areas, the terrain can be
divided into open area, dense city, medium sied city, and suburb according to
density of the geographical area.
5iffraction is another factor of transmission loss in mountainous areas or cities
with dense skyscrapers. 5iffraction loss is a measurement of the height of
obstructions and antennas. Compare the height of obstruction with wavelength.
The same height of obstructions results in less loss to long wavelength than to
short wavelength. $n path loss forecast, these obstructions are called sharp
obstructions, or >blade shape@. The loss can be calculated with common ways in
physical optics. There are two kinds of obstructions in %igure &.&. $n the first
case, no obstruction for line"of"sight path at 7. in the second case, the
obstruction is in transmission path. #uppose the height of obstruction is negative
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in the first case and positive in the second case. 5iffraction loss % can be
calculated with diffraction parameter. < is given in the following formula6

v = H 2/ (1/d
1
+ 1/d
2
)
'+"0)
The appro(imation of different diffraction loss is as follows6
F = 0 v 1
= 20 lg lg(0.5 + 0.62v) 0 v < 1
= 20 lg lg(0.5e
0.45v
) 1 v 0
= 20 lg lg(0.4 0.12 (0.1v + 0.38)
2
) 2.4 v < 1
= 20 lg lg(0.225/v) v < 2.4
'+"1)
'a) =egative height 'b) 2ositive height
!igure 1.1 Radio transmission through blade
3.3 Radio Transmission Model
Transmission model is the basis of mobile transmission network cell planning.
Model can guarantee the accuracy and save manpower, costs and time. $t is very
important to choose independent cell bases in coverage area before cellular
system planning in certain area. The only way besides forecast is attempt,
through actual measurement. Measure the coverage area of cellular stations and
choose the best addressing scheme. This way requires lots of costs and
manpower. Take high precision forecast and computing, and then compare and
evaluate all the schemes from computer to choose the best one. #o the precision
of transmission model is of vital importance to the soundness of cell planning
and the fact that whether the operator satisfies subscribers with rational
investment.
#ince China has a vast territory, the transmission environment varies alot in
different provinces and cities. %or e(ample, cities in highland and plain differ
greatly in transmission environment and their transmission models also have
great differences. $gnorance of different parameters such as terrains and
buildings will definitely results in problems in coverage and quality of network, or
the over density of base stations, which is a waste of resources. ?ith the rapid
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development of mobile network in China, operators pay more and more attention
to the match of transmission model and geographical environment.
! good mobile transmission model should be adjustable according to different
terrains 'plain, highland, valley etc) or different man"made environment 'open
area, suburb, city etc). These factors concerns lots of important variables. #o a
good transmission model is very hard to achieve. Model optimiation requires
lots of statistic data and rectification. %or details of model rectification, see +.,.
! good model should be simple and usable with clear description, leaving no
room for subjective judgment and e(planation that always result in different
forecasts in the same area. ! good model should possess high recognition and
acceptability. #ince different models may lead to different results, a high
recognition is very important.
Most models forecast the path loss of radio wave transmission. Transmission
environment plays a key role in model building. The main factors affecting the
transmission environment in a certain area are as follows6

=atural terrain 'mountain, highland, plain, water area etc)

=umber, height, distribution and materials of buildings

<egetation

Climate

=atural and man"made electromagnetic noise

The system working frequency and the motion condition of mobile station also
affect the transmission model. $n the same area, different working frequency
results in different signal fading. The transmission environment of still mobile
station also varies a lot from that of mobile station with high translational speed.
Transmission models are usually classified as outdoor transmission model and
indoor transmission model.
Ta(le 1.1 #everal common transmission models
3ame 'ppli#ation
Jkumura"7ata &;/"&/// M7 macro cell forecast
Cost.+&"7ata &;//"./// M7 macro cell forecast
Cost.+& ?alfish"$kegami B// M7 and &C// M7 micro
forecast
Keenan"Motley B// M7 and &C// M7 indoor
environment forecast
!##9T'used in !##9T planning B// M7 and&C//M7 macro cell
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software) forecast
3.3." Ma#ro Cell Model
Jkumura"7ata Model and Cost.+&"7ata Model are built on the data measured in
Lapan. The median path loss in cities is shown as follows6
L
p
= 69.55 + 26.16lg lgf 13.82 lg lgh
b
+
(
44.9 6.55 lg lgh
b
)
lg lg d A
Okumurahm
'Jkumura"7ata) '+"C"&)
L
p
= 46.3 + 33.9lg lg f 13.82lg lg h
b
+
(
44.9 6.55lg lgh
b
)
lg lg d A
Cost231hm
+ C
m
'Cost.+&"7ata) '+"C".)
L
p path loss from base station to mobile station, unit6 d3
f frequency of carrier, unit6 M7
h
b
height of base station, unit6 m
h
m
height of mobile station antenna, $ m to &/ maverage value6 &.; m, unit6
m
d distance between base station and mobile station, unit6 km
C
m modify in big cities, / d3 in medium sied cities or suburbs with medium
density of trees, + d3 in big cities
! Okumurahm modified height of mobile station, '&.& lgf : /.1) hm : '&.;0 lgf : /.C)
in medium sied cities,
3.2(log log log(11.75h
m
))
2
4.97
in big cities ' frequency over than
,// M7)
A
Cost231hm
1.1 lg lg f 0.7h
m

(
1.56lg lgf 0.8
)

$n suburbs, the model is revised as follows6

L
ps
= L
p
.Mlg lg'f N.C) O
.
;.,
(city)
'+"B)
$n open areas, the model is revised as follows6
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L
po
= L
p
(city) ,.1C'lg lgf )
.
+ &C.++ lg lgf ,/.B,
'+"&/)
$n real transmission environment, terrain and clutter should also be considered.
The model of !##9T planning software fully considers all kinds of terrains and
clutters and improves the accuracy of coverage forecast.
The model e(pression is as follows6
L
p
= K
1
+ K
2
lg lgd + K
3
(
h
m
)
+ K
4
lg lgh
m
+ K
5
lg lg
(
H
b
)
+ K
6
lg lg
(
H
b
)
lg lgd + K
7 diffn
+ K
clutter
'+"&&)
The following analysis is applied to macro cells6
K
1 frequency constant
Medium sied cities6
K&P0B.;;Q'.0.&0Q&.;0lg'%c))"/.C R%cP&;/"&///M7S
K&P,0.+Q'++.BQ&.;0)lg'%c)"/.C R%cP&;//".///M7S
3ig cities
K&P0B.;;Q.0.&0lg'%c) R%cP&;/"&///M7S
K&P,0.+QCmQ'++.BQ&.;0)lg'%c)"/.C R%cP&;//".///M7S
#uburbs6
K&P0B.;;Q'.0.&0Q&.;0lg'%c))"/.C ".'log'%cN.C)). " ;.,R%cP&;/"&///M7S
K&P,0.+Q'++.BQ&.;0)lg'%c)"/.C ".'log'%cN.C)). " ;.,R%cP&;//".///M7S
Jpen areas6
K&P0B.;;Q'.0.&0Q&.;0lg'%c))"/.C",.1C'log'%c)).Q&C.++log'%c)",/.B, R%cP&;/"
&///M7S
K&P,0.+Q'++.BQ&.;0)lg'%c)"/.C",.1CMlog'%c)O.Q&C.++log'%c)",/.B, R%cP&;//"
.///M7S
K
2 distance attenuation constant
K
3
K
4 correction coefficient of height of mobile station antenna
K
5
K
6 correction coefficient of height of base station antenna
K
7 diffraction correction coefficient
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K
clutter correction coefficient of clutter attenuation, the signal strength of a
given point is modified according to the clutter class at this point and is irrelevant
to the clutter class in the transmission path. !ll losses in the transmission path
are included in the median loss.
d
distance between base station and mobile station, unitkm
h
m
h
b effective height of antenna in mobile station and base station
respectively, unit6 m
$n radio transmissions, the value of K varies according to terrains, features and
environment of cities. Table &.& is a list of values of K and attenuation values of
some clutters once used for radio transmission analysis in medium sied cities.
Ta(le 1.1 K parameters
4 parameter 1alue
K& &;/NB// M7 8rban ,&0/N&C// M7 8rban
&,0NB// M7 *arge city,&0+N&C// M7 *arge
city
K
.
,,.B/
K
+
"..;,NB// M7 8rban,"..CCN&C// M7 8rban
/NB// M7 *arge city,"..CCN&C// M7 *arge city
K
,
/.//
K
;
"&+.C.
K
0
"0.;;
K
1
"/.C
Clutter attenuation value
$nland ?ater "+.//
?etland "+.//
Jpen !reas "..//
Rangeland "&.//
%orest &+.//
$ndustrial T Commercial !reas ;.//
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<illage "..B/
2arallelU*owU3uildings "..;/
#uburban "..;/
8rban /
5ense urban ;
7igh building &0
Calculate the median loss with these K parameters and modify them according
to the comple( environment. 3uilding loss should also be considered in indoor
cellular mobile system. 3uilding loss is a function of wall structure 'steel, glass,
brick etc), building height, relative position of buildings to base station,
percentage of window areas etc. 3ecause of the comple( of variables, building
loss can only be forecasted according to the surrounded environment. The
following are some conclusions6

Mean building penetration loss in urban areas is greater than that in suburbs
and remote areas.

*oss in areas with windows is less than that without windows.

*oss in indoor wide area is less than that at indoor wall area with corridor.

*oss at street wall with aluminum bracket is greater than that at street wall
without aluminum bracket.

*oss in building with interlayer at ceiling is less than that in building with
interlayer both at ceiling and indoor wall.

-#M has two frequency bands6 B// M7 and &C// M7. 9ach band has
different transmission characteristics. *ong wavelength comes with little
diffraction loss and short wavelength comes with little building penetration
loss. $ndoor wave component is the superimposition of penetration
component and diffraction component. 5iffraction component constitutes
most of the wave component, and therefore, the indoor and outdoor level
difference of &C// M7 is greater than that of B// M7. 3ecause of the
issues such as comple( transmission environment and the direction of
incident waves, quantify indoor and outdoor level difference is not very
practical. The best way is to carry out level difference test in special
environment for planning optimiation.
The mean building penetration loss is a function of the height of the building.
!ccording to record, the gradient of loss line is "&.B d3Nfloor. The mean building
penetration loss of the first floor is about &C d3 in urban area and &+ d3 in rural
area. Tests show that the indoor loss has the characteristics of loss waveguide
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with attenuation. %or e(ample, when the wave transmits along the corridor
direction vertical to outdoor window, the loss is about /.,d3Nm.
%or the transmission loss in tunnels, the tunnel can be regarded as a waveguide
with attenuation. 9(periments show that the transmission loss decreases as
frequency increases within special distance. The loss curve shows an
e(ponential decrease with working frequency that is less than . -7. %or -#M
frequency band, the transmission loss shows the fourth power inverse
e(ponential change with distance, that is to say, when the distance between two
antennas increases by one time, the transmission loss increases by &. d3.
$n 87% frequency band, tree leaves should also be taken into consideration.
Research shows that the transmission loss in summer is usually &/ d3 more
than that in winter because of the flourishing leaves in summer. $n cellular mobile
system, vertical polariation is better than horiontal polariation.
3.3.3 C5ST"31 Walfish I6egami Model
%or the network planning in dense cities, the cell radius is much smaller than
before, so a micro cell model is necessary, whereas +- system that is based on
C5M! also requires precise R% design to guarantee the result. Most R% designs
of this system need a micro cell model in a digital map with building information
in it for R% design and emulation.
The preferable city micro cell models at present are CJ#T.+& ?alfish $kegami,
<olcano and ?ave#ight. CJ#T.+& ?alfish $kegami model includes all the
factors that micro cell model generally considers. The following is a brief
introduction to this classic model6
%requency f6 C// M7"./// M7
7eight of antenna 7b6 , m" ;/ m
7eight of mobile station 7m6 & m"+ m
Coverage distance d/./. km"; km
Jther parameters
7eight of building6 7roof 'm)
?idth of road6 w 'm)
5istance between buildings6 b 'm)
!ngle between road direction and perpendicular incidence path2hi 'V)
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'&) =o perpendicular incidence path between base station and mobile
station 'small cells)
*b P */ Q *rts Q *msd 'or *b P */ for *rts Q *msd WP /) '+"&.)
$n the formula above
*/ is free space loss
*/ P +.., Q ./Xlog 'd) Q ./Xlog 'f)
*rts is diffraction loss and dispersion loss between roofs and streets 'slow
fading)
*rts P "&0.B " &/Xlog 'w) Q &/ log'f) Q ./Xlog'7roof " 7m) Q *cri
$n the formula above
*cri P "&/ Q /.+;,X2hi for /WP 2hi W +;V
P ..; Q /./1;X'2hi"+;) for +;WP 2hi W ;;V
P ,./ " /.&&,X'2hi";;) for ;;WP 2hi WB/ V
*msd is multi path loss 'fast fading)
*msd P *bsh Q ka Q kdXlog'd) Q kfXlog'f) " BXlog'b)
$n the formula above
*bsh P "&CXlog '& Q7b " 7roof) for 7b Y 7roof
P / for 7b WP 7roof
ka P ;, for 7b Y 7roof
P ;, " /.CX'7b " 7roof) for dYP /.; and 7b WP7roof
P ;," /.CX'7b"7roof)X'dN/.;) for dW/.; and 7bWP7roof
kd P &C for 7b Y 7roof
P &C " &;X'7b " 7roof)N7roof for 7b WP 7roof
kf P ", Q /.1X'fNB.; " &) for medium sied cities
P ", Q &.;X'fNB.; " &) for big cities
'.) ?ith perpendicular incidence path between base station and mobile
station 'for e(ample, in the street canyon)
Micro cell 'antenna lower than roof), path loss model as follows6
*b P ,..0 Q .0Xlog'd) Q ./Xlog'f) for d YP /././ km '+"&+)
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3.3.. Glo(e Curature $ffe#t
$n broad coverage, such as see area, the globe curvature and refration may
influence the transmission loss because of the long distance of perpendicular
incidence. #uppose globe radius is 'given that equals the radius of equator,
unit6 m), h
m
h
b are the effective heights of antennas in mobile station and base
station respectively, unit6 m. !ccording to spherics, line"of"sight distance is6
d = 2 h
b Q
2 h
m 'm)
#ince air pressure, temperature and humidity change with altitude, dielectric
constant Zr decreases accordingly and tends to / as air attenuates, and
therefore, the transmission track of electric wave in troposphere is a curve along
globe curvature direction instead of a straight line. ?hich means, wave refraction
occurs in troposphere, refraction coefficient nP 'Zr)
&N.
.
This kind of refraction equals the increase of globe radius, so multiply globe
radius by a coefficient k. %or standard air pressure refraction, k P ,N+, the
modified formula is shown in '+"&,) and the unit of h
m
h
b is still m.
d
0
= 4.12( hb + hm )
'km) '+"&,)
The mobile station beyond the distance calculated from the above formula is
considered in the shadow area.
3.. Transmission Model Re#tifi#ation
3...1 CW Test Theory
Model rectification should be carried out in order to build a radio transmission
model in line with local condition and improve the accuracy of coverage forecast
for network planning. Continuous wave 'C?) test is a necessary step for model
rectification. Model rectification data is obtained through C? test and digital map.
The longitude and latitude information and received level form the source of
model rectification.
!ccording to random theory, the transmission in mobile communications can be
represented as the following formula6
r(x) = m(x)r
0
(x)
'+"&;)
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$n the formula, ( is distance, r'() is received signal, r/'() is Rayleigh fading, m'()
is local mean value, the synthesis of long term fading and space transmission
loss, which is shown as follows6
m(x) =
1
2L
x+L
xL
r(y)dy '+"&0)
.* is the average length of sampling intervals, also called intrinsic length.
C? test tries to obtain the local mean value of the geographical position of each
point in a certain area and minimie the difference between r'() and m'()4
therefore, local mean value requires removal of the influence of Rayleigh fading.
?hen integrate a group of r'(), if intrinsic length .* is too short, the influence of
Rayleigh fading still e(ists4 if .* is too long, the shadow fading may also be
integrated. The value .* decides the accordance of data measured and the
actual local mean value and the accuracy of the forecast of transmission model
rectified by C? test. The famous telecommunication e(pert *i Lianye proved that
in -#M, the difference between measured data and actual mean value is less
than & d3 when the sampling number is ;/ and the intrinsic length is ,/ times of
the wavelength 'ignore the error of test equipment and digital map).
3..." CW Test Method
I. 'ddressing
5ecide the address and number of base station before C? test. -enerally, in big
cities with dense population, the number of test stations should be not less than
five4 while in small and medium sied cities, one test station is enough. The
number of test stations depends on the height of antenna in test station and
effective isotropically radiated power '9$R2). The principle of addressing is to
cover sufficient clutter classes 'from digital map).
$n real test, the following criteria help to decide whether the addressing is proper
or not6
&) The height of antenna is over ./ meters.
.) !ntenna e(ceeds the nearest obstruction by over ; meters
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!igure ".1 #chematic drawing of addressing criteria
The obstruction here mainly refers to the highest building over the roof where
antenna locates. The height of the building used as base station should be
higher than the average height of surrounding buildings.
II. CW Test 7reperation
C? test requires a test station to transmit R% signal, with or without frequency
modulation, and then drive test with C? test equipment. 3ase station system
includes transmitter antenna, feeder, high power and high frequency signal. Test
system includes test receiver, -2# receiver, range finder, goniometer, test
software and portable computer. Test receiver should have a sampling speed as
high as possible.
7aving installed the test base equipments in the selected place, measure the
transmission power and reflection power with power meter and calculate 9$R2
according to the following formula6
] _ _ ) ( _ ) ( _ lg[ 10 Gain Antenna x m! reflect " m! for#ard " $%&" + = '+"&1)
2Uforward is forward transmission power4 2Ureflected is reflection power4
T(U!ntennaU-ain is test station transmitter antenna gain 'd3i).
Record the antenna gain of test receiver R(U!ntennaU-ain 'd3i) and the feeder
loss of test receiver R(U%eederU*oss for later use.
!fter $nstallation and debugging, record the 9$R2 of the base station. Measure
the latitude and longitude of base station with global positioning system '-2#)
and the height of building with triangulation method and the tilt angle of antenna
with goniometer. The height of antenna is the building height plus mast height
and half length of antenna. #weep frequency with portable tester to make sure
normal operation of the equipments and no interfering signal around.
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III. CW Test
There are three ways of sampling with professional C? test equipments6
samplings according to time, impulse and distance. -eneral test equipment can
only do sampling according to time. #ampling according to distance has high
accuracy and can fully meet the requirement of *i LianyeHs theory about +0 to ;/
samplings within ,/ wavelengths. 5istance sampling does not have strict limit on
driving speed, but specifies a ma(imum speed '<ma(). <ma( is relative to the
ma(imum sampling period 'Tsample)6
'
max max max
= 0.8 /
sample '+"&C)
Choose the paths with various kinds of clutters to do random drive test. ?hen
the mobile station is within three kilometers away from test base station, the
received signal is greatly affected by the surrounding buildings and the height of
antenna. The difference of signal strength between the signal parallel to signal
transmission path and the signal vertical to the transmission path is about &/ d34
therefore, when do tests in the streets within this area, take same number of
samples in longitudinal streets and lateral streets to remove this influence. 5o
not choose e(press highway or broad and flat street but narrow street as test
path. %or each test base station, take as many data as possible. Test for four
hours or above for each station and stop recording at red light.
!s the terrain and clutter are relatively fi(ed during a period of time, the local
mean value is definite for a base station in a certain place. This mean value is
what the C? test tries to get and also the closest to the forecast.
3...3 Transmission Model Re#tifi#ation )ith $0amples
Model rectification requires a digital map containing terrain height, ground type
and other geographical information that influences mobile radio wave
transmission. This information is important basic data for planning software to do
model rectification, coverage forecast, interference analysis and frequency
planning.
Most transmission models used for computer aided analysis from different
software developers are based on Jkumura model and also provide rectification
parameters. The following introduces model rectification method in details on the
basis of the planning software !##9T mentioned above. 2lease note that if the
model parameters of a city with similar terrain and clutters are provided, use it
directly in planning forecast without the need for C? test and model rectification.
The parameters from K& to K1 in !##9T model are decided by transmission
environment. K'clutter) is the correction coefficient decided y different clutters.
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These parameters can be fitted from the data in C? test by K parameter testing
method or minimum variance method. Most planning software take default model
for forecast at first, and then compare the forecast value with drive test data and
use their difference to modify model parameters. Keep on doing iterative
rectification until the root"mean"square error 'RM# 9rror) of forecast value and
drive test data reaches minimum. The parameter values under this circumstance
are the required rectification values.
Jf all the K parameters, different parameters have different influence on the
model. !ccording to analysis, K& and K'clutter) are constant and irrelevant to
transmission distance, antenna height and other factors. K+ and K, are modifying
factors. !s the height of mobile station does not change a lot 'about &.; m), K+
and K, are regarded as a micro"adjustment in final stage. The adjustment of
K. K; and K0 depends on test data and test path. K. rectification usually comes
first, and then comes K'clutter) rectification.
I. 4
"
Re#tifi#ation8
&) !s *p P MK& QK+'7ms) Q K, log'7ms) Q K; log'7b) Q K
1
diffnOQMK.QK0log'7b) O
log'd) Q K'clutter) , MK& QK+'7ms) Q K, log'7ms) Q K; log'7b) Q K
1
diffn O can be
regarded as constant. K'clutter) is /, and 2loss is linearly proportional to log
'd).
.) 3uild a coordinate system with the logarithm of distance as ("a(is and signal
strength as y"a(is.
+) 5istribute test data into this coordinate system
,) 5o linear fitting, and the gradient of the obtained line is K.QK0log'7b).
;) #ubtract K0log'7b) from gradient and the difference is K..
2lanning software does not provide the value of K. but forecast according to
model and obtain the difference between forecast value and test value of each
point, and then do linear fitting of the difference. The gradient of the fitted line is
the deviation of K.QK0log'7b). #uppose K0log'7b) is already a reasonable value,
this deviation is the deviation of K.. #ee <$%igure &.&.
II. 4
1
Re#tifi#ation8
$f -radient is /, it means K. has already been adjusted and the intercept in the
coordinate system is the deviation of K& '!ctually, the intercept is the deviation of
MK& QK+'7ms) Q K, log'7ms) Q K; log'7b) Q K
1
diffnO. #uppose MK+'7ms) Q K,
log'7ms) Q K; log'7b) Q K
1
diffnO is constant, and the intercept can be regarded
as the deviation of K&). Jriginal K& plus the intercept is the corrected value of K&.
#ee <$%igure &...
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III. 4
3
and 4
.
Re#tifi#ation
K+ and K, are relative to the antenna height in mobile station and, because the
adjustment is rather tiny, no correction is needed and their changes are made up
by K&.
I1. 4
9
and 4
/
Re#tifi#ation
K; and K0 are relative to the antenna height in base station. $f their changes are
small and the terrain fluctuation is mild, the changes of K; and K0 can be
replaced by the changes of K& and K. and no correction is needed.
1. 4
:
Re#tifi#ation
K
1
is diffraction parameter and is only effective beyond line"of"sight transmission
range. !s the current digital map lacks accurate information about building
height, K
1
is usually not adjusted. Keep its default parameter setting.
1I. 4
+#lutter,
Re#tifi#ation
K'clutter) adjustment is a little complicated. %orecast the transmission loss of a point
according to the clutter class and the K'clutter) value of this point. K'clutter) value is the
deviation between a particular mean difference 'the mean difference between the
forecast value and the test value of a point in a particular class of clutter) and the
overall mean difference. $f the overall mean difference is /, the mean difference
between the forecast value and the test value of each point in a particular class
of clutter is the recommended value of K'clutter). !djustment is an iteration process.
!djusting K'clutter) affects K. 4 readjusting K. affects K&4 adjusting K& affects K'clutter) .
This kind of cyclic iteration is convergent.
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!igure 1.1 K. correction schematic drawing
!igure 1." K& correction schematic drawing
!nalye the accuracy of the model after correction. The accuracy here refers to
the accordance of the corrected model to the real test environment. !ccuracy is
usually evaluated by RM# 9rror. RM# 9rror less than C d3 generally
demonstrates the accordance, that is to say, the correction is accurate and can
be used in the following planning as reference. RM# 9rror above C shows the
corrected model has great difference with the real situation and has no reference
meaning. There are four main reasons6
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9rror occurs in correcting process, such as inaccurate antenna drawing,

wrong import of antenna information, no adjustment of map and improper
clutter filter setting.

2oor subsequent data processing leads to the filtering of effective data and
unfiltering of non"effective data.

5igital map is inaccurate.

$mproper design of C? test leads to non"effective test data. ?hen RM#

9rrorYC d3, check and do re"rectification according to the four reasons
above.
$f RM# 9rrorYC d3 and no problem is found having checked the four reasons
above. $t might be because this model is not applicable or because the
transmission environment is too comple( and the transmission condition is too
volatile in this area. 8nder such circumstances, it is necessary to take field
investigation.
3.9 *oppler $ffe#t and S)it#hoer
3.9.1 *oppler $ffe#t and !re%uen#y Change
$n -#M, the relationship between 5oppler 9ffect and frequency change can be
seen in the following formula6

3ase station is the frequency source f, and the received frequency fof
mobile station is6
fPf'&[<Nc) '+"&B)
$n the formula, v is the translational speed of mobile station4 c is the transmission
speed of electric waves '+\&/
C
mNs).
Take >Q@ when mobile station moves to base station and >"@ when mobile station
moves away from base station.

Mobile station is the frequency source f, and the received frequency fof
base station is6
f PfN '&[8Nc) '+"./)
$n the formula, u is the translational speed of mobile station4 c is the transmission
speed of signals in the air '+\&/
C
mNs).
Take >Q@ when mobile station moves to base station and >"@ when mobile station
moves away from base station.
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3.9." *is#ussions in *ifferent situations
5iscussions in different situations are as follows6
I. MS Moes to &TS
Mobile station moves to base transceiver station '3T#) at a speed of v. #ee
figure +"B
f 1
f 2
f 3
V ( k m / h )
!igure 1.1 M# moves to 3T#
The signal frequency of 3T# is f&. Through %CC7 channel in 3C7 channel, 3T#
controls mobile station to synchronie the frequency. 3ecause of 5oppler 9ffect,
the signal frequency that mobile station receives is f., and then mobile station
transmits f. signal to base station. 3ecause of 5oppler 9ffect, the frequency that
3T# receives is f+. !ccording to the formula above, the values of f&, f. and f+
are as follows6
f.Pf& '&QvNc)
f+Pf.N '&"vNc)
f+Pf& '&QvNc)N'&"vNc)Pf&'cQv)N'c"v)
The fractional frequency deviation is'f+"f&)Nf&P.vN'c"v) '+".&)
II. MS Moes ')ay from &TS
Mobile station moves away from 3T# at a speed of v. see %igure &.&.
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f 1
f 2
f 3
V ( k m / h )
!igure 1.1 Mobile station moves away from 3T#
The signal frequency of 3T# is f&. Through %CC7 channel in 3C7 channel, 3T#
controls mobile station to synchronie the frequency. 3ecause of 5oppler 9ffect,
the signal frequency that mobile station receives is f., and then mobile station
transmits f. signal to base station. 3ecause of 5oppler 9ffect, the frequency that
3T# receives is f+. !ccording to the formula above, the values of f&, f. and f+
are as follows6
f.Pf& '&"vNc)
f+Pf.N '&QvNc)
f+Pf& '&"vNc)N'&QvNc)Pf&'c"v)N'cQv)
The fractional frequency deviation is 'f+"f&)Nf&P".vN'cQv) '+"..)
#ince the translational speed of mobile station is much lower than the
transmission speed of signal, the relative frequencies in the two situations above
are pretty much the same but with opposite directions. $n the first situation, the
frequency increases4 in the second situation, the frequency decreases.
The relation between fractional frequency deviation and translational speed of
mobile station is shown in %igure &..6
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!igure 1." Relationship between fractional frequency deviation and
translational speed of mobile station
$n the figure above, when the translational speed of mobile station is &// kmNh,
the fractional frequency deviation is /.&Bppm. The frequency deviations are &1&
7 for B// M7 and +,. 7 for &C// M7.
III. MS Moes Within T)o &TSs
Mobile station moves within two base stations at a speed of v as shown in %igure
&.&.
The switchover superimposes the two situations above. Mobile station acquires
information about neighboring cell 3CC7 through 3! list. !djust the frequency of
mobile station and add several k7 to monitor the level of neighboring cell .
5oppler 9ffect may interferer the normal reception of signals from neighboring
cell. %or e(ample, in %igure &.&, mobile station monitors the level of 3T#&. The
signal f.mobile station receives may appear between the adjusted frequencies
of two mobile stations and the mobile station cannot detect the signal level of
3T#&.
Jn the other hand, the R(lev information reported in #!CC7 should be sent in
every +/s, and such long time may also lead to abnormal monitoring of
neighboring cell level and unsuccessful switchover.
The frequency change by 5oppler 9ffect leads to the fact that the base station
receives signals with the frequency of f&'cQv)N'c"v) while receives the data
according to the sampling clock of f&4 therefore, base station receives the wrong
data, which also affects the switchover.
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f 1
f 2
f 3
V ( k m / h )
f 1 '
f 2 '
f 3 '
B T 1 B T 2 !
!igure 1.1 Mobile station moves within two 3T#s
3./ !resnel Region
There are perpendicular incidence wave and reflected wave in the transmission
path from transmitter to receiver. ?hen the angel between reflected wave and
ground tends to /, the direction of the electric field of reflected wave is opposite
to the original direction with the phase difference of &C/. The path difference
between perpendicular incidence wave and reflected wave is
2h
t
h
r
d
and the
phase difference =
4 h
t
h
r
d
4
h
t
and
h
r
represent the heights of transmitter
antenna and receiver antenna respectively4 d is the horion distance between
transmitter antenna and receiver antenna. #ee %igure &.&.
!igure 1.1 #chematic drawing of perpendicular incidence and reflection
$gnore part signals from transmitter to receiver through ground wave 'these
signals can be ignored in ultrahigh frequency and very high frequency), the
square of the ratio of total received field strength to free space field strength
'<Nm)is as follows6
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)
2
( "#$ 4 )
2
( "#$ 4
2 2
2
d
h h
$
$
r t
free
rec

'+".+)
$n the formula above, n is natural number, when equals2n1 , the
signal frequency gain is 0 d34 when equals 2n , the two kinds of waves
offset each other. The change of angle may be induced by the height of
antenna, the change of transmission distance, or both. ?hen
d
W
4h
t
h
r

2
Y

2
4
when
d
Y
4h
t
h
r

2
W

2
.
$n real transmission environment, %resnel region defines the transmission space
of radio wave. $n one %resnel region, the ray path difference is less than half
wavelength as shown in %igure &... The first %resnel region is the main
transmission region. $f no obstruction occurs in this region, the diffraction loss is
minimal. The radius of %resnel region of a point 'd
t
away from transmitter, d
r
away from receiver) in a path with the length d is as follows6

h
0
(m) =
dtdr
d
= 548
d
tkm
d
rkm
d
km
f
MHz
'+".,)
!igure 1." Radius of first %resnel region
%or e(ample6 There is a point in the transmission path of a typical urban base
station with coverage of . km. #uppose this point is &// m away from transmitter
antenna. %or B// M7 frequency, the radium of the first %resnel region of this
point is h
0
5m.
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Jn the basis of the first %resnel region, the transmission path in the n
th
%resnel
region is half wavelength longer than that in the 'n"&)
th
%resnel region. The radius
of the n
th
%resnel region is as follows6
h
n
(m) =
n dtdr
d
= 548
nd
tkm
d
rkm
d
km
f
MHz
'+".;)
$f line of sight path skip the fluctuant terrain and buildings, reflected wave shows
active effect to perpendicular incidence wave4 otherwise, it may become a multi"
path interference and its destructive effect increases with frequency. !ctually, in
the line of sight microwave link design, if ;;] %resnel region is unblocked, the
rest area will not affect diffraction loss.
L
po
= L
p
(city) ,.1C'lg lgf )
.
+ &C.++ lg lgf ,/.B,
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