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COMPUTI NG

DRAI N SPACI NGS


COMPUTI NG DRAI N SPACI NGS
\
Bulletin 15.
COMPUTI NG DRAI N SPACI NGS
A generalized method
with special reference to sensitivity analysis
and geo-hydrological investigations
W. F. J . van BEERS
Research Soil Scientist
International Institute,for
Land Reclamation and Improvement
I NTERNATI ONAL I NSTI TUTE FOR L AND RECLAMATI ON AND I MPROVEMENT/I LRI
P.O. BOX 45 WAGENI NGEN THE NETHERLANDS 1976
In memory of
Dr S. B. Hooghoudt (7 1953)
@ International Institute for Land Reclamation aiid I mprovement/I LRI , Wageningen,
The Netherlands 1976
This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without the written permission
of I LRI
Acknowledgements
Thi s Bul l et i n may be r egar ded as one of t he r esul t s of cl ose co- oper at i on
bet ween t hr ee i nst i t ut i ons i n The Net her l ands whi ch ar e engaged i n dr ai nage
r esear ch. Many speci al i st s have t hus cont r i but ed i n one way or anot her t o t hi s
Bul l et i n, al t hough t he aut hor bear s t he f i nal r esponsi bi l i t y f or i t s cont ent s.
The aut hor ' s gr at ef ul acknowl edgement s ar e due i n par t i cul ar t o:
Institute f o r Land and Water Management Research:
Dr . L. F. Er nst , Seni or Resear ch Sci ent i st , Dept . speci al Resear ch ( Physi cs)
Dr . J . Wessel i ng, Head Dept . Hydr ol ogy
Agricultural University, Dept. of Land Drainage and Improvement, Wageningen:
Dr . W. H. van der Mol en, Pr of essor of Agr o- Hydr ol ogy
Dr . J . W. van Hoor n, Seni or St af f Sci ent i st
International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement:
I r . P. J . Di el eman, Land Dr ai nage Engi neer , FAO, Rome (1971)
I r . J . Kessl er , Dr ai nage Speci al i st ('i 1972)
Dr . N. A. de Ri dder , Geohydr ol ogi st
1r . C. L. van Somer en, Dr ai nage Speci al i st
5
Contents
SECTI ON 1
SECTI ON 2
SECTI ON 3
SECTI ON 4
APPENDI X A
APPENDI X B
APPENDI X C l
APPENDI X C2
I NTRODUCTI ON
PRI NCI PL ES OF THE HOOGHOUDT EQUATI ON
2. 1 D i t c h es reachi ng an i mper v i o us floor
2. 2 D i t c h es or pi pe drai ns l ocated
above an i mper v i ous l ayer
PRI NCI PL ES OF THE ERNST EQUATI ON
3. 1
3 . 2 T he general i zed or the Hooghoudt - E r nst equati on
3. 3 T he mo d i f i ed Hooghoudt - E r nst equati on
3. 4 T he s i mp l i f i ed Hooghoudt - E r nst equati on
T he ori gi nal drai n spaci ng equati on of E r n s t
APPL I CATI ON OF THE GENERAL I ZED EQUATI ON
AND CORRESPONDI NG GRAPHS
4. 1 D r ai nage si tuati ons
4. 2 Summary of graphs and equati ons
4. 3 P r ogr ammes Sci enti f i c Pocket C al c u l at o r
DERI VATI ON OF THE GENERAL I ZED EQUATI ON OF ERNST
LAY ERED SOI L BELOW DRAI NS
CONSTRUCTI ON OF GRAPH 11, BASED ON HOOGHOUDT's TABLE
FOR r = 0.10 m
CONSTRUCTI ON OF GRAPH 11, BASED ON THE GENERAL I ZED
EQUATI ON OF ERNST FOR K, = K 2
L I ST OF SYMBOLS
REFERENCES
ANNEXES GRAPHS I , I a, 11, X I 1
7
I O
I O
12
i4
14
15
17
18
19
19
37
38
39
41
4 3
44
46
47
6
1. Introduction
Thi s Bul l et i n summar i zes t he l at est devel opment s t hat have t aken pl ace i n
The Net her l ands on t he subj ect of comput i ng dr ai n spaci ngs usi ng dr ai nage equa-
t i ons, based on t he assumpt i on of st eady- st at e condi t i ons. Those based on non-
st eady st at e condi t i ons wi l l be handl ed i n a separ at e bul l et i n.
I t i s assumed t hat t he r eader i s f ami l i ar wi t h dr ai nage equat i ons i n gener al
and wi t h t hose devel oped i n The Net her l ands i n par t i cul ar ( S. B. Hooghoudt en
L. F. Er nst ) . These ear l i er cont r i but i ons t o t he t heor y and pr act i ce of dr ai nage
equat i ons have been summar i zed by Van Beer s ( 1965) , who deal t speci f i cal l y wi t h
Dut ch ef f or t s i n t hi s f i el d, and by Wessel i ng ( 1973) , who al so i ncl uded met hods
devel oped i n ot her count r i es.
To avoi d t he need t o consul t t hose ear l i er publ i cat i ons, t he mai n pr i nci pl es
of t he Hooghoudt equat i on ar e gi ven i n Sect i on 2 and t hose of t he Er nst equat i on
i n Sect i on 3.
When usi ng equat i ons based on st eady- st at e condi t i ons, one shoul d r eal i ze t hat
such condi t i ons sel domoccur i n pr act i ce. Never t hel ess t he equat i ons ar e ext r e-
mel y usef ul , because t hey make i t possi bl e:
* t o desi gn a dr ai nage syst emwhi ch has t he same i nt ensi t y ever ywher e even
t hough qui t e di f f er ent hydr ol ogi cal condi t i ons ( t r ansmi ssi vi t y val ues)
occur i n t he ar ea
* t o car r y out a sensi t i vi t y anal ysi s, whi ch gi ves one a good i dea of t he
r el at i ve i mpor t ance of t he var i ous f act or s i nvol ved i n t he comput at i ons
of dr ai n spaci ngs.
Drainage equations and nomographs: past and present
The equat i ons and gr aphs t hat have been avai l abl e up t o now ar e usef ul f or t he
"nor mal " dr ai nage si t uat i on. By "nor mal ", we mean t hat t her e i s onl y one per -
vi ous l ayer bel ow dr ai n l evel and onl y a sl i ght di f f er ence bet ween t he soi l per -
meabi l i t y above dr ai n l evel (K ) and t hat bel ow dr ai n l evel (K2).
1
7
Most equat i ons and gr aphs have t hei r shor t comi ngs. I n t he f ol l owi ng dr ai nage
si t uat i ons, f or i nst ance, t her e i s onl y one possi bl e equat i on t hat can be used:
A i m o f t hi s bu
Because o
a hi ghl y per vi ous soi l l ayer above dr ai n l evel and
a poor l y per vi ous soi l l ayer bel ow dr ai n l evel : onl y Eq. Hooghoudt
a heavy cl ay l ayer of var yi ng t hi ckness over l yi ng a sandy
subst r at um: onl y Eq. Er nst
t he soi l bel ow dr ai n l evel consi st s of t wo per vi ous l ayer s,
t he l ower l ayer bei ng sand or gr avel ( aqui f er) : onl y Eq. Er nst
( T h i s a eommon oeeurrenee in drainage and 7:s highZy significant
for the design.)
l eti n
t hese shor t comi ngs and t he i nconveni ence of wor ki ng wi t h di f f er ent
equat i ons and gr aphs, t he quest i on was r ai sed whet her a si mpl e equat i on wi t h a
si ngl e gr aph coul d be devel oped t o r epl ace t he exi st i ng ones. The pr obl emwas
sol ved by Er nst (1975), who combi ned t he Hooghoudt equat i on and t he Er nst equa-
t i on f or r adi al f l ow, r esul t i ng i n a si ngl e expr essi on whi ch we shal l cal l t he
Hooghoudt - Er nst equat i on.
Al t hough t he f undament al s of t he equat i on have been publ i shed el sewher e by
Er nst , i t i s t he ai mof t hi s bul l et i n to f ocus at t ent i on on t hese r ecent de-
vel opment s and t o i l l ust r at e t he pr act i cal use of t he equat i on and t he cor r espond-
i ng gr aph whi ch has been devel oped f or t hi s pur pose ( Gr aph I ). The gr aph can be
used f or al l t he above dr ai nage si t uat i ons, al t hough f or t he t hi r d one (K 3>>K 2),
an addi t i onal auxi l i ar y gr aph wi l l be needed.
I t wi l l be demonst r at ed t hat no gr aph at al l i s needed f or most dr ai nage si -
t uat i ons, especi al l y i f one has avai l abl e a Sci ent i f i c Pocket Cal cul at or (SPC).
Al t hough not st r i ct l y necessar y, a speci al gr aph has never t hel ess been pr epa-
r ed f or nor mal dr ai nage si t uat i ons and t he use of pi pe dr ai ns ( Gr aph 11). The
r eader wi l l f i nd t hat i t gi ves a qui ck answer t o many quest i ons.
I t may be not ed t hat wi t h t he i ssue of t hi s bul l et i n ( No. 15) , a l l graphs
contained in Bulletin 8 ar e now out of dat e, al t hough Gr aph 1 of Bul l et i n 8
( Hooghoudt , pi pe draj . n) st i l l r emai ns usef ul f or t heor et i cal l y cor r ect comput a-
t i ons and f or t he K >> K 2 si t uat i on; i n al l ot her cases Gr aph 2 of t he pr esent
bul l et i n i s pr ef er abl e.
1
8
The r eader wi l l al so not e t hat i n t hi s new bul l et i n, a revised nomenclature
for various K- and D-UaZues ( t hi ckness of l ayer ) has been i nt r oduced.
The modi f i ed meani ngs of t hese val ues ar e not onl y t heor et i cal l y mor e cor r ect
but al so pr omot e an easi er use of t he K- and D- val ues.
Last but not l east , t he importance of geo-hydrologica2 investigations, espe-
ci al l y i n i r r i gat i on pr oj ect s, i s emphasi zed because a dr ai n spaci ng can be con-
si der abl y i nf l uenced by l ayer s beyond t he r each of a soi l auger .
Sensitivity anal ysi s
The pr i mar y f unct i on of a dr ai nage equat i on i s t he comput at i on of dr ai n spa-
ci ngs f or dr ai nage desi gn. Si nce i t summar i zes i n symbol s al l t he f act or s t hat
gover n t he dr ai n spaci ng and t he i nt er - r el at i onshi p of t hese f act or s, i t al so
al l ows a sensi t i vi t y anal ysi s t o be per f or med i f t her e i s a need t o.
A sensi t i vi t y anal ysi s r eveal s t he r el at i ve i nf l uence of t he var i ous f act or s
i nvol ved: t he per meabi l i t y and t hi ckness of t he soi l l ayer s t hr ough whi ch gr ound-
wat er f l ow can occur ( dept h of a bar r i er ) , wet t ed per i met er of dr ai ns, dept h of
dr ai ns, et c. Thi s anal ysi s wi l l i ndi cat e whet her appr oxi mat e dat a wi l l suf f i ce
under cer t ai n ci r cumst ances or whet her t her e i s a need f or mor e det ai l ed i nvest i -
gat i ons. The dr ai nage speci al i st wi l l f i nd t he sensi t i vi t y anal ysi s a usef ul
t ool i n gui di ng t he r equi r ed soi l and geohydr ol ogi cal i nvest i gat i ons, whi ch di f f er
f r ompr oj ect t o pr oj ect , and i n wor ki ng out al t er nat i ve sol ut i ons r egar di ng t he
use of pi pe dr ai ns or di t ches, dr ai n dept h, et c.
For a sensi t i vi t y anal ysi s, however , i t i s a "condi t i o si ne qua non" t hat
t he avai l abl e equat i ons and gr aphs shoul d be such t hat t he r equi r ed cal cul at i ons
can be done easi l y and qui ckl y.
I n t he opi ni on of t he aut hor , t hi s condi t i on has been f ul f i l l ed by t he equa-
t i ons and gr aphs t hat wi l l be pr esent ed i n t he f ol l owi ng pages, especi al l y i f one
has an SPC at hi s di sposal .
9
2.
2.1
Principles of the Hooghoudt equation
Ditches reaching an impervious floor
For f l owof gr oundwat er t o hor i zont al par al l el di t ches r eachi ng an i mper vi ous
f l oor ( Fi g. 1) hor i zont al f l owonl y, bot h above and bel ow dr ai n l evel may be
assumed, and t he dr ai n di schar ge, under st eady- st at e condi t i ons can be comput ed
wi t h a si mpl e dr ai nage equat i on:
8K2D2h 4Kl h2
q=- +- or ( 1)
L2 L2
wher e
q
q2 = di schar ge r at e f or t he f l owbelow dr ai n l evel
q1 = di schar ge r at e f or t he f l owabove dr ai n l evel
D2 = t hi ckness of t he per vi ous soi l l ayer below dr ai n l evel (m)
= dr ai n di schar ge r at e per uni t sur f ace ar ea per uni t t i me ( m3 per day/ m2
or mi day)
( dept h t o an i mper vi ous l ayer or dept h of f l ow) or
per uni t l engt h ( met r e) of dr ai n ( m2/ m)
= cr oss- sect i onal ar ea of f l owat r i ght angl es t o t he di r ect i on of f l ow
K2 = hydr aul i c conduct i vi t y of t he soi l ( f l owr egi on) below dr ai n l evel
K 1 = hydr aul i c conduct i vi t y of t he soi l ( f l owr egi on) above dr ai n l evel
h
( m/ day)
( m/ day) ; f or homogeneous soi l s K
way bet ween dr ai ns (m); not e t hat t he wat er t abl e i s def i ned as t he
l ocus of poi nt s at at mospher i c pr essur e
1 = K2
= hydr aul i c head - t he hei ght of t he wat er t abl e above dr ai n l evel mi d-
L = dr ai n spaci ng (m)
I f , f or t he f l owabove t he dr ai ns, one want s t o avoi d t he use of a cer t ai n
not at i on (h) f or t wo qui t e di f f er ent f act or s, bei ng a hydr aul i c head and an
aver age cr oss- sect i on of f l owar ea (4 h), i t i s pr ef er abl e t o wr i t e Eq. (l ) as
8KzD2h 8Kl Dl h
( Fi g. I )
q = 2 + - - L L2
wher e
D, = aver age dept h of f l owr egi on above dr ai n l evel or aver age t hi ckness
of t he soi l l ayer t hr ough whi ch t he f l owabove t he dr ai ns t akes pl ace.
IO
Fi g . 1. Cross-sections of flow area. Steady-state condi t i ons: discharge ( q ) =
recharge ( R ) . Paral l el spaced drains reaching an impervious f l oor .
Var i ous di schar ge val ues:
day. When t he dr ai n spaci ng i s 40 m, t he discharge per metre of drain i s
qL = 0. 005 X 40 = 0. 2 m3 per day; when t hi s dr ai n i s 100 ml ong, t he discharge
of t he drain wi l l be 0 . 2 x 100 = 20 m3 per day or 20, 000/ 86, 400 = 0. 23 l i t r es
per sec. , and i n t hi s case the discharge per ha wi l l be 0. 23 x 10, 000/ ( 40~100)
= 0. 58 l i t . Sec. ha.
Not e t hat 1 l i t . Sec. ha = 8. 64 mm per day or 1 mm per day = 0. 116 l i t . Sec. ha.
q = 0. 005 m/ day = 0. 005 m3 per m2 area drained per
I n compar i son wi t h Eq. (l ), Eq. (l a) shows mor e cl ear l y t hat t he di schar ge
r at e f or t he f l ow above and bel ow t he dr ai ns can be comput ed wi t h t he same
hor i zont al f l ow equat i on; t he onl y di f f er ence i s t he cr oss- sect i on of f l ow ar ea.
Eq. (l a) can be used f or a dr ai nage si t uat i on wi t h t wo l ayer s of di f f er ent
per meabi l i t y ( K2 and KI ) , dr ai n l evel bei ng at t he i nt er f ace of t hese l ayer s.
The equat i on can al so be used f or homogeneous soi l s (K =K ) . Thi s i s possi bl e
because Hooghoudt di st i ngui shes pr i mar i l y not soil layers but gr oundwat er flow
regi ons, spl i t up i nt o a f l ow above dr ai n l evel and a f l ow bel ow dr ai n l evel .
These f l ow r egi ons can coi nci de wi t h soi l l ayer s but need not necessar i l y do so.
2 1
2.2 Ditches or pipe drains located above an impervious layer
When di t ches or pi pe dr ai ns ar e l ocat ed above an i mper vi ous l ayer , t he f l ow
l i nes wi l l be par t l y hor i zont al , and par t l y r adi al as t hey conver ge when appr oach-
i ng t he dr ai ns. Thi s causes a r est r i ct i on t o f l ow ( r esi st ance t o r adi al f l ow)
due t o a decr ease i n t he avai l abl e cr oss- sect i on of f l ow ar ea. The smal l er t he
wet t ed per i met er of t he dr ai n, t he gr eat er t he r esi st ance t o r adi al f l ow.
I n cer t ai n r espect s, t hi s f l ow r est r i ct i on can be compar ed t o t he t r af f i c on
a hi ghway, wher e i n a cer t ai n di r ect i on one of t he l anes i s bl ocked. I n bot h
cases, t he avai l abl e cr oss- sect i onal f l ow ar ea has been r educed.
For t he dr ai nage si t uat i on descr i bed above, t he Hooghoudt equat i on expr essed
i n t er ms of Eq. (l a) r eads
8Kndh 8K1Dl h
q =- T +- L L2
wher e
d = t he t hi ckness of t he so- cal l ed "equi val ent l ayer " whi ch t akes i nt o
account t he conver gence of f l ow bel ow t he dr ai n ( q2) ( r adi al f l ow) by
r educi ng t he per vi ous l ayer bel ow t he dr ai n (D2) t o such an ext ent t hat
t he hor i zont al r esi st ance (%) pl us t he r adi al r esi st ance (R,) of t he
l ayer wi t h a t hi ckness D2 equal s t he hor i zont al r esi st ance of t he l ayer
wi t h a t hi ckness d. Thi s d- val ue i s a f unct i on of t he dr ai n r adi us (r),
L- and D - val ue ( Hooghoudt ' s d- t abl es) .
2
I f we compar e Eq. (l a) wi t h Eq. (2), i t can be seen t hat bot h ar e hor i zont al
f l ow equat i ons. The onl y di f f er ence bei ng t hat t he D - val ue of Eq. (l a) ( hor i zon-
t al f l ow onl y) has been changed i nt o a d- val ue i n Eq. (2) ( hor i zont al and r adi al
2
f l ow).
Summar i zi ng, t he mai n pr i nci pl es of t he appr oach of Hooghoudt ar e:
(1) Pr i mar i l y, he di st i ngui shes gr oundwat er flow regi ons, spl i t up i nt o
f l ow above and beZow dr ai n l evel , and onl y secondar i l y does he di st i n-
gui sh soi l l ayer s;
(2) f or t he f l ow r egi on above dr ai n l evel , onl y hor i zont al f l ow need be con-
si der ed ( t r ansmi ssi vi t y K D ), wher eas f or t he f l ow r egi on bel ow dr ai n
l evel , bot h hor i zont al f l ow ( t r ansmi ssi vi t y K D ) and r adi al f l ow have
t o be t aken i nt o account ;
1 1
2 2
12
( 3 )
the radi al fl ow i s accounted f or reduci ng the depth D2 to a smal l er
depth d, the so-cal l ed equi val ent l ayer.
The adopti on of the f i r st pri nci pl e resul ted i n a uni form nomencl ature f or
the Hooghoudt and Ernst equati ons and the use of the same equati ons f or homogeneous
soi l and a soi l wi th the drai ns at the i nterf ace of two l ayers.
The adopti on of the second pri nci pl e resul ted i n a change i n the ori gi nal
Ernst equati on, wi th respect to the magnitude of the radi al fl ow.
The thi rd pri nci pl e, deal i ng wi th the mathemati cal sol uti on of the problem
of radi al fl ow, has been changed. I nstead of changing the D -val ue i nto
a smal l er d-value - the radi al f l w has been taken i nto account by changing a
L -val ue (drai n spaci ng based on hori zontal fl ow onl y, L: = 8KDh/q) i nto a smal l er
L-value (actual drai n spaci ng based on hori zontal and radi al f l ow).
2
Thi s al ternati ve sol uti on resul ts i n one basi c drai nage equati on and onl y
one general graph that can be used f or al l drai nage si tuati ons, pi pe drai ns
as wel l as di tches, and al l drai n spaci ngs, wi thout havi ng to use d-tabl es or
a tri al -and-error method or several graphs.
13
3. Principles of the Ernst equation
3.1 The original drain spacing equation of Ernst
The gener al pr i nci pl e under l yi ng Er nst ' s basi c equat i on (1962) i s t hat t he
f l ow of gr oundwat er t o par al l el dr ai ns, and consequent l y t he cor r espondi ng avai l -
abl e t ot al hydr aul i c head (h), can be di vi ded i nt o t hr ee component s: a ver t i cal
(v), a hor i zont al (h), and a r adi al (r) component or
wher e q i s t he f l owr at e and R i s t he r esi st ance.
Wor ki ng out var i ous r esi st ance t er ms, we can wr i t e t he Er nst equat i on as
aD2
h = q - + DV q- + L2 q- I n-
8KD nK2
KV
wher e
(3)
h, q, K2, D2, L = not at i on Hooghoudt ' s equat i on ( Sect i on 2.1)
Dv = t hi ckness of t he l ayer over whi ch ver t i cal f l ow i s consi der ed; i n most
cases t hi s component i s smal l and may be i gnor ed (m)
K = hydr aul i c conduct i vi t y f or ver t i cal f l ow ( m/ day)
KD = t he sumof t he pr oduct of t he per meabi l i t y (K) and t hi ckness (D) of t he
var i ous l ayer s f or t he hor i zont al f l owcomponent accor di ng t o t he
hydr aul i c si t uat i on:
one per vi ous l ayer bel ow dr ai n dept h: KD = K D
t wo per vi ous l ayer s bel ow dr ai n dept h: KD = KI Dl + K2D2 + K3D3
V
+ K2D2 1 1
( Fi g. 2a)
( Fi g. 2b)
a = geomet r y f act or f or r adi al f l owdependi ng on t he hydr aul i c si t uat i on:
KD = K D
KD = KI Dl + K2D2 + K3D3, t he a- val ue depends on t he K2/ K3 and D2/ D3
+ K2D2, a = I
1 1
r at i os ( see t he auxi l i ar y gr aph I a)
u = wet t ed sect i on of t he dr ai n (m); f or pi pe dr ai ns u = nr .
Eq. (3) shows t hat t he r adi al f l ow i s t aken i nt o account f or t he t ot al f l ow (q),
wher eas t he Hooghoudt equat i on consi der s r adi al f l owonl y f or t he l ayer bel ow
dr ai n l evel (q2).
I t shoul d be not ed t hat Eq. (3) has been devel oped f or a dr ai nage si t uat i on
wher e K << K2
I
used wher e t he f l ow above dr ai n l evel i s r el at i vel y smal l . However , i f one uses
14
( a cl ay l ayer on a sandy subst r at um) and can t her ef or e onl y be
t hi s equat i on f or t he case t hat K
uncommon si t uat i on) , t he r esul t i s a consi der abl e under est i mat e of dr ai n spaci ng
compar ed wi t h t he r esul t obt ai ned when t he Hooghoudt equat i on i s used.
>> K2 (a sandy l ayer on a cl ay l ayer , a not
I
Accor di ng t o Er nst ( 1962) and Van Beer s ( 1965) , no accept abl e f or mul a has
been f ound f or t he speci al case t hat KI >> K2, and i t was f or mer l y r ecommended
t hat t he Hooghoudt equat i on be used f or t hi s dr ai nage si t uat i on. Si nce t hat
t i me, as we shal l descr i be bel ow, a gener al i zed equat i on has been devel oped, whi ch
cover s al l K / K r at i os.
1 2
K3 C0.l K2
K3D3 neglible
Fi g.2a. Soi l below the drai n:
onl y one pervi ous l ayer (D2)
K2D2)
(KD = KIDl +
Fi g.2b. Soi l below the drai n:
two pervi ous l ayers (D2, D3)
(KD = KIDl + K 2D2 + K3D3)
. . . . i magi nary boundary
- - - - real boundary
Fig.2.Geometry of the Ernst equation if the vertical resistance may be ignored.
3.2 The generalized or the Hooghoudt-Ernst equation
Thi s new equat i on i s based on a combi nat i on of t he appr oach of Hooghoudt
( r adi al f l ow onl y f or t he f l ow bel ow t he dr ai ns, q2) and t he equat i on of Er nst
f or t he r adi al f l ow component .
Negl ect i ng t he r esi st ance t o ver t i cal f l ow and r ewr i t i ng Eq. (3), we obt ai n
8KDh
I f we consi der onl y hor i zont al f l ow above t he dr ai ns (q ) and bot h hor i zont al
1
and r adi al f l owbel ow t he dr ai ns (q2), we may wr i t e
15
q=- +
aD 2
L * +- D LI ^-
8 L2
TI
( 4 )
I nt r oduci ng an equi val ent dr ai n spaci ng (L ) , i . e. a dr ai n spaci ng t hat woul d
be f ound i f hor i zont al f l owonl y i s consi der ed, we get
2 - 8KDh
Lo - -
4
Subst i t ut i ng Eq. (5) i nt o Eq. (4) yi el ds
8KDh 8Ki Dl h 8KzD2h
(5)
Af t er a somewhat compl i cat ed r e- ar r angement ( see Appendi x A) t he gener al i zed
equat i on r eads
wher e
L = dr ai n spaci ng based on bot h hor i zont al and r adi al f l ow (m)
Lo = dr ai n spaci ng based on hor i zont al f l owonl y (m)
c = Dz I n - , a r adi al r esi st ance f act or (m)
aD 2
K i Di
=KD
B = t he f l owabove t he dr ai n as a f r act i on of t he t ot al hor i zont al
f l ow
GRAPH I
To avoi d a compl i cat ed t r i al - and- er r or met hod as r equi r ed by t he Hooghoudt
appr oach, Gr aph I has been pr epar ed. For di f f er ent c/ Lo and B- val ues, i t gi ves
t he cor r espondi ng L/ L - val ue whi ch, mul t i pl i ed by L O' gi ves t he r equi r ed dr ai n
spaci ng ( L- val ue) . However , as wi l l appear f ur t her on, t hi s gr aph i s usual l y
onl y needed f or t he f ol l owi ng speci f i c si t uat i ons:
16
K, >> K2 or B > 0. 1;
t her e ar e t wo per vi ous l ayer s bel ow dr ai n l evel , K3D3 > K2D2, and
no Sci ent i f i c Pocket Cal cul at or ( SPC) i s avai l abl e;
one want s t o compar e t he gener al i zed equat i on wi t h ot her dr ai nage
equat i ons or one want s t o pr epar e a speci f i c gr aph ( s e e Sect i on 4. 1
and Appendi x C 1) .
NOTE: Comparing t he Hooghoudt equat i on u i t h t he E r n s t equat i on and usi ng
u =4r i ns t ead o f u =m, a gr eat er s i mi t ar i t y is obt ai ned.
3.3 The modified Hooghoudt-Ernst equation
I n most act ual si t uat i ons t he B- f act or ( K D / KD r at i o) wi l l be smal l and t her e-
t he l ast t er mi n Eq. (7) has l i t t l e i nf l uence on t he comput ed dr ai n spaci ng.
1 1
f or e
Negl ect i ng B, and r ewr i t i ng Eq. (7) ( mul t i pl yi ng by L3/ L and subst i t ut i ng
8KDh/ q f or L2), we obt ai n t he equat i on f or t he B = O l i ne of Gr aph I :
DP
8L
L2 +- Dz I n - - 8KDh/ q = O
TI
I f we compar e Eq. (8) wi t h t he or i gi nal Er nst equat i on (3a), i t can be seen
KD
KP KP
t hat t he f act or - of Eq. ( 3a) has changed i nt o , whi ch equal s DP. However ,
f or a dr ai nage si t uat i on wi t h t wo per vi ous l ayer s bel ow dr ai n l evel ,
becomes
KzD2
-
KZ
K2D2 + K3D3
KP
and t he equat i on f or t hi s si t uat i on r eads
8L KZDP + K3D3 aDs
I n - - 8 KD h/ q = O
L2 + -
TI KP
As r egar ds t he use of Eq. (9) i t can be sai d t hat , i n pr act i ce, Eq. (9) i s ver y
usef ul i f an SPC i s avai l abl e; i f not , Gr aph I has t o be used.
Eq. (8), on t he ot her hand, wi l l sel dombe used. The si mpl e r eason f or t hi s
i s t hat f or most dr ai nage si t uat i ons wi t h a bar r i er ( onl y K D ), a si mpl i f i ed
equat i on can be used.
2 2
17
3.4 The simplified Hooghoudt-Ernst equation
Af t er Gr aph I had been pr epar ed on l i near paper , i t was f ound t hat f or c/ L -
val ues < 0. 3 and B- val ues < 0. 1, t he f ol l owi ng r el at i ons hol d
LI Lo = 1 - Cf L or L = L - c ( see Gr aph I ) (10)
The quest i on t hen ar ose whet her t hese condi t i ons wer e nor mal or whet her t hey
wer e r at her except i onal . I n pr act i ce, t he si mpl i f i ed equat i on pr oved t o be al most al -
ways appl i cabl e. I n addi t i on, i t was f ound f r omt he cal cul at i ons needed f or t he pr epa-
r at i on of Gr aph I I (r = 0. 10 m, al l K- and D- val ues) t hat , except f or some un-
common si t uat i ons (K = 0. 25 m/ day, D > 5 m), t he equat i on L = L - c i s a
r el i abl e one, wher e C = D2 In
D
.
Note: Many years ago W.T.Moody, an engineer wi t h t he U.S.5ureau of Reclamation
D
proposed a si mi l ar correct i on iD l n G) t o be subtracted from t he calculated
spacing (Maasland 1956, D m 1360) . The only di f f erence between t he correct i on
proposed by Moody and t hat i n this bul l e t i n is t hat now t he conditions under
which t he correct i on may be applied are preci sel y def i ned.
18
4. Application of the generalized equation and
corresponding graphs
Ther e ar e many di f f er ent dr ai nage si t uat i ons, f i ve of whi ch wi l l be handl ed
i n t hi s sect i on.
SITUATION 1 :
K I = K2
SITUATION 2:
K I 2 Ka
SITUATION 3:
K I >> K2
SITUATION 4 :
1 2
K << K
SITUATION 5:
<
2
K3 > K
Homogeneous soi l ; D < 4L; pi pe dr ai nage
Sl i ght di f f er ences bet ween soi l per meabi l i t y above and bel ow
dr ai n l evel ; di f f er ences i n dept h t o bar r i er (D 5 i L); pi pe
and di t ch dr ai nage
A hi ghl y per vi ous l ayer above dr ai n l evel and a poor l y
per vi ous l ayer bel ow dr ai n l evel
A heavy cl ay l ayer of var yi ng t hi ckness over l yi ng a sandy sub-
st r at um; t he ver t i cal r esi st ance has t o be t aken i n account
Soi l bel ow dr ai n l evel consi st s of t wo per vi ous l ayer s
(K 2D2, K D ) ; t he occur r ence of an aqui f er (K3 >> K 2) at
var i ous dept hs bel ow dr ai n l evel .
3 3
4.1 Drainage situations
SITUATION 1: Homogeneous soil; O < &L; pi pe drains
K = K The use of t he simplified equation and Graph 11
Thi s i s t he most si mpl e dr ai nage si t uat i on; t he r equi r ed pr epar at or y cal cu-
l at i ons ar e l i mi t ed and a gr aph i s usual l y not needed. For compar i son wi t h
ot her dr ai n spaci ng equat i ons, we shal l use t he exampl e gi ven by Wessel i ng (1973).
Not e t hat - f or r easons of conveni ence - i n t hi s and t he ot her exampl es t he
uni t s i n whi ch t he var i ous val ues ar e expr essed have been omi t t ed wi t h t he
except i on of t he L- val ue. However , f or val ues of h, E, and 5, r ead met r es; f or
q and K , read m/ day and f or KD, r ead m2/ day.
- -
19
PREPARATORY
CAL CUL ATI ONS
DATA GI VE N COMPIJ TATION DR AI N S P ACI NG ( L )
L2 = KD 8h/ q
h = 0. 600 h/ q = 300 Lo = 100. 9 L = L - c =8 7 m
q = 0. 002 8h/ q = 2400 c = 13. 8
~~~~
K =0.8 n =0.30 K I Dl = 0. 24 c < 0. 3 L Eq. Hooghoudt : L = 87 m
1 1
L =8 4 m
Eq. Ki r kham: L = 85 m
Eq . Dagan : L =8 8 m
K =0. 8 D =5. 0 K2D2 = 4. 0 B < 0. 10 Eq . Er nst :
2 2
r = 0.10 KD = 4. 24 ( Eq. 10 may be
( Wessel i ng 1973)
u = nr B = 0. 06 used)
NOTE: writing h =0.600 instead of 0.6, is not meant to suggest accuracy,
but is only f or convenience in determining the h/q value.
I f no SPC i s avai l abl e, t he c- val ue (D2 I n -1 can be obt ai ned f r omGr aph 111.
D2
The si mpl i f i ed f or mul a i s ver y conveni ent i f we want t o know t he i nf l uence
t hat di f f er ent U- val ues wi l l have on t he dr ai n spaci ng. For exampl e
r = 0. 05 m, t hen c = 17. 3 and L = 84 m
u = 1. 50 m, t hen c = 6. 0 and L = 95 m
The i nf l uence of di f f er ent K or D- val ues i s al so easy t o f i nd. However , i f
t he U- val ue i s f i xed, i t i s bet t er t o use Gr aph I1 or a si mi l ar gr aph, whi ch
gi ves a ver y qui ck answer t o many quest i ons.
GRAPH I 1
Thi s gr aph i s ext r emel y usef ul f or t he f ol l owi ng pur poses and wher e t he f ol -
l owi ng condi t i ons pr evai l :
Purposes
A gr eat number of dr ai n spaci ng comput at i ons have t o be made, f or i nst ance,
f or aver agi ng t he L- val ues i n a pr oj ect ar ea i nst ead of per f or mi ng one
cal cul at i on of t he dr ai n spaci ng L wi t h t he aver age K- or KD- val ue;
20
- One want s t o f i nd out qui ckl y t he i nf l uence of a possi bl e er r or i n t he K-
val ue or t he i nf l uence of t he dept h of a bar r i er ( D- val ue) ;
One want s t o demonst r at e t o non- dr ai nage speci al i st s t he need f or bor i ngs
deeper t han 2.10 mbel ow gr ound l evel because a bor i ng t o a dept h of
2.10 m r esul t s i n a D - val ue of about I m, bei ng 2.10 mmi nus
dr ai n dept h.
2
Conditions
Homogeneous soi l bel ow t he dr ai ns ( onl y K D );
The wet t ed per i met er of t he dr ai ns has a f i xed val ue, say pi pe dr ai ns wi t h
2 2
r = 0. 10 mor di t ches t hat have a cer t ai n U- val ue;
An er r or of 3 t o 5%i n t he comput ed dr ai n spaci ng i s al l owabl e.
Consi der i ng t hese pur poses and condi t i ons, i t wi l l be cl ear t hat t he avai l -
abi l i t y of Gr aph I 1 or si mi l ar gr aph i s hi ghl y desi r abl e, except when:
exact t heor et i cal comput at i ons ar e r equi r ed
KI >> K2
t her e ar e t wo per meabl e l ayer s bel ow dr ai n l evel i nst ead of one (K D K D ).
2 2 ' 3 3
For t hese t hr ee condi t i ons Gr aph I1 cannot be used and one must r esor t t o
Gr aph I .
Other q-, h- or KI/K2 values than those given on t he graph
Gr aph I1 has been pr epar ed f or t he f ol l owi ng condi t i ons:
h = 0. 6 m, q = 0. 006 m/ day or h/ q = 100, K l =K 2 m/ day, and r = 0. 10 m
For t he speci f i c pur poses and condi t i ons f or whi ch t hi s gr aph has been pr e-
par ed ( appr oxi mat e L- val ues suf f i ce) an adj ust ment i s onl y r equi r ed f or di f f er ent
h/ q val ues, t hr ough a change i n t he K - val ues t o be used. For i nst ance, i n t he
exampl e gi ven f or Si t uat i on 1 we have a h/ q val ue of 300. Ther ef or e
2
and we r ead f or D = 5 m, L = 87 m.
21
However , i f many comput at i ons have t o be done, i t i s pr ef er abl e t o pr epar e
a gr aph or gr aphs f or t he pr evai l i ng speci f i c si t uat i on. For i nst ance, f or t he
condi t i ons pr evai l i ng i n The Net her l ands, t hr ee gr aphs f or pi pe dr ai ns woul d be
desi r abl e: q = 7 "/ day and h = 0. 3, 0. 5, and 0. 7 m.
For i r r i gat i on pr oj ect s a q- val ue of 2 "/ day i s usual l y appl i ed.
I f one want s t o know t he magni t ude of an i nt r oduced er r or (h # 0. 6, K I # K2),
t he ext r a cor r ect i on f act or (f ) f or K; can be appr oxi mat ed wi t h t he f or mul a
wher e
Dl = 0. 30 and D i = 0. 5 h' .
For exampl e:
h' = 0. 90 D; = 0.45
5 + (0.5 x 0.45) = o. 986 or
5 + 0. 30
K / K2 = 0. 5, D = 5 f =
1 2
about 1% di f f er ence i n t he L- val ue
When t he assumpt i on of a homogeneous aqui f er cont ai ns a r at her l ar ge er r or ( e. g.
K =2K ), and mor eover a l ar ger hydr aul i c head bei ng avai l abl e ( k' =0. 9 m), we get
f=l.lI or 5%di f f er ence i n t he L- val ue.
1 2
Preparat i on
The pr epar at i on of a spef i ci c gr aph i s ver y si mpl e, and t akes onl y a f ew
hour s. Ther e ar e t wo met hods of pr epar at i on.
Appendi x C 1 gi ves an exampl e of how i t i s done i f t he d- t abl es of Hooghoudt
ar e avai l abl e. Thi s i s t he easi est way.
Appendi x C 2 shows a pr epar at i on based on t he gener al i zed equat i on i n combi na-
t i on wi t h Gr aph I . Thi s met hod gi ves t he same r esul t , but r equi r es mor e cal cu-
l at i ons.
Fi nal l y not e t hat Gr aph I1 demonst r at es cl ear l y t hat i f , i n a dr ai nage pr oj ect ,
auger hol es of onl y 2 mdept h ar e made (D
r equi r ed dr ai n spaci ng can r esul t .
2 1 m), consi der abl e er r or s i n t he
2
22
For example:
Given:
h/q = 300 (i rri gati on proj ect), K 2 = 0.8, then K; = 2 . 4 ;
drai n depth = 1.5 m
Depth t o bar r i er Flow depth Spaci ng h/q = 100, K2 = 0.5
( D2) ( L )
2.50 m I m 50 m L = 2 2 m
3.50 m 2 m 63 m 28 m
6.50 m 5m 87 m
11.50 m I O m 105 m
34 m
37 m
m m 130 m 37 m
Thi s example may show that:
Graph I 1 i s very sui ted to carry out a sensi ti vi ty anal ysi s on the
i nf l uence of the depth of a barri er, etc.
2
has been consi dered. However, there can al so be a consi derabl e change
i n the K -val ue.
2
- The need f or dri l l i ng deeper than 2 m. Note that here onl y the val ue D
The rel ati ve i nf l uence of the D -value changes wi th the spaci ng obtai ned.
2
SITUATION 2: Slight differences between soil permeability above and below
K I K 2 drain level (KI 3 K2);
Differences in depth to a barrier iD 5 1 / 4 L ) ;
pipe and ditch drainage
For the si tuati on D < {L and drai nage by di tches, the computation of the
drai n spaci ng, as wel l as the computation sheet i s the same as have been gi ven
i n Si tuati on I . Only i f K I > K2 and D2 i s smal l shoul d speci al attenti on be pai d
to the questi on whether B < 0.10.
For the si tuati on D > aL , the fol l owi ng equati on (Ernst 1962) can be used:
23
The use of t hi s equat i on wi l l be demonst r at ed bel ow and wi l l be f ol l owed by a
sensi t i vi t y anal ysi s f or t he u and D2 f act or .
GI VE N COMPUTATI ON
L
h = 0.800
q = 0. 002 Gr aph 111, f or u = 1. 50 +L = 205 m
K I = 0.40
K2 = 0.80
h/ q = 400 L I n - = 71 x 0.8 X 400 = 1005
I f a SPC i s avai l abl e, t he L- val ue can al so
be obt ai ned by a si mpl e t r i al - and er r or - met hod
er r or met hod
u = 1. 50
Equat i on ( 11) does not t ake t he hor i zont al r esi st ance i nt o account because i t
i s negl i gi bl e compar ed wi t h t he r adi al r esi st ance; nor i s t he f l ow above t he
dr ai n consi der ed. Onl y i f t he comput ed L- val ue i s smal l , say about 40 mor l ess,
i s a smal l er r or i nt r oduced.
I f Gr aph I onl y i s avai l abl e, or one want s t o check t he comput ed L- val ue by
usi ng t he gener al i zed equat i on, t he f ol l owi ng pr ocedur e can be f ol l owed:
Est i mat e t he dr ai n spaci ng and assume a val ue f or D2 bet ween i L and $L
( beyond t hi s l i mi t , t he comput ed spaci ng woul d be t oo smal l ) ; compar e t he t wo
L- val ues ( cont r ol met hod) or check whet her t he assumed D - val ue > 4L and < 0. 5L
( comput at i on met hod) .
2
For t he above exampl e we get :
Gi ven: D2 = 80
Assume K2 = 0. 8 KD = 64 Lo = 452 c/ Lo = 0. 70
Assume u = 1. 5 8 h/ q=3200 c = 318 Gr aph I : L/Lo = 0. 45 +L = 204 m
Usi ng a SPC and Eq. (8) -f L = 202 m
Note: It may be useful - by way of exercise - t o t r y other D
compare the resulting L-ualues.
ualues and to
2
24
Sensi t i vi t y anal ysi s f or U- val ue and dept h t o a bar r i er ( D- val ue)
D, = m
D 2 = 5 m
L
KD = 0. 16 + 4. 0 = 4. 16 8 h/ q = 3200 Lo=115 m
u = l m+L =1 9 2 m u = l m+ c = 8 m+L = 107m
u = 1. 5 m+L = 205 m u =1 . 5 mc =6 m+L = 109m
u = 2 m+L =2 1 5 m u = 2 m c =4 . 5 m+L = 110m
u = I O m+L = 300 m
u = 0. 30 m+L = 162 m u = 0. 30 m+L = 101 m; u = 0. 20 +L = 101 m
u = 0. 40 -+ L = 103 m
u-va Zue
Thi s sensi t i vi t y anal ysi s shows t hat t he i nf l uence of di f f er ence i n t he
U- val ue i ncr eases as L i ncr eases. However , di f f er ences of 50%or mor e ar e gene-
r al l y of l i t t l e i mpor t ance. Ther ef or e t he U- val ues of pi pe dr ai ns can be appr o-
xi mat ed by t aki ng r = 0. 10 m ( u = 0. 30) and t he U- val ues of di t ches appr oxi ma-
t ed by t aki ng t he wi dt h of t he di t ch and t wo t i mes t he wat er dept h ( usual l y
2 x 0. 30 m).
The sl ope of t he di t ch need not be t aken i nt o account because of t he r easons
ment i oned. Mor eover , nei t her t he wat er l evel i n t he di t ch nor t he dr ai n wi dt h ar e
const ant f act or s.
D-vazue
The l ar ge er r or made by assumi ng D = 5 mi nst ead of D = m, as i n t he above
2 2
exampl e (L = 109 mi nst ead of 205 m), i s easi l y made i f , i n an i r r i gat i on pr oj ect
(q = 0. 002, h/ q and L- val ue ver y l arge) , no hydr o- geol ogi cal i nvest i gat i ons ar e
car r i ed out .
SITUATION 3: A highZy pervious Zayer above drain Zevel and a poorly pervious
Kl>>K2 Zayer beZow drai n ZeveZ
The use o f Graph I
Thi s par t i cul ar si t uat i on i s f r equent l y f ound. I t may be of i nt er est t o use
t he dat a gi ven bel ow t o comput e dr ai n spaci ngs wi t h ot her dr ai nage equat i ons and
t hen t o compar e t he r esul t s wi t h t hose obt ai ned wi t h t he equat i on of Hooghoudt
or t he gener al i zed Hooghoudt - Er nst equat i on.
25
DATA GI VE N
PREPARATORY
CAL CUL ATI ONS
COMP UTATI ON
h = 1 .O00 h/ q = 200 Lo = 53. 7 m
q = 0. 005 8h/ q = 3200 c = 12. 6 m
K = 1. 6 D =0.50 KI Dl = 0. 8 c/ L =0. 235 L /L o = 0. 88 ( Gr aph I )
L = 0. 88 x 53. 7=47. 3 m K = 0. 2 D =5. 0 K2D2 = 1. 0 B = 0. 44
I 1
2 2
r = 0. 10 KD = 1. 8
u=O . 40 B = 0. 44
*
Note: The computation s heet used here i s t he same as t hat used f o r Si t uat i on I,
except t hat no c/L -0alue i s needed i n Si t uat i on 1 .
O
*For t he or e t i c al comparisons wi t h t he r e s u l t s of t he equat i on of Iiooghoudt,
it i s pr ef er abl e t o use u = 4 r i ns t ead o f u =T r
Comparison o f the E r n s t equati ons wi th the equati on o f Hooghoudt
Or i gi nal equat i on of Er nst ( Eq. 3a) L = 32 m
Modi f i ed equat i on of Er nst ( Eq. 8) L = 39. 9 m
Gener al i zed equat i on of Er nst ( Eq. 7) L = 47. 2 m
Equat i on Hooghoudt ( Eq. 2) L = 47. 2 m
Gr aph 1I : K; = 0. 2 X 2 X 1. 7 = 0. 68, D2 = 5 m+L + 41 m
T. t shoul d be bor n i n mi nd t hat t he or i gi nal equat i on of Er nst never has been
r ecommended f or t he consi der ed si t uat i on wi t h a maj or par t of t he f l ow t hr ough
t he upper par t of t he soi l above dr ai n l evel (K <<K ). Ther ef or e i t i s not sur -
pr i si ng t hat t he unj ust i f i ed use of t hi s f or mul a wi l l r esul t i n a pr onounced
under est i mat i ng of t he dr ai n spaci ng; t he modi f i ed equat i on i s somewhat bet t er ,
whi l e t he gener al i zed equat i on gi ves t he same r esul t s as t he equat i on of
Hooghoudt . I n addi t i on, i t i s demonst r at ed t hat t he use of Gr aph I 1 f or t he KI >>K2
si t uat i on al so r esul t s i n an under est i mat e of t he dr ai n spaci ng.
2 1
26
SITUATION 4:
1 2
A heavy cl ay l ayer of varying t hi ckness overZying a sandy
K <<K substratwn; t he ver t i cal resi st ance has t o be taken i nt o account
Thi s i s anot her dr ai nage si t uat i on t hat occur s f r equent l y. Because t he t hi ck-
ness of t he cl ay l ayer can var y, t hr ee di f f er ent dr ai nage si t uat i ons can r esul t
( see Fi g. 3) . I n t hi s exampl e, i t i s assumed t hat t he maxi mumdr ai n dept h i s
- 1. 40 m, i n vi ew of out l et condi t i ons, and t hat t he l and i s used f or ar abl e
f ar mi ng (h = dr ai n dept h - 0. 50 m= 0. 90 m).
U
V
V
The comput at i on of t he ver t i cal component ( hv = q , see Sect i on 3.1) i s
somewhat compl i cat ed because t he D - val ues var i es wi t h t he l ocat i on of t he dr ai n
wi t h r espect t o t he mor e per meabl e l ayer . However , Fi g. 3 and t he cor r espondi ng
cal cul at i ons may i l l ust r at e suf f i ci ent l y cl ear l y how t o handl e t he speci f i c dr ai -
nage si t uat i ons. I t may be not ed t hat as f ar as t he aut hor i s awar e t he sol ut i on
gi ven by Er nst f or t hi s dr ai nage si t uat i on i s t he onl y exi st i ng one.
V
q=O.OlO
m /dav
D v = h + y Dv = h D = h - D '
h" = t Dv
h = q h
h" = k"; Dv v %
h ' = h - h h ' = h - h h ' = h - h
KD = K D
t K3D3 2 2
c=:1nu aD2
KD = K2D2 KD = K i D i + K2D2
D2
c = D l n -
2 u
c = D l n - D2
2 u
Ex.4a Ex.4b Ex.4c
Drai n l evel above Drai n l evel coi nci des Drai n l evel below
the boundary wi th the boundary the boundary o f the
two s o i l l ayers
Fi g. 3. Geometry of t he Ernst equation i f ver t i cal resi st ance has t o be taken
i nt o account (K <( KZI.
1
27
Procedure
9 Det er mi ne D accor di ng t o t he speci f i c si t uat i on;
Cal cul at e h t he l oss of hydr aul i c head due t o t he ver t i cal r esi st ance,
V
D
V'
by usi ng h = - ;
Cal cul at e h' f r omh' = h - h wher e h' i s t he r emai ni ng avai l abl e hydr aul i c
V
head f or t he hor i zont al and r adi al f l ow
Cal cul at e t he h' / q and KD- val ue. Not e t hat t he hor i zont al f l ow i n t he upper
l ayer wi t h l owper meabi l i t y may be i gnor ed;
Comput e L; f or Exampl e 1, Gr aph I a i s r equi r ed i n addi t i on t o Gr aph I or an
SPC and Eq. (9); f or Exampl es 2 and 3, use L = L - c.
The f ol l owi ng exampl es ar e i nt ended t o i l l ust r at e t he pr ocedur e and t he l ayout
of a comput at i on sheet . ( The dat a used have been t aken f r omFi g. 3).
Example 4a
Dv = h+y = 0. 90 + 0. 30 = 1. 20
hv = q/K1 x Dv = 0. 2 X 1. 2 = 0. 24
h/q = 66
8 h/q 528 h' =h- h =0. 90- 0. 24=0. 66
V
Kv = 0. 05 D =0. 80 K2D2 = 0. 04 L0=50. 6 m c/ L =1. 45 LI Lo = 0. 25
K = 2. 0 D =2. 40 K D - 4. 80 -+ c =?3. 3 m B = 0 L = 12.6
2
3 3 3 3 -
K I K =20 D3/ D2=3 KD = 484
3 2
U
a = 4.0 ( s ee Ex. 5)
AZternativas
Pi pe dr ai ns ( u=0. 30) +L = 5 m
- Di t ch bot t omi n t he more per meabl e l ayer ( di t ch dept h at 2. 20) +
u = 0. 90 and h = 1. 70 +Lo = 80 m; c = 2m-f L = 78 m
Pi pe dr ai ns at - 2. 20 m +Lo = 80 m; c = 5 m+L = 75 m
Note: The Zast t#o al t e r nat i v e s mean t h a t t he drainage wat er w i Z l haue t o be
discharged by pumping.
28
Example 46
Dv = h = 0.90 h/q = 72
hv = 0. 2 X 0. 90 = 0. 18 8 h/q = 576 h' = 0. 90 - 0. 18 = 0. 72
K2 = 2. 0 D2 = 3. 20 KD = 6.40 Lo = 60. 7 m L = 58. 3 m
c = 2. 4 m
Example 4c
Dv = h - Di = 0. 90 - 0. 40 = 0. 50
h = 0. 2 x 0. 50 = 0. 10
K' = 2. 0 D' = 0.40* K' D' =0. 80 Lo = 67. 9 m L = 65. 5 m
h' = 0. 80 8 h/q = 640
V
1 1 1 1
K = 2. 0 D2 = 3. 20 K D =6.40 c = 2. 40 m
2 2 2
KD = 7. 20
*
The avai l abl e cross-section f or horizontaZ f l ow = t hi ckness of t he more
pemeabZe Zayer above drain depth.
Remarks
I f we compare the computed drai n spaci ng f or Example 4b ( L=58 m) wi th that
of Example 4c ( L=65 m) , we can concl ude that f or a gi ven drai n depth the exact
thi ckness of the heavy cl ay l ayer i s of minor importance as l ong as the bottom
of the drai n i s l ocated i n the more permeable l ayer.
1111
I f , however, the cl ay l ayer conti nues below drai n depth, as i n Example 4a
( L=13 m), drai n spaci ngs would have t o be very narrow i ndeed and the area w i l l
scarcel y be drai nabl e (f or pi pe drai ns, L=5 m, f or a di tch, L=13 m) .
The onl y way out here i s to use deep di tches (L = 78 m) or pi pe drai ns
(L = 75 m) that reach i nto the permeable l ayer, and to di scharge the drai nage
water by pumping.
29
SITUATION 5: SoiZ below drain depth cons i s t s o f two pervious l ayers
(K2D2, KgDgj.
Graph I a.
The occurrence o f an aqui fer ( K 3 >> K2) at vari ous depths
below drai n level
Hydr ol ogi cal l y speaki ng, t hi s dr ai nage si t uat i on i s ver y compl i cat ed. Up t o
now t he pr obl emcoul d onl y be sol ved by usi ng an addi t i onal gr aph ( I a)
1962) or by t he const r uct i on of var i ous gr aphs f or var i ous dr ai nage si t uat i ons
( Toksz and Ki r kham, 1971 ) .
( Er nst
The gr aph of Er nst t hat can be used f or al l si t uat i ons ( var i ous K3/K2 and
D / D r at i os) gi ves t he r esul t s he obt ai ned by appl yi ng t he r e hx at i on method.
A somewhat modi f i ed f or mof t hi s gr aph has been publ i shed by Van Beer s (1965).
3 2
The reZi abi Zi t y and importance o f Graph I a
Consi der i ng t he met hod by whi ch t hi s gr aph has been const r uct ed, t he quest i on
ar i ses as t o how r el i abl e i t i s. The cor r ect ness of an equat i on can easi l y be
checked, but not t he pr oduct of t he r el axat i on met hod.
For t unat el y, t he r esul t s obt ai ned wi t h t hi s gr aph coul d be compar ed wi t h t he
r esul t s obt ai ned wi t h 36 speci al gr aphs, each one const r uct ed f or a speci f i c
dr ai nage si t uat i on ( Toksz and Ki r kham, 1971). I t appear ed t hat bot h met hods gave
t he same r esul t s ( Appendi x B). Thus t he concl usi on can be dr awn t hat t he gene-
r al i zed gr aph of Er nst i s bot h a r el i abl e and an i mpor t ant cont r i but i on t o t he
t heor y and pr act i ce of dr ai nage i nvest i gat i ons. I t i s par t i cul ar l y usef ul i n dr ai -
nage si t uat i ons wher e t her e i s an aqui f er ( hi ghl y per vi ous l ayer ) at some dept h
( I t o 10 mor mor e) bel ow dr ai n l evel , a si t uat i on of t en f ound i n i r r i gat i on
pr oj ect s.
When t her e ar e t wo per vi ous soi l l ayer s bel ow dr ai n l evel , t he t wo most common
2'
dr ai nage si t uat i ons wi l l be: K3<< K2, and K3>> K
Si t uat i on Kg << K2
The avai l abi l i t y of Gr aph I a enabl es us t o i nvest i gat e whet her we ar e cor r ect
i n assumi ng t hat , i f Kg < 0.1 K 2, we can r egar d t he second l ayer bel ow dr ai n dept h
(K D ) as bei ng i mper vi ous. If we consi der t he L- val ues f or t hi s si t uat i on, as
3 3
30
gi ven i n Appendi x B, we can concl ude t hat al t hough t he l ayer K3D3 f or K3<0.1 K2
has some i nf l uence on t he comput ed dr ai n spaci ng, i t i s gener al l y so smal l t hat
i t can be negl ect ed. However , i f one i s not sur e whet her t he second l ayer bel ow
dr ai n l evel can be r egar ded as i mper vi ous, t he means ( equat i on and gr aph) ar e
now avai l abl e t o check i t .
3 >> K2
Situation K
Thi s si t uat i on i s of mor e i mpor t ance t han t he pr evi ous one because i t occur s
mor e f r equent l y t han i s gener al l y r eal i zed and has much mor e i nf l uence on t he
r equi r ed dr ai n spaci ng. The exampl es wi l l t her ef or e be conf i ned t o t hi s si t uat i on.
Examples (see F i g. 4)
Given: The soi l or an i r r i gat i on ar ea consi st s of a l oess deposi t (K = 0. 50
m/ day) of var yi ng t hi ckness. I n cer t ai n par t s of t he ar ea an aqui f er occur s
( sand and gr avel , K = 10 ml day, t hi ckness 5 m).
I n t he f i r st set of exampl es (A) t he l oess deposi t i s under l ai n by an i mper -
vi ous l ayer at a cer t ai n dept h, var yi ng f r om3 t o 40 m. I n t he second set
of exampl es (B), i nst ead of an i mper vi ous l ayer , an aqui f er i s f ound at a
dept h of 3 mand 8 m, wher eas Exampl es C gi ve al t er nat i ve sol ut i ons i n r el a-
t i on t o dr ai n dept h and t he use of pi pe dr ai ns i nst ead of di t ches.
I t i s i nt ended t o dr ai n t he ar ea by means of di t ches ( dr ai n l evel = 1. 80 m,
wet t ed per i met er (u = 2 m). The maxi mumal l owabl e hei ght of t he wat er t abl e
i s 1 mbel ow sur f ace (h = 0. 80 m). The desi gn di schar ge i s 0. 002 m/ day
( h/ q = 400) .
A. I nfluence of the l ocati on of an impervious l ayer. Homogeneous soi l
For t hi s si mpl e dr ai nage si t uat i on, onl y t he r esul t of t he dr ai n spaci ng
comput at i ons wi l l be gi ven.
Drain spacing
Example Depth barri er
Ditch (u=2 m) Pipe drai n (u=0.30 m)
A l 3 m
A 2 8 m
A 3 40 m
50 m
96 m
146 m
49 m
84 m
107 m
31
These r esul t s show t hat t he dept h of a bar r i er has a gr eat i nf l uence on t he
dr ai n spaci ng and t hat t he i nf l uence of t he wet t ed per i met er of t he dr ai ns ( u)
can var y f r omver y smal l t o consi der abl e, dependi ng on t he dept h of
DRAIN SPACINGS AND DRAI NAGE SURVEY NE E DS IN IRRIGATION
P ROJ ECTS
Influence location of
B an aquifer A an impervious layer I
1 2 3
-. - - - - - - - - -
q-O 002 m/day
loess K=050m/day
impervious layer
(fine textured
a I I u vial depos i t s )
ditch (uZ2m) L z' 50m b6m \ 46m
pipedrain L ~4 9 m 84m 107m
( u I 0.30)
1
,
I
I I
305 m
la
O
I
I
I ,
1I
I
180m
2
,
I
I
I
I
625 m
O
I
i
I I
I
I
I
615 m
t he bar r i er .
,
200 m
KI= hydr. cond. above drain level 1 lntluence KD aquifer 1
I
K ~ Z ., .. below ,. ,, (first layer) 1000 m2/day 1000 m*/day
K j i . . .. .. ,, .. (second layer) ' L ~625m
u : wetted perimeter 1 much influence littie influence I
Lz245m
Fig.4. Drain spacings and drainage survey needs in irrigation projects.
B. I nfluence o f the l ocati on of an aqui fer
The var i ous si t uat i ons t hat wi l l be handl ed her e ar e:
Example Depth aqui fer Drain l evel Ditches Pipe drai ns Spacing
B I - 3 m - 1. 80 m + 305 m
B l a - 3 m - 1. 80 m + 180 m
B 2 - 3 m - 3 m + 625 m
B Za - 3 m - 3 m + 615 m
B 3 - 8 m - 1.80 m + 200 m
32
Exampl e B 1
Aqui f er at - 3 m ( 1. 20 mbel ow dr ai n l evel )
h = 0. 800 h/q = 400
q = 0. 002 8h/ q = 3200
K = 0. 50 D2 = 1. 20 K2D2=0. 60 Lo = 402 m L = L - c =3 1 3 m
K = I O D3 = I O K3d3 = 50 c = 8 9 m SPC: L = 305 m
2
3
K / K = 20 D / D =4 KD = 50. 6 c < 0. 3 Lo
3 2 3 2
a = 4. 0 ( c/ L0=O. 22)
Note: The fZow aboue t he drains can be neglected i n t h i s drainage s i t uat i on
KD aD2
c =- In __ K >> K2). Therefore, KD =K D +K3D3, whereas
3 2 2 K2
3
I f KD- val ues ar e hi gh ( her e KD = 50 m / day) , t he f l ow i n t he K2D2 l ayer can al so
be negl ect ed and KD = K3D3 , t he mor e so because t he KD- val ue of t he aqui f er i s
a ver y appr oxi mat e val ue.
The L- val ue can be det er mi ned i n t wo ways: ei t her by usi ng Gr aph I or by usi ng
Eq. (9c) i n combi nat i on wi t h an SPC. I t i s r ecommended t hat bot h met hods be used
t o al l ow a check on any cal cul at i on er r or s. Smal l di f f er ences may occur i n t he
r esul t s of t he t wo met hods, but t hi s i s of no pr act i cal i mpor t ance.
Exampl e B l a
Dr ai nage by pi pe dr ai ns ( u=0. 30 m), i nst ead of di t ches
Lo = 402 m ( see Ex. B I )
c = 277 m
c/ Lo = 0. 69
LI Lo = 0. 45 +L = 180 m
Note t hat i n t h i s s i t uat i on t he use of pipe drains i nst ead of di t ches has a
great i nf l uence on the r es ul t i ng drai n spacing.
Exampl e B 2
Di t ch bot t omi n t he aqui f er ( u=2 m); dr ai n l evel -3 m.
h = 2. 000 8 h/ q = 8. 000 ~ ~ = 6 3 2 m L = L - c =6 2 7 m
q = 0. 002
KD = 50 c = 5 m
33
Example B Za
Pi pe dr ai n i n t he aqui f er ( u=0. 30 m), dr ai n l evel - 3 m.
Lo = 632 m ( see Ex.B 2)
c = 14m
L =L - c =6 1 8 m
Note t hat i n t h i s s i t uat i on t he use of pi pe drains i nst ead of di t ches has very
Zi t t l e i nf l uence on t he drain spacing, because here t he radi al resi st ance i s
very small.
Example B 3
The aqui f er at - 8 m (6. 20 mbel ow dr ai n dept h) ; KD = 50 m2/ day;
di t ch (u = 2 m); dr ai n l evel - 1. 80 m.
h = 0. 800 h/ q = 400
q = 0. 002 8q/ h =3200
K2 = 0. 50 D2=6. 20 K2D2 = 3. 10 Lo = 412 m c/ L =0. 61
K3 = 10. 0 D3 = 5. 0 K3D3 = 50. 0 c = 253 m L/Lo=0.49 +L=202 m
K K =20 D3/ D2=0. 8 KD = 53. 1
3 2
a = 3. 5
C .
Example C 1
I nfluence of the KD-value o f an aqui fer
I n Exampl e B 1 ( aqui f er at - 3 m, KD- val ue = 50 m2/ day +L = 305 m, t he
KD- val ue has been est i mat ed f r ombor i ngs t o be at l east 50 m2/ day. Now t he
quest i on ar i ses whet her i t i s wor t hwhi l e t o car r y out pumpi ng t est s t o obt ai n
a bet t er est i mat e.
I f , i n a cer t ai n dr ai nage si t uat i on, one want s t o anal yse t he i nf l uence of
t he magni t ude of t he KD- val ue on t he spaci ng, i t i s conveni ent t o cal cul at e
f i r st l y, - I n *
I
KP
, whi ch i n t hi s case equal s 1. 75.
34
Assume KD = 100
8 h/ q = 3, 200 Lo = 566 c/L o = 0. 31
KD = 100 c = 100 x 1. 75 = 175 L = L - c = 300 m
KD = 500 +L = 570 m
KD = 1000 +L = 625 m
These comput at i ons show t hat i n t hi s case i t wi l l i ndeed be wor t hwhi l e t o
car r y out pumpi ng t est s.
Example C 2
I n Exampl e B 3 , wi t h t he dept h of t he aqui f er at -8 mand KD = 5 0 , L = 200 m.
Maki ng t he same comput at i ons as f or Exampl e C 1, we get :
8 h/ q = 3200
KD = 100 c = 504 m L / L ~ = 0. 38 L = 215 m
Lo = 566 m c/ Lo = 0. 89
~~
KD = 1000
8 h/ q = 3200 Lo = 1789 m c/ Lo = 2. 82 SPC and Eq. 9
TTLt
L = - = 250 m L = 245 m
8c
KD = 1000 c = 5040 m
These r esul t s show t hat her e an est i mat e of t he KD- val ues wi l l suf f i ce and
t her ef or e - i n cont r ast t o Exampl e B 1 - no pumpi ng t est s ar e r equi r ed.
Importance of geohydroZogicaZ investigations
I f we compar e Si t uat i on B 3 wi t h t hat of A 2 (Fi g. 4), we get :
A 2 : i mper vi ous l ayer at -8 m +L = 100 m
B 2 : i nst ead of an i mper vi ous l ayer , an aqui f er at -8 m +L 200 m
35
Thi s compar i son of dr ai n spaci ngs shows cl ear l y t hat a dr ai n spaci ng can be
consi der abl y i nf l uenced by l ayer s beyond t he r each of a soi l auger .
Fr omFi g. 4 i t wi l l be cl ear t hat i f i n t he gi ven si t uat i on dr ai nage i nvest i -
gat i ons ar e onl y conduct ed t o a dept h of 2 mand a bar r i er at 3 mi s assumed, t he
r ecommendi ng dr ai n spaci ng wi l l be 50 m.
I f , however , geo- hydr ol ogi cal i nvest i gat i ons ar e conduct ed, t hey wi l l r eveal
t hat par t s of t he ar ea can be dr ai ned wi t h spaci ngs of 300 m ( dr ai n l evel - 1. 8 m)
or 600 mi f t he dr ai n l evel i s -3 m.
36
4.2 Summary of graphs and equations
G r a p h s
G . 1
G.I a : K / K - and D / D -val ues +a-val ue
: c/ Lo- , B- and L /L -val ues +L-values (drai n spaci ng)
(auxi l i ary graph f or
radi al resi stance)
3 2 3 2
G . 11 : Homogeneous soi l and pi pe drai ns -f L-value (f or al l D - and
2
K -val ues)
2
(auxi l i ary graph i f a SPC i s not avai l abl e)
D L
G.III: D I n 2 or L I n -
2 u
E q u a t i o n s
Only one pervi ous l ayer below drai n depth
U S E
D < $ L
2
Eq.(3a)
L 2 + E L I n r_2 - 8 KD h/q = O ori gi nal equati on out of use
TlK- U
L
Eq. ( 7 ) (t7 + (so) (kr-
- B ($)=O general i zed eq. G. 1
O O
2 8 D
T l 2 u
Eq. ( 8) L + - L D I n - 8 KD h/q = O modi fi ed equati on SPC
Eq.(lO) L = L - c si mpl i f i ed eq. f or c <0.3
B 10.1
where Lo = 8 KD h/q
D
2 u
c = D I n 1
L
Eq.(ll)
L I n - = n K 2 h/q G . 111 or
SPC
~~
Two pervi ous l ayers below drai n depth
2 8 KD
Eq.(9) L
+- L - I n a - 8 KD h/q = O
T K 2 u
G. 1 or SPC
where KD = K D + K2D2 + K3D3 or f or K >> K 2: G.1a
3
KD = K D
a = f ( K ~/ K * , D ~ / D ~ )
+ K3D3 2 2
37
4.3 Programmes Scientific Pocket Calculator (SPC)
Note: These p r o g r me s should be adjusted i f necessary, t o suite t he s peci f i c
D 2 8 KD aD2
Eq. (9): L +- L - I n - - 8KD h/q = O
Eq. (8):
L 2 s LD2 I n 2 - 8KD h/q=O
KD = K D
+ K2D2 1 1
4 b Z - D D
I n 2
71 U v Kz
KD = K2D2 + K D
3 3
u KD aD2
i b - _ I n __
TI T K7 U
Programme exampl es
KD ENT 8 h/q (x) KD ENT STO 8 h/q (X)
D2 ENT u (+) (I n) or T(+)u(+)(l n)
D2 ( X I 4 ( X I n (+)
STO ENT ( X ) (+) (&) RCL (-) STO ENT (x) (+) (&) RCL (-)
a ENT D2 (X) u (+) (I n)
RCL (X) K2 (+) 4 (X) TI (+)
or
D2 = 5 KD = 4. 24 a = 4. 6 KD = 17.3
u = a4 8 h/q = 2.400
L =87.07
D2 = 1.6 K = 1. 2 L = 73. 22
2
u = nr 8 h/q = 800
r = 0.10
38
Appendix A.
Derivation of the generalized equation of Ernst
The basi c equat i on ( Eq. 6, Sect i on 3. 2) r eads
8KDh 8Ki Di h 8 K2D2h
Mul t i pl yi ng al l t er ms by ___ L 2
8 KzD2h
gi ves
Mul t i pl yi ng by
I I
I L
I 1 -
L
-
I
l I Lo i Lo
L
and set t i ng - = x, we get
Lo
Ki Di + KPDP KD aD 2
and
- _ _ .
, D2 I n - = c
Ki Di
wr i t i ng -
K2D2 + = K2D2 KzDz U
K2D2
mul t i pl yi ng al l t er ms wi t h - KD yi el ds t he f i nal equat i on
x3 +[k] x2 - x - B [ T] 8c = O
wher e
39
I f we compare the above basi c equati on wi th the Hooghoudt equati on and we assume
that both equati ons yi el d the same r esul t, then
Dz
8D2 D2
1 +- l n-
VL U
d =
where u = Tr
From a compari son of the d-val ue obtai ned by usi ng thi s equati on and
Hooghoudt's d- tabl e f or r = 0.10 m, i t appeared that i n most cases the greatest
si mi l ari ty was obtai ned by usi ng
Dz
-irr
i nstead of - , where al so the use of u = 4 r gave better r esul ts than u = nr.
I t shoul d be noted that thi s i s onl y of theoreti cal i mportance. For reasons
of conveni ence the author pref ers the use of u = 4 r.
40
Appendix B.
Layered soil below drains
a/h =0. 8
D / D =0. 25
3 2
K / K
Fi g . 5 . Comparison of caZcuZated &din spacings based on t he equat i on and graph
of Ernst and on 36 graphs prepared by Toksz and Kirkham (1971)
0. 4 0. 2 O
1.5 4 u?
NOTATION ERNST NOTATiON KIRKHAM
l l i l i i l i i i l l i l i l R l l l i l
I K3
I
0.02; . O2
I
I
I
I
.I 01 . I 2
.201 .24
.501 - 60
I
K >
0.1 K2
D + 0 . 4 0 2. 4 6 . 4 m
3
36. 0 56.0 36. 4 36.C 36. 8 36. 8 36. 9 3 C . R
36. 4 36. 8 37. 9 3 R. U 39. 9 J9.0 41. 0 4 2 . 0
36. 8 36. 8 39. 7 40.0 43. 4 42. 0 45. 7 46.0
37. 7 36.8 44. 4 45.0 51. 3 50.0 55. 7 56. ;
~~ _ - ~-
42. 4 43. 0 59. 7 59.0
49. 4 48.0 75. 7 74.1)
57. 7 56.0 8 9 . 8 90.0
84. 0 DZ. 0 112. 5 112.0
125. 0 123.2 125. 0 123.2
50 160
7 3 . 2 72. 0
9 1 . 3 90.0
103. 1 102.0
119. 3 118.0
125. 0 123. 2
85. 6 83. 1
103. 9 707. J
112. 7 112.0
121. 6 122.0
125.0 123.0
41
Procedure
For t he t ype of cal cul at i ons gi ven above ( many val ues: some var i abl e, some
f i xed) t he f ol l owi ng pr ocedur e i s r ecommended:
1) det er mi ne t he f i xed val ues, whi ch ar e her e:
aD 2 D2
U m
K2D2 = 1. 92; l n - = I n a + I n - = I n a + 1. 63
2)
cal cul at e t he var i ous KD- val ues ( KD = K3D3 + 1. 92) and det er mi ne
t he a- val ues ( Eq. l a) ; wr i t e down t hese val ues and use t he r equi r ed con-
si st ency i n t he r ows of f i gur es as a cont r ol f or t hei r cor r ect ness.
3 ) make a pr ogr amf or t he avai l abl e SPC, based on Eq.9 and t he const ant
val ues
42
Appendix C 1. Construction of Graph 11, based on
Hooghoudt's table for r = 0.10 m
0.125L2x10-2
L2 = or for KI = K2, L = 8Kd' h/q K = L2 K=-
8K ~dh t8K l dl h
q
L=
O. 125L2~10- 2=
.^
I . d=
d'=
K=
2 . d=
d' =
K=
3 . d=
d ' =
K=
5 . d=
d'=
I
K=
I O. d=
d'=
K=
c
w
di = d t Di= d t 0.5h h/q = 100
10 15 20 30 40 50 75 100 150
.125 .281 .50 1.125 2.0 3.125 7.03 12.5 28.125 50.0
200 ( m)
.49 .49 .49 .50 . 50 . 50 . 50
.79 .79 .79 . EO .80 .80 .80
. I 58 .356 . 633 1. 141 2. 50 3. 91 8. 79
.80 .86 .89 . 93 .96 .96 .97 .98
1.10 1.16 1. 19 1. 23 1.26 1. 26 1.27 1.28
. I 14 . 242 . 420 .915 1. 59 2. 48 5. 58 9. 76
1 . O8 1. 28 I .41 1. 57 1.66 1. 72 I .80 1.85
I . 38 I .58 I .71 1 .87 1. 96 2. 02 2. 10 2. 15
.o91 . I 7 8 . 292 . 602 1. 02 1. 55 3. 35 5. 81
1. 13 I .45 I .67 I .97 2. 16 2. 29 2. 49 2. 60 2. 71
I . 43 1. 75 1.97 2. 27 2. 46 2. 59 2. 79 2. 50 3. 02
.O87 . I 6 0 . 254 .496 . 813 1. 21 2. 52 4. 31 9. 31
I .88 2. 38 2. 75 3. 02 3. 49 3 . 7 8 4. 12
2 . 1 8 2. 68 3. 05 3. 32 3. 79 4. 08 4. 42
.229 . 420 .656 .941 1.86 3. 06 6. 36
2. 57 3. 23 3. 74 4. 74 5. 47 6. 45 7. 09
2. 87 3. 53 4. 04 5. 04 5. 77 6. 75 7. 39
. 392 .567 . 774 I . 39 2. 17 4. 17 6. 76
2. 58 3. 24 3. 88 5. 38 6. 82 9. 55 12. 20
2. 88 3. 54 4. 18 5 . 6 8 7. 12 9. 85 12. 50
.391 . 565 . 748 1. 24 1. 76 2. 86 4. 0
o - m
m - o m
. . . .
I DN
F.
o10 o
. i 1 0 -
. .
m
O
O
I,
O
II
a -
/I o
Y m
-co
L om
O 0
+ +
. .
N N
n a
I1 I1
a
E
O
d
E O
o I,
. N
O *
I, I/
L 3
3
O
O o m
0 3 /I
/I m
, 5 r
1 c m
3
V
\ E E
o w
O 0 w o
O 0
I1 I,
c 5
. .
co
i- u m 'il
m m o m v,
r . . . . .
L n N m
oom
. . . .
m - LP
0 0
N O U
. .
.i
U u)
. r - .?a
T i
m
i - N m
o m o m NJ
m . . .
. N N . 3
Ln
mm
O
m m
. .
m rl
O m h
m m o m
. . . .
- N m
a m
m o - - m
o m
- . . .
C e o \
r .
. .
-
m . * I D
u ) m o m
. . . .
N N ' O - 0
mN 10 -f
- - o m
. . . .
u)
-
a
o c
N 1 0 C
N
. . .
-
___._
. *
m -
c o o
. . .
m
. -
N
m m N
- N o m
. . . .
O
-
cj
U
N
m
m m o N
~
O m
-
O
m
O
O m
N
O
N
44
)
o m N r.
m m o
m ? - m -4
- m
- 0 N
. .
m
h Ln
-
m
O
-
1
7 h N Ln
O m I\
u!
. . . .
h
m - m
ul h
i,
o m u 3 m
m
m m n a m
m - 0 1
m
. . . .
0 0
m
h
o - a ~n
o e - m w
. . . . O
mN
O
O N
O m
-
O O
-
mr.
O m
O v
I1
el
U O
,
i:
N
2
I 1
rll s
C
rl
i
8
N
m v
m - m
-,
o
~n o m .
.-u! 1
. . . . PI)
m v L-
N
u3
- i D m
N
O m
m
m m
, -
o
N N
in O
iD
m iD
N
-
m
-
N
m
\D O
m
O
01 O
O o
0
O o
L r l
O m
O
-
O
m
O
m
O
O
-
45
List of symbols
Symbol Description Dimension
a
B
C
d
Dl
D2
D3
DV
h
K2
K3
KV
KD
L
q
91
42
r
U
46
geometry f actor f or radi al fl ow depending on the
hydraul i c si tuati on di mensi onl ess
the fl ow above the drai n as a f racti on of the total
hori zontal fl ow = K D f K D di mensi onl ess
radi al resi stance f actor m (meters)
thi ckness of the equi val ent l ayer of Hooghoudt
average depth of fl ow regi on above drai n l evel
thi ckness of the nervi ous soi l l aver below drai n
1 1
l evel = cross-secti onal area of fl ow at ri ght angl es
t o the di recti on of fl ow per uni t l ength (m)
of drai n
(m2 /m)
m
thi ckness of the pervi ous l ayer, i f any, below
l ayer D
thi ckness of l ayer over which verti cal fl ow i s
consi dered
2
hydraul i c head = the hei ght of the water tabl e
above drai n l evel midway between the drai ns
hydraul i c conducti vi ty (h.c.) of the soi l (fl ow
regi on) above drai n l evel
h.c. below drai n l evel (l ayer D )
h.c. of l ayer D
h.c. f or verti cal flow
2
3
the sum of the product of the permeabi l i ty (K) and
thi ckness (D) of the vari ous l ayers f or the hori -
zontal fl ow component accordi ng to the hydraul i c
si tuati on
drai n spaci ng
drai n di scharge rate per uni t surf ace area per
uni t time
di scharge rate of the fl ow above drai n l evel
di scharge rate of the fl ow below drai n l evel
radi us of the drai n
wetted peri meter of the drai n
m
m
m
m2/day
m
(m3 per day/m2)
m/day
mf day
dday
m
m
References
DUMM, L. D. 1960. Val i di t y and use of t he t r ansi ent - f l owconcept i n sub- sur f ace
dr ai nage. Paper pr esent ed bef or e ASAE Meet i ng, Memphi s, Tennessee,
Dec. 4- 7.
ERNST, L. F. 1962. Gr ondwat er st r omi ngen i n de ver zadi gde zone en hun ber ekeni ng
bi j aanwezi ghei d van hor i zont al e evenwi j di ge open l ei di ngen.
Ver sl . Landb. 0nder z. No. 67. 15 ( Engl i sh summar y)
ERNST L .F. 1976. Second and t hi r d degr ee equat i ons f or t he det er mi nat i on of
appr opr i at e spaci ngs bet ween par al l el dr ai nage channel s. J . of Hydr ol ogy
( i n pr epar at i on) .
HOOGHOUDT, S. B. 1940. Bi j dr agen t ot de kenni s van eni ge nat uur kundi ge gr oot -
heden van de gr ond. Versl .Landb.Onderz.No.46. (14) B.
MAASLAND, M. 1956. The r el at i onshi p bet ween per meabi l i t y and t he di schar ge, dept h
and spaci ng of t he dr ai ns. Bul 1. No. l . Gr oundwat er and dr ai nage ser i es. Wat er
Cons. and 1r r . Comm. New Sout h Wal es, Aust r .
TOKSOZ S. and DON KI RKHAM. 1971. St eady dr ai nage i n l ayer ed soi l s. 11. Nomo-
gr aphs. . T. I rr. &Dr ai nage Di v. ASCE. Vo1. 97, pp. 19- 37.
VAN BEERS, W. F. 1965. Some nomogr aphs f or t he cal cul at i on of dr ai nage
spaci ngs. BulL.No.8. I LRI , Wageni ngen.
WESSELI NG, J. 1973. Subsur f ace f l ow i nt o dr ai ns. Publ . No. 16. Vol . 11.
I LRI , Wageni ngen.
47
L I ST OF A V A I L A BL E PUBL I CA T I ONS
P U B LI C A T I O NS
(3/F) ti-tch H. J acobi, Riv"mhrc~nii~nt cn Europe. 1959, 152 pp.
(3/D) Erich H. Jacobi. Flirrhiwinigung i n Europcr. 1961. 157 pp.
(6)
A priorilj, .\chi~me for Dut i h lund consiliilulion projci~ts. 1960. 84 pp.
cmrnl ofmvi'sment.s in l undri 41mat i on from thep(iint o/ v i i ~ ~ . of / hi ~nuf i onul ~' i ononij'. 1969. 65 pp.
ga. Lncul udmini.strution o/ M? UI P~ i,ontrol in u numher (if Europeun counlries 1960. 46 pp.
(9) L. t:. Kamps,Mud dili\trihurion und lund redirmution in !he i wstern Wudden Shi i l ki ~*s. 1963. 9 I pp.
(1 I ) P. J . Dielenian. etc. Redumat i on o/ s ul l u/frNri ted .coil.\ in Iraq. 1963. I75 pp.
(12) f. H. Etlel~nan. AppIicciti~~n. \ nf soil.survry in lundclfvrlopmrnt in Europc'. 1963. 43 pp.
( 1 3 ) L. I . Pons, and I . S. Zonnevcld. Soil riprning urirl.roil i~lris.si/cutiiiri. 1965. 128 pp.
( 14) G. A. W. v;in J e Goor. and G. Zijlstra. lrrigution requircmen/s f or riouhlc cropping of lowlundrice in Mulqvo.
1968. 68 pp.
(15) [l. B. W. M. van Dusseldorp. Plunningo/.srrvii~c ' ri i trcs in ri~rulureusof~J~,vc,lo/iing countrie.s. 1971. I59 pp.
(16) /)ruinuge principlrs und irpplicii~inn,~. Vols l / l V (1972~ 1974). 1455 pp.
( 1 7) Land evuluotion f or rurcil p~i rpo, sc, s. 1973. I 16 pp.
(19) M. G 1305. and J . Nugteren O n irrrgrrlion e//ici(wiie\. 1974 89 pp.
(20) M. G. Bos. ed. lIi,\ilior~i, h.Ierrwr.criwii . S' i r . t r i ~i i wi ~\ . I Y76. 464 pp.
B U L L E T I N S
(I)
(l /D) W. F. J . van Beers. Die Bohrloch-Methode. 1962. 32 pp.
(3)
(4)
(5)
( 6 )
(7)
(8/F) W. F. J . van Beers. Quel ynr' .~ non7ogrcimmr~.s pour le cdi , i r l (/i,.\ espuci'mrwt.r di2.r rlruins. 1966. 2 I pp.
(9)
(IO)
(I I )
(I I/F) G. P Kruseman, and N A. de Ridder. Int'
( I I /S) G. P Kruseman, and N. A. de Ridder. An
(12) J . G. van Alphen, and F. de los Rios Ro
( I 3) J . H. Edelman. Groundwutc,r hydruulii,.s of'c.viv?.\iw 11q~i f ors. 1972. 216 pp.
(14) Ch. A. P. Takes. Lund.wtt/i~mmt rinilrr.\cItlf~m~rirproiri~t.s. 1975. 44 pp.
(15) W. F. J . van Beers. C'omputing dr nni cpui.inlga. 1976. 47 pp.
W. F. J . van Beers. Thr uirgiv hole mcthod. 1958. 32 pp. Rev. offprint 1970.
W. F. J . van Beers. Aci d Sulphote Soil,\. 1962. 31 pp.
R. Verhoeven. On he culcinnii~urhonuti, c'ontew of ~ o u n p murinc .sediment.\. I Y63 27 pp.
P. J . Dieleman and N. A. de Ridder. Studi/ic.r of.sul1 wuti'r movcmenl in / he Bol Guini Poliler, ('Iiud RqJuhli(,.
1Y64. 40 pp.
A . J . de Groot. Mud irim.spnrl stucik% 117 i~ou.stu/ i vui ' rs /ri m I h c wr sl er n S~~hcl / l lo Ihc Dawi.sl7 Fruntiiv. 1964
Cbde of practice f o r the i ksi Rn n f ' o p i ~~ wuteri"ir. s~~. s enid ancillurj> .struc'turc.\. 1964. 80 pp.
D J. Shaw. The milnugil Sout h- Wcstiw cxt msi i i n o /hi, Gciiru .Si hemr. I Y65 37 pp.
t; Homma. A viscous fluid moilel fhr dwmn, st ruf i on o/ groundwutrr /h to purullc4 (lrui17,\. 1968. 32 pp.
G. P. Kruseman. and N. A. de Ridder. Aiiu1.ysr.s undc~viiluririon ofpimiping / P . s ~ rliitu. 1970. 2nd ed. 200 pp.
n CI iliscu.s.sion ilesp~~mpugc.~ d' i mui . 1973. 2nd ed 21 3 pp.
uluucirin de k i . 5 i k i ~ o a di, eii.siryo.\ por hornhro. 1975. 2 I 2 pp.
'p.cilerous s ( n I s . 197 I . 44 pp.
(16)
C. A Alva. J . <i. \'ai1 Alpheil et al l'rohli'nl(/.\ h i l l ~ ~ i ~ o / i ~ , ~ ~ \ ul i ~i i l ci di ~i ~ I ( / ( ' ( I \ I o 1' cI.ui oIo 1'976. I l hpp
BI BLI OGRAPHI ES
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( 5 )
(6)
L. F. Ahell, and W. J . Gelderman. Ani ui l ut r d hi hl i ogrupl ~~~~ on rei lum[ition c ni d inipriivmiiwl of . s u/ i ni , und
ulkuli .\oil.s. 1964. 59 pp.
C. A. de Vries, and R. C. P. H. van Baak. Drufnugc n/ ugrii~ulrurcil / ( n ? d s . 1966. 28 pp.
J. G. vali Alphen, and L. t; Ahcll. Ai nr ot ut i ~d hi hl i i i ~r oph~~ on rci ~l i ~mi rt ~on uni1 inipro~~' nicnt of . s cdi nc uni1
.sodic .soil,\. (1966 1960). 43 pp.
. A. dc Vri cs. ,4prii~iItiirul c.rtcriaion in diwdipinr: (outirr.ic\. I 25 pp.
J . Brouwer, and L F. Ahell. Bihliographv o11 ui l on irrilgu~inn. 1970. 41 pp.
Raadsma, and G. Schrale. Annc ~f ~t c i l hi hl i ogr u~~hj ~ on .\ur/at.s irrigu/ioii mi,hoi/.\ 1971. 72 pp.
(10) R. H. Brook. S ~ i l \ur nti' rprc!uiiin. 197.5 64 pp.
(I 1)
(12)
ANN U A L RE P OR T S free of charge
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Lunrl uni1 wuI cr i/i~vi~lnpnic~wr. 1976. 96 pp.
Infot-ination ahout exchange and wl c 01' I L K1 puhlic;iiion\ can lx obtained from
I NTERNATI ONAL I NSTI TI J TE FOR L AND RECLAMATI ON A ND I MPROVEMENT/I LRI
P.O. BOX 45 WAGENI NGENi THE NETHERL ANDS
GRAPH I Determination of drainspacing with the generalized Ernst equation
GRAPH I Determination of drainspacing with the generalized Ernst equation
1.0
1
0.9
O. 8
0.7
0.6
o .I 0.2
O .3
Graph I a: Equivalent layer (aD2) for radial resistance ;
soil below the drains consists of two pervious layers
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 15 20 30 40 50
K3K2
-
GRAPH II Homogeneous soil and pipe drains (rz0.10m)
L in m
D L
Graph : Auxiliary graph for D In or L In
D L
Graph III : Auxiliary graph for D In or L In
+L
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
800
600
400
400
300
200
D
In -
U
(C)
10
6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2
3 4 5 6 t 8 10
D
D I n ,
U
600
500
400
300
200
1 O 0
80
60
5 0
40
3 0
20
10
20 1 30 40 50 60 00100
L

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