10

Electric Power Quality

Gerald T. Heydt 10.1 Definition ......................................................................................... 805

Department of Electrical Engineering, 10.2 Types of Disturbances ......................................................................... 805
Arizona State University,
10.3 Measurement of Electric Power Quality ................................................. 805
Tempe, Arizona, USA
10.4 Instrumentation Considerations ........................................................... 808
10.4.1 A d v a n c e d I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n
10.5 Analysis Techniques ............................................................................ 809
10.6 Nomenclature .................................................................................... 809
References ......................................................................................... 810

10.1 Definition
There is no single acceptable definition of the term electric
power quality. The term generally applies to the goodness of
the electric power supply, its voltage regulation, its frequency,
voltage wave shape, current wave shape, level of impulses and
noise, and the absence of momentary outages. Some engineers
include reliability considerations in electric power quality stud-
ies, some consider electromagnetic compatibility, and some per-
form generation supply studies. Narrower definitions of electric
power quality generally focus on the bus voltage wave shape.
Electric power quality studies generally span the entire elec-
trical system, but the main points of emphasis are in the
primary and secondary distribution systems. This is the case
because loads generally cause distortion of bus voltage wave
shape, and this distortion is mainly noted near the source of
the difficulty--namely near the load--in the secondary distri-
bution system. Because the primary distribution system is
closely coupled to the secondary system and the load, which
is sometimes served directly by the primary distribution
system, the primary network is also a point of focus. Trans-
mission and generation systems are also studied in certain
types of power quality evaluation and analyses. Table 10.1
shows the main points in electric power quality.
10.2 Types of Disturbances
There are two main classes of electric power quality distur-
bances: the steady-state disturbance that lasts for a long period
of time (and is often periodic) and the transient. The latter
generally exists for a few milliseconds, and then decays to zero.
Controversy surrounds which is more important, and a case
could be made for either type of disturbance being more prob-
lematic as far as cost. The steady-state type of disturbance is
generally less evident in its appearance, often at lower voltage
and current levels, and less harmful to the operation of the
system. Because steady-state phenomena last for a long period
of time, the integrated effects of active power losses (low or high
voltage) and inaccurate timing signals may be quite costly. Tran-
sient effects tend to be higher level in amplitude and are often
quite apparent in harmful effects as well as occasionally spec-
tacular in cost (e.g., causing loss of a manufactured product or
causing long-term outages). The cost of transient power quality
problems has been estimated in the 100 million to 3 billion dollar
range annually in the United States. Table 10.2 lists some types of
steady-state and transient power quality problems. The transient
problems are often termed e v e n t s .
10.3 Measurement of Electric
Power Quality
Many indices have been developed for the specification of
electric power quality. A few are listed in Table 10.3. The
most widely used index of power quality is the total harmonic
distortion, which is an index that compares the intensity of
harmonic signals in voltages and currents to the fundamental
component. The main indices are as follows:

Copyright © 2005 by Academic Press. 805

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
806 Gerald T. Hey&

TABLE 10.1 Electric Power Quality Considerations

Consideration Focus Comments

Region of analysis • Distribution systems The main region of analysis is the primary and secondary
• Points of utilization of electric power distribution system. This is where nonsinusoidal waves
• Transmission systems are most prevalent and of greatest amplitude.
• Electromagnetic compatibility
Types of problems • Harmonics There is a controversy concerning whether momentary low
• Momentary outages and low voltages voltages (sags) or harmonics are the most problematic in
(sags) terms of cost of the problem.
Analysis methods • Circuit analysis programs A range of commercial software is available for both smaller
• Harmonic power flow studies and larger studies. Many software tools are linked to
• Focused studies on particular events using elaborate graphics. Most methods are data intensive and
circuit theory to obtain solution approximate.
• Pspice
Mitigation techniques • Filters Mitigation techniques are often customized to the particular
• Capacitors problem and application. In general, higher pulse order
• Problematic loads systems give much less problem than single-phase and
• Higher pulse order (e.g., twelve-pulse six-pulse, three-phase systems.
rather than six-pulse systems)

TABLE 10.2 Power Quality Problems

Type Problem Appearance Causes

Transient system Impulses (surges, High-voltage impulse for a short time, typically in the • Lightning
problems pulses) microsecond to 1 ms range • Switching surges
• Rejection of inductive loads
Momentary outages Collapse of ac supply voltage for up to a few (e.g., 20) cycles Circuit breaker operations
Phase shift Sinusoidal supply voltage proportional to a sine function Faults
whose phase angle suddenly shifts by an angle q~
Sags (low voltage) Momentary low voltage caused by faults in the supply Faults
Ringing Damped sinusoidal voltages impressed on the Capacitor switching
ac wave

Steady-state Harmonics Integer multiples of the ac supply frequency (e.g., 60 Hz) of • Nonlinear loads
system (usually) lower amplitude signals impressed on the power • Adjustable speed drives
problems frequency wave • Rectifiers
• Inverters
• Fluorescent lamps
Voltage notches Momentary low voltages of duration much shorter than one Adjustable speed drives
cycle caused by commutated loads
Noise Noise impressed on the power frequency • Static discharge and corona
• Arc furnaces
Radio frequency High-frequency (e.g., f > 500 kHz) sinusoidal signals Radio transmitters
of typically low amplitude impressed on the power
frequency
Interharmonics and Components of noninteger multiples of the power • Cycloconverters
fractional frequency • Kramer drives
harmonics • Certain types of adjustable
speed drives

• P o w e r f a c t o r : T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p o w e r f a c t o r to t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n systems, is well k n o w n . M a n y electric utilities

IEEE S t a n d a r d 519-1992, especially w i t h r e g a r d to t h e h a v e limits to t h e p o w e r factor o f c o n s u m e r loads, b u t
failure o f t h e p o w e r f a c t o r to register h a r m f u l a n d u n - t h e r e m a y n o t b e a clear d e f i n i t i o n o f p o w e r factor for t h e
d e s i r a b l e effects o f h i g h - f r e q u e n c y h a r m o n i c s in p o w e r n o n s i n u s o i d a l case. I n p a r t i c u l a r , m a n y electric utilities
10 Electric Power Quality 807

TABLE 10.3 Voltage Measurement

Instrument Configuration Application considerations

Potential transformer (PT) Energized at full line potential on the high side and typically in the • Bandwidth of the PT
100-V range on the low side • Safety (e.g., upon failure of the PT)
• Turns ratio, accuracy
Voltmeters Energized directly or through a probe • Isolation from the line
• Bandwidth
• True RMS reading questioned
• Accuracy
Voltage divider Energized at full line potential at the upper resistor; resistive voltage • Safety (e.g., opening of low end of string)
divider used to give low voltage at the low end of the string • Heat loss
Capacitively coupled voltage Capacitive voltage divider energized at full line potential at upper • Bandwidth
transformer end; instrument transformer used to obtain some isolation • Resonance of the capacitors and transformer
• Accuracy
• Frequency dependence

do not distinguish between displacement of the power
factor (i.e., the cosine between the voltage and current
phasors at the fundamental frequency) and the power
factor defined in Table 10.4. The term t r u e p o w e r factor
has been used by some to refer to P/] V] ]It, but the IEEE
Standard 100 used the term power factor for this ratio,
and this simpler term is used in this chapter.
• Total h a r m o n i c d i s t o r t i o n : The use of the total harmonic
distortion (THD) is perhaps the most widespread power
quality index, and many electric utilities have adopted a
THD-based measure of the limits of customer load cur-
rents.
• K-factor: Explanation of the use of the K-factor to derate
transformers that are expected to carry nonsinusoidal
load currents has been used, and an alternative calcula-
tion of this index in the time domain has been shown.
• F l i c k e r factor: This flicker factor index has been used in
connection with electric arc furnaces for the purpose of
quantifying the load impact on the power system.
Perhaps the main application of power quality indices has
been in guides, recommended practices, and standards. As
an example, the IEEE Standard 519-1992 contains an often
cited limit to harmonic load currents and voltages. The ANSI

TABLE 10.4 C o m m o n Power Quality Indices

Index Definition Main applications

Total harmonic distortion ( T H D ) ( ~ / I 1 General purpose; standards

Power factor (PF) Ptot/I VrmsHIrmsI Potentially in revenue metering

Telephone influence factor Irrns Audio circuit interference

C message index (~)/Irms Communications interference

Audio circuit interference, shunt capacitor stress

VTproduct / ~ w ? , V2
~/Z-~ Voltage distortion index
V i=l

K factor h2l2 / Z I 2 Transformer derating

h=l h=l

Crest factor Vpeak/ Vrms Dielectric stress

Unbalance factor ]~ [/I V+l Three-phase circuit balance
Flicker factor A g /I g I Incandescent lamp operation, bus voltage
regulation, sufficiency of short circuit capacity
Total demand distortion (TDD) THD*(fundamental current/circuit rating) In IEEE Standard 519
808
Standard 368 contains a well-quoted guide on limits of the IT
product. The Underwriters Laboratories applies the K-factor
to the specification of transformers that carry nonsinusoidal
load currents.
10.4 Instrumentation Considerations
Because power quality is often stated in terms of voltages and
currents, the main instrumentation needed to assess power
quality relates to bus voltages and line and load currents. In
terms of voltages, usually bus voltages are measured using
potential transformers because isolation from the power cir-
cuit is desirable and because power system voltages are usually
too high to measure directly. Typical potential transformers are
capable of bringing circuit voltages (e.g., in the 440-7200V
range for distribution circuits and up to 40kV for subtrans-
mission circuits) to about 110 V. These potential transformers
must have the proper bandwidth to "see" the desired voltages
to be instrumented (e.g., harmonic voltages), they must have
the proper dynamic range to allow measurement of the volt-
age, and they must have isolation suitable for safety. Some
voltage measurement instruments are listed in Table 10.3.
Current instrumentation is analogous to voltage measure-
ment with the replacement of the current transformer for the
potential transformer. Main considerations are appropriate-
ness of the current ratio in the current transformer, isolation
for safety, loading with the proper current transformer burden,
and bandwidth and dynamic range of the current transformer.
Table 10.5 shows some of the basic instruments used in current
instrumentation.
Both current and voltage transformers are available in sev-
eral grades. General purpose transformers are not generally
usable for power quality measurements because the bandwidth
TABLE 10.5 Current Instrumentation
Instrument Configuration
Current transformer (CT) Placed around the conductor to be
instrumented
Resistive shunt for current Resistor in series with load to be
measurement instrumented
Ammeter Placed in series with circuit to be
instrumented
Optical instruments Rotation of plane of polarized light in
a fiber-optic cable around or near
the instrumented circuit
Hall-effect device Measurement of magnetic field near
instrumented conductor
Gerald T. Heydt
of these devices is often not much larger than 60 Hz (in 60-Hz
systems). Harmonics may be attenuated by the current or
potential transformer, and this adds intolerable error to the
measurement. Relaying grade current and relaying potential
transformers are usually not much better because of limited
bandwidth. Revenue meter grade current and voltage trans-
formers are generally not designed for high bandwidth appli-
cations. Laboratory grade transformers are usually the best
choice. Modern power quality instruments generally have
companion current and voltage transformers for use with a
given instrument, and the manual for the instrument will
contain the bandwidth measurement of the transformers. It
is noted that for many voltage and current instruments used in
power quality tests, current and voltage transformers are the
most costly components of the instrumentation system.
Modern power quality assessment often involves more than
voltage and current measurement. The following are also part
of the test regimen in most cases:
• Event measurement (i.e., measurement of three-phase
voltages and currents, plus neutral ground voltage and
neutral current versus time)
• On-board evaluation of harmonics (of voltages and cur-
rents, often plotted versus time)
• Measurement of active and reactive power
• Measurement of total harmonic distortion
• Measurement of active power loss in a system component
• Assessment of high-frequency effects
• Measurement of rise time
• Oscillograph capability (often written digitally to a disk
for subsequent analysis and report writing)
• Energy measurement.
Table 10.6 illustrates a few of these capabilities in commer-
cial instruments in use for power quality assessment.
Application considerations
• Bandwidth
• Safety
• Operation with correct CT burden
• No ohmic isolation
• Accuracy
• Heating of the shunt
• Accuracy
• Bandwidth
• Safety--no ohmic isolation for circuit
• Accuracy
• Vibration sensitivity
• Cost
• Accuracy
• Bandwidth
• Vibration and mechanical placement sensitivity
• Linearity
10 Electric Power Quality 809

TABLE 10.6 Power Quality Assessment Instruments

Instrument Typical capability Bandwidth Dynamic range

Digital fault recorder Measurethree-phase voltage and current; perform basic analysison Typicallyto about 3000Hz At least 80 db, possibly 100 db
(DFR) these data; measure digital output
Power quality node Commercializedevent recorder for distribution system Typicallyto about 3000 Hz About 80 db
instrumentation and field rugged, and telephone interrogations
Event recorder, digital Oscilloscopefunctions, digital readout, basic analysis functions, Varies widely--possibly into About 100 db
oscilloscope signal triggers recording the megahertz range

10.4.1 Advanced I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n
In the preceding section, several basic voltage and current
measurement instruments were discussed. Because power
quality measurements are often demanding in bandwidth
and dynamic range, several types of advanced instrumentation
techniques have been studied and developed for this applica-
tion. A few are listed in Table 10.7.
10.5 Analysis Techniques
The main analytical techniques for power quality studies are
the following:
formulas that may be applied to solve problems. One particu-
larly useful set of formulas is the ideal rectifier set of formulas
shown in Table 10.8. Rectifier loads are a main source o f
harmonic load currents. The ideal rectifier formulas give the
various interrelationships of voltage and current parameters
for the idealized case of no rectifier power loss and very high
dc side inductance. These formulas, while useful, should be
used with caution because the assumptions made in arriving
at these formulas are all idealizations. Note that the displace-
ment factor is the cosine of the angle between fundamental
voltage and fundamental current. The power factor is the ratio
P/VrmsIrms •

• Power flow studies

10.6 Nomenclature
• Injection current analysis
C-message weight
• Simulation methods, such as Pspice and EMTP Ch
C o m p u t e r Business Equipment Manufacturers
• Direct circuit analysis CBEMA
Association
Power flow studies are software tools that rely on steady- CT current transformer
state operation of the system to be studied. These software DF displacement factor
tools use input data such as load type, load level (P, Q), and DPF displacement power factor
circuit data (e.g., impedance, connection diagram). The out- EPRI Electric Power Research Institute
p u t is typically all nodal voltages and all line currents at all IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
frequencies. IT c u r r e n t - - t e l e p h o n e influence factor product, read
Injection current analysis is the analysis of how currents as IT product
injected into a system propagate. This is a simplified form of Ih, Vh harmonic components of current i(t) and v(t)
power flow study. K K-factor
Power quality engineering m a y be taken to be a specialized kiT thousands of IT units
branch of signal analysis. In this regard, there are many useful kVT thousands of VT units

TABLE10.7 Advanced and Unconventional Instrumentation for Electric Power Quality Assessment
Basic instrumentation technique Basis Application

Poeckels effect Rotation of the plane of polarized light in a medium
due to electric field strength
Faraday rotation effect Rotation of the plane of polarized light in a medium
due to magnetic field strength
Hall effect Variation of the resistance of a material in a
magnetic field
Global Positioning System (GPS) Triangular spotting of four or more artificial earth
applications satellitesto obtain time and position of a receiver
Wideband measurement of voltage
Wideband measurement of current
Wideband measurement of current
Accurate time tagging of measurements,
phasor measurements
810
TABLE 10.8 The Ideal Rectifier Formulas
Single-phase bridge rectifiers
Line commutated:
Infinite dc inductance
Zero supply inductance
Line commutated:
Infinite dc inductance
Nonzero supply
inductance
Forced commutated:
Infinite dc inductance
Nonzero supply
inductance
Three-phase bridge rectifiers (six pulse)
Line commutated:
Infinite dc inductance
Zero supply inductance
Line commutated:
Infinite dc inductance
Nonzero supply
inductance
Forced commutated:
Infinite dc inductance
Nonzero supply
inductance
Gerald T. Heydt
)tot total active power (for all h a r m o n i c s )
PCC p o i n t of c o m m o n c o u p l i n g
PF power factor
PT potential transformer
Vac = 2 ~ Vac
"iT SCR short circuit ratio
lac, fundamental = 2 ~ ldc rms root m e a n square value ¢ - ~ ~ f 2 ( t ) d t
"iT
/supply, h = [ac, fundamental/h
THDI = 48.4% T period of a periodic wave; time h o r i z o n u n d e r
Displacement factor = DF = 1.0 study for a n aperiodic wave
Displacement power factor = DPF 2x/2 TDD total d e m a n d distortion
'IT
THD total h a r m o n i c distortion
P& = Pac = 2x/2 V~,,~s Idc TIF telephone influence factor
"iT
v+, v_ positive a n d negative sequence c o m p o n e n t s of a
2toIa,Ls
cos(u)= 1 - - - sinusoidal three-phase voltage
Hvs VT v o l t a g e - - t e l e p h o n e influence factor product, read
V& = 2x/2 Vs - 2coLslacc
'Tr "iT
as VT p r o d u c t
DF ~ cos (u/2) Wh telephone influence factor weight
P = Vslac,fund.... tal*DF = V&Idc
2o~LsI& References
cos (ix + u) = cos (ix) - - -
vs~ Arrillaga, ]. (1985). Power system harmonics. New York: John Wiley &
U
DPF = cos(ix + 5 ) Sons.
2~oLs I 2 Bollen, M.H.]. (2000). Understanding power quality problems: Voltage
GId~ cos (ix) - ~ - - dc
/supply, fundamental sags and interruptions. New York: IEEE.
v~cos(ix + ~) Dugan, R.C., McGranaghan, M.F., and Beaty, H.W. (1996). Electrical
Vdc = 2X/2 Vs cos (ix) - Z--wLslac power systems quality. New York: McGraw-Hill.
"iT qT
Hey&, G. (1995). Electric power quality. Scottsdale, AZ: Stars in a
Circle.
IEEE. (1986). IEEE Standard C57.110-1986, IEEE recommended
V& = 3__x/2VtL practice for establishing transformer capability when supplying
7r nonsinusoidal load currents. New York.
I,, rms = x / ~ l a c
IEEE. (1997a). IEEE Standard 368-1977, IEEE recommended prac-
•supply, fundamental ~ ~ Idc tice for measurement of electrical noise and harmonic filter
DF = 1.00 performance of high-voltage direct-current systems. New York.
DPF = 3/~ IEEE. (1997b).
THDI = 31.1% (harmonics 5, 7, 11.... ) IEEE. (1992a). IEEE Standard 1100, IEEE recommended practice for
powering and grounding sensitive electronic equipment. New York.
Vat = 3x/2 VLL -- 3o~LsIac IEEE. (1992b). IEEE Standard 519-1992, IEEE recommended prac-
T¢ 7r
tices and requirements for harmonic control in electrical power
2o3Lsl&
cos (u) = 1 - x/2VL~ systems. New York.
Kennedy, B.W. (2000). Power quality primer. New York: McGraw-Hill.
DF cos (u/2) Porter, G., and Van Sciver, J.A. (1998). Power quality solutions: Case
P = x/ 3VLLl suppl y, fund . . . . tal studies for troubleshooters. Lilburn, GA: Fairmont Press.
*cos (u/2) = Vacldc Power Quality Assurance Magazine,
http://industrycfick.com/magazine.asp?magazineid=286&siteid=13
V& = 3x/2 VLL COS (0~) -- 3o~LsIac
Shepherd, W., and Zand, E (1979). Energy flow and power factor in
w "~
nonsinusoidal circuits. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
cos (ix + u) = cos (ix) - 2~oLsId~
"~VLL
U
DPF ~ cos(ix +~-)