Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake and Tsunami 26 December 2004

A REPORT ON
THE SUMATRA- ANDAMAN EARTHQUAKE

AND TSUNAMI OF
26 DECEMBER 2004
Geological Survey of India Special Publication

(Pre- Print Copy)
A REPORT ON THE SUMATRA- ANDAMAN

EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI OF
26 DECEMBER 2004
Editor
Sujit Dasgupta
G EOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA SPECIAL P UBLICATION

(Pre- Print Copy)
September 2005
Foreword
The festivity of Christmas Day 2004 was turned into horrifying plight of
thousands of people at the outbreak of nature's fury on 26 December 2004. On
the fateful day India witnessed unprecedented unleash of killer wave tsunami
following the great undersea earthquake that took away about 10,749 human
lives, rendered many thousands homeless and leading to colossal property
losses. It was a shock and tragedy to the nation due to a calamity of the earth's
system. Geological Survey of India, as the premier earthscience organization
of the country, made an all out effort in analyzing/ studying the event in this
critical juncture of national crisis with a view to reassuring the society. Rising
to the occasion, GSI mobilized all its resources on war footing. The hazard
and its aftermath have been investigated and analyzed from multi-pronged
scientific angle.
Geological Survey of India has a legacy of earthquake studies since the
days of Sir R.D. Oldham who laid the foundation of modern seismology and
surveyed the Great Assam earthquake of 1897. With that beginning, GSI has
continually been engaged in the study of every major Indian earthquake and
publishing its findings. Equipped with that expertise, scientists of GSI
explored the different aspects of the event, faithfully documented the records
and critically examined the 26 December 2004 calamity. The results and
outcome of this scientific investigation have been combined in this volume to
give a complete portrait of the mega-event. We hope this contribution will
help further scientific pursuit towards the study of earthquake.
We are bringing out this report not merely as a fulfillment of the
onerous task but also to proffer the knowledge in securing a safer society in
future and to accomplish the complete understanding of the science of
earthquake and tsunami.
Kolkata,
26 August 2005.
(K.N. Mathur)
Director General
Geological Survey of India
Contents
Introduction
Earthquake
Sujit Dasgupta
1.
A preliminary Report on investigation of K.N. Mathur, S.K. Ray, S.

effects of the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake Sengupta, Prabhas Pande and
of 26 December 2004 in Andaman and Sujit Dasgupta
Nicobar Island
2.
Macroseismic Survey in Andaman and A.K. Ghosh Roy, S. Bardhan,

Nicobar Island in the aftermath of the great P. Jana and S.R. Basir
earthquake of 26th December 2004
19
3.
Analysis of satellite data for changes in D.P. Das, S.S. Ghosh,

coastal geomorphology of Andaman-Nicobar D. Chakraborty and
K. Pramanik
island due to 26 December 2004 earthquake
57
4.
26 December 2004 earthquake: coseismic Sumit K. Ray and

vertical ground movements in the Andaman
Anshuman Acharyya
71
5.
Bathymetry and magnetic observations along R. Sengupta and 12 others

Andaman arc-trench gap in the post
earthquake scenario of 26th December 2004
91
6.
Seismotectonics of the Andaman- Nicobar Sujit Dasgupta, Basab

region: constraints from aftershocks within 24 Mukhopadhyay and
hours of the great 26 December 2004 A. Acharyya
earthquake
105
Aftershock investigation of the December 26, O.P. Mishra,

G.K. Chakraborty and O.P.
2004 Sumatra-Andaman Islands earthquake
Singh
Tsunami
115
7.
8.
Tsunami survey in the Andaman- Nicobar T.Ghosh, P..Jana,

Islands
T.S. Giritharan, S. Bardhan,
S.R Basir, A.K. Ghosh Roy
165
9.
Tsunami survey in the Srikakulam-Pulicat M. Raju, B.K. Bhandaru, V.

segment, Andhra Pradesh
Singaraju and B.M. Shah
185
10. Tsunami
survey
in
Nagapattinam segment
11. Tsunami survey in
Kanyakumari segment
the
the
Chennai- R. Srinivasan and

K.Nagrajan
Nagapattinam- B. Kanishkan and

B. Lakshminarayanan
12. Tsunami survey in the Kanyakumari- Cochin K. Jayabalan and U. Durairaj

segment
197
217
239
INTRODUCTION
Sujit Dasgupta
Geological Survey of India, Kolkata
The Sumatra Andaman subduction zone has been a known potential tectonic
candidate for earthquakes. Tsunamis are rare but not totally absent. Yet there was insufficient guess
on its capability for developing such an incomprehensible tsunami. The impression that tsunami is
largely a Pacific Ocean phenomenon has been drastically confuted by the Indian Ocean earthquake
and tsunami of 26 December 2004. This was one of the largest interplate shallow thrust earthquakes
that occurred at the interface of the subducting Indian lithosphere and the overriding Burma plate.
The event happened to be the second largest earthquake in the recorded history after the Chile
earthquake of 1960 (Mw 9.5). The main shock of the great earthquake of 26 December measured
Ms8.6 (IMD), Ms8.8 (GSI, Nagpur), Ms8.6 (GSI, Jabalpur), Mw9.0 (USGS), (revised Mw9.3) and
occurred off the West Coast of northern Sumatra (Indonesia) at 00:58:53 hrs. [06:28:51.1hrs. IST
(IMD)]. This under-sea earthquake triggered giant tsunamis that devastated the coastal regions of the
Indian Ocean rim countries travelling as far as the coast of East Africa. In India, damage from the
tremor of the earthquake itself was moderate to high in the Andama n and Nicobar Islands. Above
and beyond, the high tsunami waves unleashed by the earthquake wreaked havoc in life and property
in the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Besides death of 10,479 people, a total of 2,39,024 dwelling units were affected, 35,605 cattle lost,
22,750 hectares of cropped area and 83,788 boats damaged in the calamity in India alone. This
estimate may change with time but the frightening memory and potential threat will haunt the nation
and the earthscientists in particular for years to come. GSI made a conscientious attempt to study and
analyze the event for immediate planning and for posterity.
The Andaman - Nicobar Archipelago is located in a unique and complicated tectonic regime .
It has components of trench, volcanic arc, fault systems, spreading ridge, sea-rises, transform faults
and obducted suites of rocks. In a broader view, tectonic features bordering the Indian subcontinent
in the west (Suleiman-Kirthar fold belt), north (the Himalayas) and east (Indo-Burmese arc) are
thought to have resulted from the northward drift of India since Cretaceous and its collision with the
Tibetan landmass by early-mid Eocene. The Indo-Burmese range and the Andaman island arc
together describe tectonically continuous belt displaying various geologic elements of an arc-trench
system, though the northern part of the belt, i.e., the Indo-Burmese range, emerged above sea level as
early as Oligocene. The Burmese-Andaman Arc System (BAAS) presents nearly 3500 km long
subducting margin in northeastern part of the Indian plate where varying degrees of seismic activity,
volcanism and active tectonism are evidenced. The region is of particular interest due to several
interesting features. 1) It serves as an important tectonic link between the Eastern Himalayas
(a typical collisional margin) and the Sunda Arc (which is a part of the Western Pacific arc system);
2) an initial collisional phase has already set in the northernmost segment of BAAS (in the Naga
Hills) within an overall subducting regime; 3) Burma is one of the few regions in the world where a
subduction zone up to about 200km depth is clearly discernible in a land environment; 4) coastal
Burma and north part of the Andaman Sea are largely aseismic, suggesting that subduction of the
Indian plate in this regions has stopped recently or occurs aseismically, and the hanging lithosperic
slab is being dragged northward through the surrounding lithosphere; 5) The Andaman back-arc
Spreading Ridge (ASR) underlying the Andaman Sea relates to the oblique convergence of the
Indian plate at the Asian continental margin; actual spreading occurred through several short leakytransforms, producing the 'pull-apart' Andaman basin in southern half of the BAAS and 6) further
south is the intense seismic zone of the West Sunda Arc with its attendant volcanism.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
REPORT ON SUMATRA -ANDAMAN EARTHQUAKE & TSUNAMI, 26 DEC 04
The Indo-Burmese range and the Andaman-Mentawai arc form the outer arc ridge of the arctrench system developed during the Tertiary in consequence of subduction of the Indian plate below
the Burma-Sumatra segment. The various morphotectonic units recognized along the convergent
margin of the Indian plate may be described as follows:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
The overriding Southeast Asian continental block including the west Kachin unit of
northeast Burma, Shan-Tenasserim highland and Sumatra.
A narrow linear faulted backarc basin between the magmatic arc and the west
Kachin unit involving the Indawgyi and also Bhamo-Myitkyina valley that extends
southward up to the Andaman Sea through Shwebo, Sittang basins and Gulf of
Martaban.
The magmatic arc extending from the Jade Mines in north Burma to NarcondamBarren volcanic islands through Monywa, Mt. Popa and Irrawaddy delta; this intrabasinal arc continues to the continental margin arc in north Sumatra.
A well developed forearc basin that extends from the Chindwin valley in north
Burma to the Mentawai trough, off Sumatra; in the Andaman sector the forearc
basin is represented by the 'Nicobar deep.
The subduction-accretion complex at the leading edge of the Indian plate is
represented by sediments of the Burmese-Andaman outer arc, where several
dismembered ophiolite bodies occur along the seaward flank of the forearc trough.
As already mentioned the Andaman-Nicobar arc-trench region is a highly seismic tectonic

domain. Earthquakes occur along the plate margin with a well -defined seismic Benioff zone. Large
magnitude shallow foci thrust earthquakes are known to occur in and around the outer -arc ridge
including the events of 1847, 1881 and 1941. Besides, the Andaman spreading ridge yields
earthquakes mainly with normal fault mechanism whereas earthquakes along the West Andaman
Fault display strike slip geometry.
Following the mainshock of 26 December 2004, thousands of aftershocks have been
recorded. It is noteworthy that these aftershocks mainly occur north of the main shock till the 28
March 2005 event of magnitude 8.7 (USGS), located on a fault segment 160 kilometers to the
southeast of the rupture zone of the 26 December 2004 earthquake. Previous events in the vicinity
occurred in 1833 and 1861. Interestingly the earthquake of 28 March did not generate tsunami.
Geological Survey of India took up immediate assignments deploying scientists from various
streams. Dr.K.N.Mathur, Director General, led a team of senior officers of the Survey to South
Andaman and Baratang islands during 7-12 January 2005 to take stock of the situation and to
implement the work plan. Macroseismic and tsunami survey in the Andaman Nicobar Islands and in
the coastal tract of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala were launched. Deployment of
seismometers to record and analyze aftershocks and installation of geodetic instruments to study
nature of deformation caused by the earthquake in the Andaman- Nicobar Islands was taken up. This
was followed by cruise of GSI vessel in parts of Indian Ocean across the Andaman Islands for first
hand assessment on changes of bathymetry and magnetics. Apart from that analyses of satellite
digital data for pre - and post-earthquake scenes in Andaman Nicobar Islands, estimation of vertical
ground movement and study of rupture propagation characteristics have been attempted to explain
the overall seismotectonics of the region around the archipelago.
This report embodies the outcome of major work accomplished by the geo-scientists of GSI.
There are twelve contributions in total including different aspects of earthquake and tsunami.
Earthquake related studies are dealt in seven chapters. This begins with the preliminary report that
______________________________________________________________________________________________
was submitted on 17 January 2005 after the visit of Director General, GSI in Andaman Islands. This
was a first hand account of intensity assessment in South Andaman as well as mud volcano eruptions
and surface rupture at Baratang Island from sympathetic faults. This is followed by the contribution
by Ghosh Roy et al. on the macroseismic survey of the A&N Islands. Results indicated Nicobar
Islands had higher intensity of VIII (revised MSK scale) than Andaman Island where the general
intensity was VII with few local highs of VIII in western part of the island. The Havelock Island
showed a lower intensity of VI. Intensity in the main land varied from III to IV. Strong seismic
seiches have been recorded from West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. In the third chapter
Das et al. used pre- and post-earthquake digital satellite data to detect morphological change in A&N
Islands. The study revealed emergence of islands of varying magnitude along east and west coast in
the north Andaman, and submergence of islands in the south, in Nicobar. Ray and Acharyya
estimated coseismic vertical movement distribution in the Andaman Group of Islands (North of
11N latitude) showing uplift in some parts and subsidence on others in a domain of thrust faulting.
There are locales where there is no perceptible ground movement, designated as 'neutral line', west
of that there is land emergence while submergence is recorded in the east. Sengupta et al. outlined
the marine survey carried out by GSI marine vessel R.V. Samudra Manthan in Andaman Arc-Trench
gap. The cruise includes 4678 line km for bathymetric as well as magnetic studies along 24 transects.
Bathymetric profile showed perceptible structural and morphological changes in the sea floor
particularly in the areas south of 10N latitude. Dasgupta et al. explained the aftershock propagation
characteristics within 24 hours of the earthquake and illustrates rupture segments, aftershock
propagation rate and differential seismic loading. Mishra et al. analyzed 1177 aftershocks (M 3.0)
recorded from 6.1.2005 to 31.1.2005 from their total database of about 18,000 aftershocks up to 16
March 2005. The epicenter map indicated a N-S trending aftershock cluster in an area of about 750 x
300km2 . The aftershocks occurred mostly at the depth range 5-55 km, except a few beyond that
depth range.
There are five contributions on tsunami survey. Results of tsunami survey in Andaman
Nicobar Islands have been documented by Ghosh et al. A stronger impact in the Nicobar Group of
Islands is evident. While the run up distance is more than 1 km in Car Nicobar, South Andaman
witnessed about 150m of run up. Notwithstanding tsunami wave heights of nearly 10m in few
locales, the run up height is generally restricted within 1. 5m and 5.5m. The impact of tsunami in
coastal mainland has been extensive. A coastal stretch of about 2050 km from Srikakulam in the east
coast to Cochin in the west coast has been affected. GSI has covered the entire coast in four
segments to record the details. Raju et al. described the distribution of tsunami in Andhra Pradesh
coast where run up varied from 200m to 1km with a maximum run up elevation of 2m. Srinivasan
and Nagarajan demonstrated the characteristics of tsunami in Chennai-Nagpattinam of Tamil Nadu
coast. The run up elevation in the Chennai-Nagpattinam segment varied between 1m and 3m while
the run up distance ranged from 150m to 1km. Kanishkan and Lakshminarayanan recorded the
outcome of tsunami studies between Nagapattinam and Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu. The coastal
stretch lying between Nagapattinam and Point Calimere showed a maximum run up elevation of 3m
with run up length (inundation zone) varied between 200m and 1.25km. In terms of life, property and
landscape loss, the stretch of coast in Karaikal-Nagpattinam-Velanganni had highest damage in the
East Coast. Jayabalan and Durairaj documented impact of tsunami in part of Tamil Nadu and Kerala
coast from Kanyakumari to Cochin. In the west coast, the run up distance varied from 200m to 500m
and run up elevation ranges from 3m to 4m. In Kerala, the worst affected area was the stretch
between Cheriyazheekkal (Kollam district) and Tharayilkadavu (Alappuzha district).
______________________________________________________________________________________________
The collation of data on earthquake and tsunami survey of one of the largest recorded
seismic event is indeed an assignment for the sake of better understanding of a lesser-known
phenomena in this part of the world. The attempt will be rewarding if new frontiers of science open
up for the safety and existence of all living milieu in this fragile tectonic regime.
This Introduction will remain incomplete without admitting the cooperation received from
all the contributors of this volume. The support rendered by Shri K. Nagarajan, B. Kanishkan and
O.P. Mishra is gratefully acknowledged. Shri Saudipta Chattopadhyay has been instrumental in final
knitting of this volume with all odd DTP jobs. The task of editorial assistance was with
Shri Anshuman Acharyya who carried out the work meticulously. In spite of our efforts flaws may
float that may be ignored.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON INVESTIGATION OF EFFECTS OF THE

SUMATRA - ANDAMAN EARTHQUAKE OF 26 DECEM BER 2004 IN
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLAND#
K. N. Mathur *, S.K. Ray, S. Sengupta, Prabhas Pande and Sujit Dasgupta
Geological Survey of India
Kolkata
INTRODUCTION
A Great earthquake measuring Ms 8.6 (IMD), Mw 9.0 (USGS) occurred off the West Coast
of northern Sumatra (Indonesia) at 00:58:53 hrs. [06:28:51.1hrs IST (IMD)] on 26.12.2004. This is
one of the largest interplate shallow thrust earthquakes that occurred at the interface of the
subducting Indian lithosphere and the overriding Burma plate. This mega seismic event from the
Sumatra subduction zone in the Indian Ocean triggered giant tsunamis that devastated the coastal
regions of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, India and Maldives and affected even the coast
of East Africa. The loss of human lives in the catastrophe has been put at 1.5 lakh. The impact of the
tsunami was quite severe in the coasts of Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Pondicherry and Kerala where over 10,000 people lost their lives, thousands injured
and property worth several hundred of crores destroyed.
The Geological Survey of India has taken up the investigation of this earthquake and
resultant tsunami in the Andaman - Nicobar region and other parts of the country. In this connection
a team of senior scientists of the Department reached Port Blair on 7th January 2005. After
discussions with the Officials of the Andaman & Nicobar Administration, the GSI team visited
different parts of South Andaman and Baratang Islands to study the effects of the earthquake and
tsunami. This team after initial surveys returned to Kolkata on 12.01.05. Another team of officers
from Eastern Region, GSI also reached Port Blair on 07.01.05 and took up detailed investigations to
document the effects of the earthquake and tsunami and install GPS in campaign mode. Another
group of GSI scientists who reached Port Blair on 06.01.05 is installing an array of five digital shortperiod seismometers in different islands to record the aftershocks.
This report contains the observations from the studies carried out between 7th and 12th
January 2005. A detailed report with analysis on the effects of the earthquake and tsunami and other
related issues to be submitted on completion of the work.
* Director General, GSI

# This report was submitted on 17.01.2005
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Earthquake Parameters
Earthquake parameters for this great earthquake are continuously been revised and refined
by USGS since the first estimate released on 26.12.2004. As on 13.01.2005 the parameters as per
USGS are as follows:
Date: 26th December 2004
Origin Time: 00:58:53 (UTC) [local time at the epicenter 07:58:53]
Location: 3.316N, 95. 854E [ 5.6 km (3.5 miles) horizontally]
Region: Off west coast of North Sumatra
Magnitude: Mw 9.0
Depth: 30 km (18.6 miles)
Harvard Best Double Couple Solution:
NP1: Strike 329, Dip 08, slip 110
NP2: Strike 129, Dip 83, slip 87
Principal Axes: T: Val 4.01, Plg 52, Az 36; N: Val 0.12, Plg 3, Az 130, P: Val 3.98, Plg 38, Az
222
TECTONIC SETTING
The Andaman- Nicobar- Nias (off Sumatra) sedimentary arc in the northeastern Indian
Ocean defines a nearly 2200 km long trench slope break and outer arc ridge between the Indian plate
and the SE Asia/Burma plate. This convergent margin joins the Burmese arc to the north and the
Sunda arc towards the south. The entire 3500 km long Burmese- Andaman arc constitutes an
important transitional link between the Himalaya and the Western Pacific arc system characterized
by varying degree of seismic activity and volcanism. Active subduction of the Indian lithosphere
below the Burma plate is documented by the presence of the Barren- Narcondam active volcanic arc
that continues to the continental margin arc in Sumatra and an east dipping Benioff zone defined by
earthquakes up to 250 km focal depth. The geologic and tectonic history of the region is complex
due to the presence of active faults/tectonic features such as the West Andaman fault in the Andaman
arc, the Semangko fault in Sumatra, the Sagaing fault in Burma and the Neogene Andaman back-arc
spreading ridge.
Seismicity Pattern of the Region between 01.01.2004 and 25.12.2004

A total of 260 earthquake events occurred in the region during 2004 up to 25.12.2004
(USGS Catalogue). Out of these 241 events are of magnitude less than 5.0, 18 shocks between
magnitudes 5.0 and 6.0 while there is only one event of magnitude 6.2. Majority (162) of these
earthquakes are of shallow foci ( 20km) origin. There is an apparent seismic quiescence between
28th November and 25th December 2004 with the last event registered on 27th November 2004 (M=
5.3, depth 41 Km, 1.97N/97.89E).
MACROSEISMIC SURVEY
The 26 December 2004 earthquake was strongly felt in the entire Andaman group of Islands
and the seismic intensity was enough to cause low order damage to many civil constructions. A cross
section of people belonging to different parts of the Islands was interviewed to get first hand
information on the nature of seismic shaking. The general human perceptions are as follows: At
______________________________________________________________________________________________
06.35 AM (local time) feeble tremors were felt that made many feel giddy. This was followed by
strong to and fro shaking which lasted for almost 40 seconds. The time gap between the 1st feeble
shocks and the following strong shocks was reported to be sufficient for most of the people to come
out of their buildings even from 2nd floor. No sound, however, accompanied the tremors. People ran
outdoors in great panic; most people lost balance, fell or sat down and crawled out of their buildings.
Those riding bicycles or motorbikes felt strong wobbling effect and therefore immediately stopped.
Parked cycles and a scooter fell down during strong shaking. A parked bus was visibly vibrating.
Objects and utensils on racks were thrown. At few places even heavy objects like steel almirah and
racks overturned. The total duration of shaking have been reported by many to be of the order of 3
minutes.
Different grades of damage to buildings have been recorded from different parts of South
Andaman. In Port Blair area, places like, Marine Park, Aberdeen jetty, Chatam, Nayagaon, Bamboo
Flat, etc. were visited. Buildings like the Secretariat, Haddo Circuit House, Blair Hotel, which are
Type C structures suffered damage of grades 1 and 2. Most buildings of B/C type in and around Port
Blair suffered similar damage. In a single case at Nayagaon a newly constructed 3-story building
over stilt with RCC columns and beams suffered grade 5 damage. The entire soft-story ground floor
caved in due to failure of load bearing base column (Photo 2 & 3). The upper two floors though
tilted, were much less damaged. In the Bamboo Flat area many of the buildings showed grade 2
cracks. In a newly constructed house belonging to C. Mahammad Arif, which at the time of the
earthquake was not even occupied, much higher damage was seen in comparison with rest of the
area. This two-story structure with RCC columns, beams and RCC roof caved in such a manner that
the ground floor got completely crushed and the first floor came to the ground floor level (Photo 4).
This was also a stilted structure where the base columns were not tied with shear walls. It appears
that under condition of prolonged lateral loading the base columns supporting a heavy load sheared
off resulting in grade 5 damage.
In the Kanyapuram locality one newly constructed house belonging to Mr. Hamid, was
reduced to a heap of rubble. The two-storied RCC structure with GI roof completely caved in and a
car parked in the ground floor completely crushed (Photo 5).
In the Ograbraj locality, a godown of Malabir Society was heavily damaged. This was a
structure with approximate dimensions of 8 m (w) x 15 m (l) x 6 m (h). The walls were of hollow
concrete blocks with RCC columns at the corners and at the central parts of N-S aligned long walls.
The slanting roof with GI sheets was supported by heavy wooden beams and rafters. The three walls
and the roof suffered total collapse. The quality of construction was very poor, where steel used was
found to be rusted and concrete of low strength (Photo 6). The area was subsequently inundated by
the tsunami back flow (Photo 7). In the Collinpur locality, almost all the buildings suffered grade 2
or 3 damages. In a single case, a single story restaurant suffered damage of grade 5 in the form of
total collapse of the structure. The long wall of the shack of GI sheet roofing seems to have thrusted
in N45E direction. In this area, the foundation comprised clayey soil with shallow groundwater
table.
In the Baratang Island, similar seismic intensity was recorded. The Forest Range office
suffered grade 2 or 3 damage in the form of shear cracks in walls and gapping settlement cracks in
the floor. A number of steel almirah and racks containing office records and the hanging tube lights
fell down during the earthquake.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Water Supply Schemes for Port Blair

Dhanikhari Dam
This water retention structure on Dhanikhari River was constructed during 1970-1973 for
supply of water to Port Blair town. The dam is a 132 m long and 32.23 m high straight gravity
concrete structure with a central gated spillway having a capacity of 26,000 cusec. The reservoir
extends to an area of 0.49 x 10 sq miles and the storage capacity is of the order of 9000 lakh litres.
On 26 December 2004, the reservoir stood at R.L. 60.60 m. Inspection of the dam revealed some
minor distress to the main structure due to the earthquake. Development of fine cracks and chipping
off plaster along two of the right abutment block joints was visible (Photo 8). Inspection of
foundation gallery showed cracking of the RCC along the fifth block joint, through which
considerable amount of seepage was taking place. Some minor seepage was also coming from the
right abutment slopes of the gallery. It was reported that prior to the earthquake, the water collecting
in the foundation gallery used to be pumped after every six hours. After the earthquake and due to
the increased seepage, it now requires hourly pumping. The reservoir water was also considerably
agitated due to the passage of the shock waves as manifested by the seiche (standing water waves),
which rose by as much as 3 to 4 m. After the earthquake, the main supply pipes were dislodged and
therefore, in the initial days, the water supply to the town remained disrupted. It has later been
restored.
Chouldari Dam
Chouldari water supply scheme is a 19 m high and 95 m long earthen dam structure with a
10 m wide and 80.58 m long left bank ungated RCC chute spillway. The earthen section has
pitching of basalt blocks, both in the upstream and downstream sides. A concrete apron has been
placed over the entire length of the crest. The distress to the dam on account of the earthquake is
seen at the junction of the earthen section and spillway concrete. Here, the concrete apron has
buckled by as much as 8 cm along the block joint (Photo 9). The profile of the earth section
otherwise does not show any deformation or distress. It is reported that on 26th morning the reservoir
level (reservoir area 15 ha) was quite low. But due to the tremors the waves in the reservoir rose so
high that they splashed on to the crest portion that was about 5.6 m above the reservoir level.
Ground Fissures and Liquefaction

Ground fissures, slumping and subsidence were witnessed at several places in the coastal
belt of Andaman Islands. At Collinpur locality, the fissures are arcuate in disposition, trends N-S and
appeared to be a product of liquefaction and consequent lateral spreading (Photo 10). Here, the
water table is barely a meter or less deep and the topsoil clayey silt. During the tremors, fissures
were formed through which the ground water spouted. At a few places, cream-colored fine sand/silt
also ejected out. As reported by the locals this zone of ground fissure continues intermittently for 6-7
km between Tirur in the north and Khurma beach in the south. A few buildings, which were founded
over such a spreading zone suffered conspicuous damage. In a stray case, rolling down of a boulder
from a hill has been reported at Collinpur. In the Baratang area the ground fissures are so
pronounced that they damaged considerable stretches of the metalled road. These fissures are
described below.
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Mud Volcano Eruptions and Surface Rupture at Baratang

In the Island of Baratang, two major and some minor mud volcanoes among the chain of
dormant ones erupted during the earthquake of 26 December 2004. Of the two major sites of
eruption, the one in Jarwa Creek was examined in some detail. It is reported that soon after the
major tremors, this volcano erupted with great violence. A series of explosions that lasted for
several minutes accompanying the eruption could be heard from distances as far as 2-3 km from the
site. A resident of Rajatgarh village narrated that he saw the mud splashing to above the forest tree
height. At the eruption site on the following day he witnessed flames coming out of one vent.
During the present study the site was visited after 17 days of the eruption. The mudflow of 26th
December 2004, has spread in an area of around 10,000 sq m and had a very distinct bulged contact
with the older mudflow (Photo-11). The shape of the mudflow can be described as that of a flattened
bun. The main crater, located at the center of the mud depos its was no more active. Gases along
with small quantity of sticky and viscous mud was still coming out in fits and rhythms through
another newly formed vent located about 10m away from the previous one (Photo -12). Blowouts
with an average frequency of 2 minutes accompanied by low blurring and hissing sound, was audible
from a distance of 10 m or so. This crater is about 0.75 meter in diameter with a vent of about 20 cm
at the center.
The erupted mud consisted of very fine clay particles containing small angular fragments of
rocks. The wet spouted clay dried and hardened almost immediately after coming into contact with
air and was getting deposited at the rim of the new crater. Gas and mud erupted are odorless,
inflammable (probably methane) and were at ambient temperature. On the whole, a feeble
sulphurous smell pervaded over the mud volcano. The maximum height of the recent deposits is
estimated to be around 3 m. The total volume of the erupted mud is calculated as 1600 cu m.
However, estimate by the Forest Authorities place this figure at 2400 cu m. It is quite certain that
this entire mud was ejected out within a very short time span after the earthquake. The mudflow in
the rim portion has partially flooded some of the tree plantations.
About 500-700m metalled road stretch from the mud volcano site towards Baratang
Divisional forest office is highly fractured. These open fractures trend N25E, cut across the road
(Photo 13) and continue on either side on ground as irregular fractures. Both right and left lateral slip
of 5 to 10cm observed on the edge of the road. In this stretch at one place the black- topped road
surface has buckled up to develop as an antiform with height at the axial region of 25-30cm. Almost
parallel to the road a 90 cm to 1.5m wide surface fracture trending N55W continue for about 50m
and join with one of the fracture that cut across the road. In this stretch a healthy long tree with its
roots was found neatly split vertically into two parts and shifted horizontally (Photo 14). While the
left hand portion of the tree remained almost insitu the right hand part was displaced about 1.20m
diagonally towards north, thus showing left-lateral shear. The horizontal component of slip along the
fault plane is about 85cm. Close to the intersection of this fault and the fractures cutting the road a
newly formed small mud volcano with a distinct crater was seen. Through the pulsating vent small
amount of odorless gas and wet clay with a film of black colored odorless substance were spouting at
regular interval. In two nearby sites minor quantity of gas was continuously escaping from pool of
water.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Effect of Tsunami in Andaman Islands

The tsunami or the sea waves generated by the main Sumatra Earthquake of 26th December
2004 was very profound in the low-lying coastal regions of Andaman & Nicobar group of Islands.
The sea that rose as much as 2.5 m above the high tide line entered inhabited area with great
velocity. The waves flattened a number of dwelling and constructions, breached the shore protection
walls, certain sections of the low level roads, impaired some bridge and harbor structures and
inundated vast stretches of shore land (Photos 15,16,17 & 18). Influence of the waves was greatly
accentuated due to run-up and ingress of the seawater (Photo 19) into the low lying cultivated fields
and human settlements through the various creeks. Many such areas are still inundated under the
saline water and there is fear of the soil becoming unfit for cultivation in future. The tsunamis also
flooded many of the dug wells thereby contaminating the fresh water sources.
A number of residents who witnessed the catastrophe were interviewed to reconstruct the
scenario. The general observation was that after about 15 to 20 minutes of the main shock the first
influx of sea waves approached the shores. The water level rose to above the high tide level. After
some time the second influx came in which the water level increased still further and then receded.
The recession in water level was so much that the seabed became visible for quite a distance. The
residents never witnessed such phenomena earlier. The velocity of waves in the two influxes was
slightly above normal. At around 8.30 AM the third influx came to the shore with such a velocity
that everybody was caught unaware. The water level rose to the maximum, in some cases to over 2.5
m above the high tide level.
The velocity of the ingushing water was such that even those who were running away from
the water front, were soon overtaken. After the 26 December, 2004, tsunami, the sea has remained at
a higher level then normal and the difference between the high tide and low tide levels seems to have
reduced. Now, during the high tide, some areas are still getting flooded and on an average the high
tide level is about 1m higher than the pre-earthquake situation. This was never the situation before
the tsunamis struck. However, it is observed that with the passage of time sea level is slowly tending
to recede.
AFTERSHOCK MONITORING
An intense aftershock activity has been recorded following the Great Sumatra- Andaman
earthquake (Figure 1). The IMD seismic observatories have recorded a total of 124 aftershocks in
excess of M 5.0 from 26th December 2004, to 11th January 2005. The largest aftershock was of M
7.0 that occurred on 26.12.2004, 120 km west of Nicobar Island. 11 aftershocks are of magnitude
6.0 while the remaining 112 events are in the magnitude range 5.0- 6.0. USGS has recorded 223
aftershocks up to 09.01.05 of magnitude 4.4. While 52 events are of magnitude 5.0 remaining are
above 5.0. Aftershock sequence from the IMD list gives a b-value of 1.08 while those from the
USGS catalogue gives 1.20. Predicted Mmax is 7.1 from both the catalogue, which has already
struck on 26th itself. p-value calculated from IMD list is 0.97 while that from USGS 1.27 suggesting
that aftershocks of magnitude 5.0 will possibly decay within 40 days.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
10
(a)
(b)
Log (Cumm. N) = -1.0809M+ 7.643
b = 1.08
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
4
IMD
Magnitude in M
Log (Cumm. N) = -1.2021M+ 8.5405

b=1.2021
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
4
6
Magnitude in M
8
USGS
Figure 1. (a) Aftershock seismicity map up to 09.01.05 as recorded by USGS. (b) Frequencymagnitude plot of aftershocks as recorded by IMD (top) and USGS (bottom)
The Geological Survey of India has dispatched 5 short period digital seismometers to
monitor the aftershocks. The first station was operational in the Naval Base Defense Colony,
Vijaybagh, Port Blair from 6.1.2004. The second station was established in Car Nicobar Air Force
Base on 8.1.2005. A third station was put in Little Andaman (Hut Bay) on 10.1.2005. Two more
stations are planned to be deployed in Rangat and Diglipur, thus covering a length of 470 km
between the northern parts of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is proposed to run the seismic
network for about a month.
GPS STUDIES
GSI has planned to install several GPS and operate in campaign mode in different islands
from Diglipur in North Andaman to Car Nicobar in the south covering a distance of about 470 km.
The GPS stations are proposed to be re-occupied 2-3 times annually. The 1st station has been
installed over rock exposure near GSI drilling campsite Beadonabad on 10.01.05. Another station
will be at Chidyatapu Forest Rest House. Diglipur in North Andaman and Baratang islands will be
occupied soon. Installation at other sites will depend on the availability of logistics for going to
places like Little Andaman and Car Nicobar.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
11
CONCLUSIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The Sumatra Earthquake of 26 December 2004 is the largest recorded seismic event
along the Andaman-Sunda subduction zone. The giant tsunamis generated by this
offshore fault rupture have been unprecedented in the Indian Ocean and therefore call
for inclusion of tsunami hazard in the disaster management plans of the country.
To locate earthquakes precisely from this highly seismic belt the 800 Km long
Andaman- Nicobar Islands have to be covered by adequate seismograph stations.
The entire belt of Andaman & Nicobar group of Islands is an area of intense seismic
activity and therefore has been included in the highest hazard class V of the Seismic
Zoning Map of India. It is, therefore, of great importance that for any construction
activity the BIS code on Earthquake Resistant Designs should be strictly followed. This
applies more to any lifeline and structures of importance like schools, hospitals, water
retention elevated structures and defense installations etc.
The recent earthquake has demonstrated in very clear terms that stilted structures
without provision of any shear resistant walls behave very poorly under lateral seismic
loading of even lower seismic Intensity of VII of MSK-64 scale. The results are similar
to what was observed in case of Ahmedabad and Surat cities during the Kutch
earthquake of 26 January 2001. It is, therefore, essential that design of RCC structures
particularly G+2 and taller buildings, should be examined by competent structural
engineer so that earthquake resistant elements are properly incorporated.
Prima facie, quality of RCC in case of the three collapsed structures in and around Port
Blair was found to be inferior. It is therefore necessary to carry out proper geotechnical
tests to determine the strength and durability of the concrete made out of locally
available construction material.
Future development plans and activities in the tsunami run-up zones in coastal tracts,
and in areas delineated by the high tide line and maximum possible tsunami run-up
elevation needs to be regulated. Existing structures and human settlements are to be
relocated accordingly (ports, jetties, harbors, research stations, data collection centers
etc. excluded). Regulatory measures and practices being followed in other countries
which are frequently visited by tsunami, may be consulted for this purpose and codal
provisions made.
As earthquakes travel faster, the tsunami waves arrive later than the earthquake P-waves.
The time lag depends on distance of the source area. So in islands and coastal areas of
India, all felt earthquakes may be considered as natural tsunami alert signals and local
residents as well as the administration should respond accordingly. As all earthquakes do
not generate tsunami this response may be considered as a watch alert only and not a
forecast or warning.
Acknowledgements
Support provided by the Andaman and Nicobar Administration during the investigation
particularly by Mr Rishikesh and Mr Bhadra of the Department of Science & Technology, A & N
Administration is gratefully acknowledged. Officers of Geodata and Database Division and
Shri Anshuman Acharyya, Geologist, Monitoring Division, Kolkata are some among others without
whose active support this document could not been released just in 3 days.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
12
Photo 1: GSI team led by the Director General at Port Blair

investigating the tsunami effects
Photo 2: Shearing of load bearing base columns leading to caving in

of G+2 storied RCC structure, Naya Gaon, Port Blair
Photo 3: Sheared base column and caved in stilt, Naya Gaon, Port
Blair
Photo 4: Complete crushing of ground floor due to failure of base

column with first floor collapsing to ground level, Bamboo Flat
REPORT ON SUMATRA- ANDAMAN EARTHQUAKE & TSUNAMI, 26 DEC 04
13
Photo 5: Complete caving in of stilt and heavy damage of first floor

(now at ground floor level). A car parked in the stilt got completely
crushed; newly constructed building, Kanyapuram
Photo 6: Failure of walls and roof of Malabar Society godown,

Ograbraj
Photo 8: Fine cracks and

chipping off plaster at the
block joints of Dhanikhari
concrete dam
Photo 7: Inundation of the structure in photo 6 and surrounding

buildings by the tsunami
___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________
14
Photo 9: Buckling by 8cm of concrete apron at the interface of

concrete spill way and earth section on the crest portion, Chouldari
dam
Photo 11: Mud volcano that erupted after the 26 December 2004
earthquake in Jarwa Creek, Baratang. The recent mudflow has a
distinct contact with an older flow
Photo 10: a ground fissure cutting across the road through

Anganbari community center, Collinpur.
Photo 12: An active crater within the recent mud volcano
___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________
15
Photo 14: A tree trunk

with its roots separated
into two halves along a
wide open (90cm) crack.
The right side part of the
trunk shows left lateral
shear
Photo 13: Fissure developed on the road at Baratang
Photo 15: Structure flattened by the tsunami in Wandoor
Photo 16: Breach in a section of the shore protection wall at Nazar,

Port Blair
___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________
16
Photo 17: Washing away of a bridge by the Tsunami at Corbyn,s

Cove, Port Blair
Photo 18: Tsunami water mark (brown- green interface) about 2m

above the high tide level at Chidiyatapu
Photo 19: Inundation of paddy field through the backwaters in Ograbraj
___________________________________________________ ___________________________________________
17
MACROSEISMIC SURVEY IN ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLAND IN THE

AFTERMATH OF THE GREAT EARTHQUAKE OF 26TH DECEMBER 2004
A K Ghosh Roy, S Bardhan, P Jana and S R Basir

Earthquake Geology Division, GSI, Eastern Region,
DK-6, Sector-II, Salt Lake, Kolkata-700091
INTRODUCTION
At 0629 hrs (IST), December 26, 2004, a very strong shallow focus undersea earthquake
occurred off the West Coast of Sumatra Island. This had rocked a vast area around its epicenter
including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the eastern and southeastern coast of the Indian
mainland. Moreover, it had generated a global tsunami, which swept away the Nicobar and Little
Andaman coasts along with the southern Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Kerala coasts of India.
Besides India, the other countries affected include Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and
Myanmar.
Macroseismic survey taken up in Andaman-Nicobar Islands for assigning intensity of the
quake is documented in this work. The earthquake was also felt in different parts of Orissa, West
Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Mild tremor lasting for about 30-45 seconds were felt
around 06:30 hrs in Puri, Cuttack, Balasore, Jagatsinghpur, Ganjam, Jajpur, Talcher, Kendrapara and
Bhadrak areas of coastal Orissa. No damage to property and casualty was reported. People of some
localities of southern West Bengal also felt tremors inside the houses and few reports of
vibration/shifting of furniture or falling of utensils from racks were also received. At Gaighata
(North 24 Parganas district) about 15 mud houses were damaged. Seiches have been reported from
number of places in South Bengal, viz. in the districts of Kolkata, North/South 24 Parganas, Nadia,
Howrah, Hooghly, Bardhaman and even Birbhum, Purulia and Bankura. Waves and ripples were
seen in confined water bodies, and in many cases water with fish was thrown out on land. Rise in
water level up to 1.20m in ponds with displacement of weeds has been reported. The reports indicate
intensity III-IV in affected areas of Orissa and West Bengal.
The earthquake was felt around 6.30 AM in parts of Visakhapatnam urban area, mostly by
people residing in the top floor of multistoried buildings. Rattling of utensils and household articles
and oscillation of hanging objects was reported. Sudden ground water sprouts was reported from
Ranga Reddy, Nalgonda and Nizamabad districts of Andhra Pradesh along with rise in ground water
level in some of the open wells. Tremor was felt in Chennai and surrounding areas with rattling of
window, table, chair, utensil and other light objects. Seiches observed in number of water tanks in
coastal tracks between Cuddalore and Nagapattinam. A tank opposite to temple at Veerampattinam
near Pondicherry showed oscillatory rise of water up to 60cm. An intensity of III- IV on MSK scale
may be assigned for the coastal mainland.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
19
EARTHQUAKES IN THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLAND

The islands of Andaman and Nicobar Group fall in zone V in seismic zoning map of India
making them vulnerable to major/great earthquakes with MM intensity greater than IX. Following is
a list of earthquake events of magnitude more than 6 (source: http://www.asc-india.org/) that
occurred in and around the island arc
Sl. Date & Time
Location
Magnitude Remarks
No.
1.
31 st December 1881
NNW of Andaman
islands, India.
2.
16 th November 1925
16:17:06.0 UTC
12.00 N, 94.00 E, SW
of Barren Island, India.
Ms 7.2
No recording stations were

present at that time. Tsunami
was recorded at various points
on the coast of India with
maximum run-up of 1.2 m on
the
Coromondal
coasts.
Damage occurred to masonry
buildings at Port Blair.
-
3.
28 th June 1925
13:41:35.0 UTC
10.20 N, 92.80 E
SE of Little Andaman
Island, India.
4.
1 st August 1029
05:01:48.0 UTC
12.00 N, 95.50 E
Andaman Sea, ESE of
Barren Island, India.
Ms 6.5
5.
9 th December 1929
06:49:54.0 UTC
04.50 N, 94.50 E
SSE of Great Nicobar
Island, India.
Ms 6.7
19 th March 1936
10.50 N, 92.50 E
Ms 6.5
09:04:05.0 UTC
Little Andaman Island,

India
7.
14 th September 1939
09:00:58.0 UTC
11.50 N, 95.00 E
Andaman Sea, SE of
Barren Island, India.
Ms 6.0
8.
26 th June 1941
West
of
Middle
Andaman Island, India.
Mw 7.7
Largest earthquake in this

region recorded instrumentally.
It caused damages in Andaman
Islands, destroying many major
buildings at Port Blair. The
quake had spawned a tsunami in
the Bay of Bengal recorded
along the Coromondal coast.
6.
Mb 7.2
______________________________________________________________________________________________
20
9.
8 th August 1945
09:53:40.0 UTC
11.00 N, 92.50 E
North
of
Little
Andaman
Island,
India.
Ms 6.7
10.
23 rd January 1949
06:31:13.0 UTC
09.50N, 94.50E
Andaman Sea, east of
Car Nicobar Island,
India.
Ms 7.2
11.
17 th May 1955
07:00 N, 94:00 E
Mw 7.0
14:49:49 UTC
Off the east coast of

Great Nicobar Island,
India.
Ms 7.2
18 th June 1957
14.00 N, 96.00 E
Ms 6.5
14:48:17.0 UTC
Andaman Sea, ENE of

Narcondam
Island,
India.
13.
14 th February 1967
01:36:04 UTC
13.70 N, 96.50 E
Andaman Sea, west of
Mergui Archipelago.
6.8
14.
20 th January 1982
04:25:11 UTC
06.95 N, 94.00 E
8.5 km east of
Bananga,
Great
Nicobar Island, India.
Mw 6.2
Some
injuries
and
considerable
damage
occurred in the Nicobar
Islands due to both these
earthquakes.
15.
20 th January 1982
07:09:17 UTC
07.12 N, 93.94 E
8 km SE of Laful,
Great Nicobar Island,
India.
Mw 6.1
16.
14 th September 2002
07:09:17 UTC
13.087 N, 93.94 E
23.6km
SSE
of
Diglipur,
North
Andaman.
Mw 6.5
12.
This earthquake caused

damage
on
North
Amdaman and was felt as
far south as Port Blair. Sea
surges were reported on a
few islands of North
Andamans eastern and
northern coasts.
MACROSEISMIC SURVEY
Macroseismic survey of 26th December 2004 earthquake off the coast of Sumatra was
initiated on 7th of January 2005. In the first phase of work, during 7th January to 7th February 2005
different islands of the Andaman Group was covered. During the second phase of work from 19th
march to 1st April 2005 the Campbell Bay Region of Great Nicobar and the Car Nicobar Island was
studied.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
21
The macroseismic survey was carried out by extensive field survey by making ground
observations as we ll as gathering information from affected local people and officials. Besides,
information was also collected from number of relief camps at Port Blair where affected people from
southern islands were given shelter. The survey was carried out following the Medvedev-SponheuerKarnic (MSK)-64 guidelines along with necessary modifications following EMS-98 (Grunthal,
1998) Accordingly, data on effects of the earthquake on humans, objects and nature and damage to
buildings were collected through interview of the local people. Besides, the features developed
during the earthquake on ground were also studied.
The general effects of the earthquake on Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands include
strong ground shaking, shifting of furnitures, sand with water sprouting in low lying areas,
development of cracks on metalled road and varying degrees of damage in buildings. As far as, the
effects on the mainland are concerned, mild ground shaking and widespread development of seiches
have been reported from the coastal tracts of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
In the following paragraphs the damage pattern and human perceptions are described island wise
from the north.
NORTH ANDAMAN
The earthquake intensity was severely felt in this island and the island got cut off from the
Port Blair through road as the Austeen Bridge, connecting Middle Andaman and the North Andaman
Islands, along the Andaman Trunk Road got badly damaged by the earthquake. Population of this
island is centered around Diglipur and its adjoining areas and along ATR. Macroseismic survey in
North Andaman revealed that the earthquake tremor was felt by most people, even in moving
vehicles, with difficulty in standing, some felt blocking of ears and blurring of vision during the
quake, ground fissures profuse with sand venting due to liquefaction of subsurface materials,
standing objects shifted and splashing out of water took place in standing water bodies, many
building of vulnerability Type B and C suffered Grade-2 damages and Type A structures suffered
Grade 3-4 damages. Area wise damage survey (Plate-1) report is given below:
Nabagram: This village is situated in a hilly region of the island southwest of Diglipur; most people
felt the tremor and ran outdoor; standing was difficult; few reported abnormal sound prior to the
main quake; ground shaken horizontally, mostly in E-W direction; standing vehicle like scooters fell;
water splashed out from ponds; objects fell from racks; long ground fissures developed in plane areas
as well as, in the hills; black colored sand with water injected through the fissures during the quake;
Panchayet Bhavan (RC building) developed cracks and portion of concrete of the northern wall fell
(Grade 3 damage) (Fig-1).
Kishorinagar: This locality is situated in the foothill region west of Diglipur; most people felt the
tremor and ran outdoor; standing difficult; ground shaken horizontally; water splashing reported at
ponds; ground fissures developed in roughly N80o E direction traced for nearly 500m; N-S trending
culvert damaged; few wood framed earthen houses fallen; sand and water mixture sprouted through
the fissures during the quake.
Diglipur: This town is situated partly over hills and partly over the plains of the adjoining valley;
most people felt the tremor with accompanying abnormal sound; standing objects like scooters got
shifted; moving vehicles had to be stopped during the quake to avoid accident; some experienced
ear-blocking and vision got blurred; ground fissures profuse in the plain areas mainly near the
streams; huge subsurface sandy materials ejected through the ground fissures (Fig -2); RC framed
______________________________________________________________________________________________
22
PLATE-1
______________________________________________________________________________________________
23
buildings developed cracks in shear walls; one RCC building in Diglipur bazaar, constructed over
slope, developed cracks in foundation and got detached from the E-W trending APWD Road
supporting wall (Fig -3) and is hanging precariously towards the nallah.
Aerial Bay: This is situated on the coast adjacent to hills around 10 km east of Diglipur; most people
felt the tremor; tremor felt within moving vehicles; ground shaken horizontally in roughly E-W
direction; ground fissures with liquefied sand sprout reported from the adjoining plain lands; in
Keralapuram near Aerial Bay the east and west walls of a RC framed single storied house got
collapsed (Fig -4); after the earthquake the coast line has been receded substantially (Fig -5). The
PWD Guest House situated over a hillock suffered very little damage. E-W trending ground cracks
observed on metal road at several places between Diglipur and Aerial Bay. The Helipad at Diglipur
developed ground cracks and the boundary walls suffered Grade 1 damage.
Swarajnagar: This area is around 15 km N-E of Diglipur on a high ground; most people felt the
tremor with accompanying abnormal sound; few tens of mm wide road cracks observed; large
ground fissures sprouted liquefied sands; utensils fell from shelf; water splashed out from ponds;
RCC buildings developed hairline cracks in shear walls and along lintel.
Jaltikri: This is the northernmost locality visited in this Island and small villages are scattered
within the jungle. Katcha houses remained unaffected here; huge old mud volcano has erupted fresh
mud immediately after the earthquake, as reported by the local people; mud eruptions were found to
be continuing during the visit on 21st January 2005(Fig -6); large ground fissures (more than a meter
wide) has been observed in the vicinity of mud volcano site (Fig -7).
Kalipur: This is a coastal village SE of Diglipur; most people felt the tremor; standing was difficult;
people reported E-W horizontal shaking; water splashed in standing water bodies; ground cracks in
low lying plains near water bodies; RC building of type C suffered Grade 1-2 damage; coast line
shifted towards sea after the earthquake.
Parangara: Most people felt the tremor; everybody ran outside; 50-60 cm wide ground fissure
continued for a km from valley region to the hills; liquefaction profuse; buildings suffered Grade 1-2
damage.
Paschim Sagar: This is a coastal village situated in the western coast of the island; high panic and
standing was difficult; ground shaken horizontally; large ground fissures sprouting sands; several
Katcha houses collapsed (no RC building was present over there, as reported); waves on soft ground
reported and also large fissures on hill slope.
Krishnapuri: This village is situated on plane land in the NE of Diglipur; human experience is
similar to the other areas; ground fissures common with step like ground subsidence (Fig -8); sand
and water sprouted along fissures; Katcha houses collapsed due to lateral spreading.
Ramnagar: Most people felt the tremor; standing was difficult; people reported E-W horizontal
shaking; seiches in standing water; ground cracks in low lying plains near water bodies with
liquefied sand sprout at places; RC building developed cracks in walls.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
24
Austeen Bridge (Chengappa Bridge): The 268 m long newly constructed bridge (which connects
Middle and North Andaman Islands) at Austeen strait has been damaged. The superstructure has
moved on the substructure by a substantial amount causing dislocation of middle three spans from
the bearing (Fig -9).
Kalpong Dam: Rare horizontal cracks were developed at crest of this rock fill dam. Also, the
turbines of Kalpong Hydro-electric power plant were reported to be damaged.
Based on the macroseismic survey, a general Intensity of VII has been assigned for this area
with high intensity VIII at some localities in the western part (Table -1). It is, however, observed that
many of the RC buildings got badly damaged due to poor design and inferior quality of the
construction materials used.
Table 1
AREA
INTENSITY
JAL TIKRI, KISHORINAGAR, PASHCHIM SAGAR VIII
AND KRISHNAPURI
NABAGRAM, DIGLIPUR, AERIAL BAY,
SWARAJNAGAR, KALIPUR, PARANGARA AND
RAMNAGAR
VII
______________________________________________________________________________________________
25
Figure 1: Nabagram Panchayet Bhavan

showing falling of concrete. North
Andaman
Figure 3: Detachment of building from

supporting wall, APWD Road, North
Andaman
Figure 2: Sandsprout along enechelon

ground fissures in Diglipur, North
Andaman
Figure 4: Collapse of walls of a single

storied RC house in Keralapuram, North
Andaman
Figure 5: Retreat of shoreline in Aerial Bay, North

Andaman
______________________________________________________________________________________________
26
Figure 6: Recent mud eruption showing

radial cracks at Jal Tikri, North
Andaman
Figure 7: Large ground crack near mud volcano

site at Jal Tikri, North Andaman
Figure 9: Damage in Austeen Bridge connecting

North and Middle Andaman
Figure 8: Step like ground subsidence in

Krishnapuri, North Andaman
______________________________________________________________________________________________
27
MIDDLE ANDAMAN
In this island the habitation is mostly concentrated at pockets in southern, southeastern,
eastern and northern part; a large portion of the island is within Jarwa territory where movements are
restricted. Macroseismic survey in Middle Andaman revealed that the earthquake tremor was felt by
most people, even in moving vehicles, with difficulty in standing, ground fissures profuse with sand
venting due to liquefaction of subsurface materials, standing objects shifted and seiches produced in
standing water, many building of vulnerability Type B and C suffered Grade-1-3 damages and Type
A structures suffered Grade 3-4 damages. At a few instances buildings of Type C structure has
shown Grade 5 damage mostly due to selection of unfavorable ground condition and poor
construction. The area wise (Plate-2) earthquake damage survey report is given below:
Mayabunder: The Mayabunder locality is situated along a slender (100-150 m wide) ridge crest in
the northern part of the island; most people have felt the tremor; standing was difficult; horizontal
shaking; objects fallen from shelf and table; ground cracks minor (cracks trending N13o E observed
on approached road to the jetty); pounding damage on main jetty observed (Fig -10); in the approach
jetty shear failure of short piles (Fig -11) have been observed; ground cracks developed on the floor
of the Helipad (Fig -12); minor cracks in foundation and shear walls of RC framed buildings
observed (Fig -13).
Karmatang: This locality is spread over partly on hillocks and adjoining coastal plains; most people
have felt the tremor; standing was difficult; few experienced giddiness during shaking; ground
cracks not found; minor horizontal and vertical cracks developed in RC buildings.
Tugapur: This area is situated over undulating topography; most people have felt the tremor;
standing was difficult; utensils fell from shelf; stationary objects like refrigerator shifted; ground
cracks not found near the Primary Health Centre but at Tugapur 7 a number of sinuous ground cracks
trending N45o E was found to have developed in cultivated land with voluminous sand sprouting (Fig
-14); minor cracks in RC buildings.
Billiground: This locality is mostly over flat ground situated either over valley flats or
undulating highlands near the hilly terrain; human response is similar to the above areas;
splashing of water in standing water bodies reported; utensils fell from shelf; long slender
trees swung; ground subsidence reported; building subsided due to liquefaction underneath;
shear wall of RC building collapsed.
Harinagar: Situated over flat lying topography; most people have felt the tremor; standing was
difficult; utensils fell from shelf; conjugate ground fissures developed on flat areas with one trending
N70 oE and the other N20o W (Fig -15); liquefied sand sprouted through the former fissures;
maximum width of the fissures measured around 20cm; minor cracks on the side walls of RC
buildings.
Duke Nagar: The topography of the area is flat; most people felt the shock; other than the horizontal
shaking a circular motion in ground was also reported by some people; ground fissures developed
with trend N20o W; sand sprouting through the fissures; local land subsidence observed due to
liquefaction; tree trunk got split by ground crack trending N35o E (Fig 16); building damage not
reported.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
28
PLATE-2
______________________________________________________________________________________________
29
Kamalapur: It is situated over an undulating topography with hilly areas on the eastern part; most
people felt the shock; ground shaken horizontally with a few spurts of vertical movements; utensils
fell from shelf; RC framed tin roofed two storied primary school building developed both horizontal
and vertical cracks in shear walls.
Dharampur: This village is on a flat valley area; most people felt the shock; it was difficult to stand;
stationary objects shifted during shaking; utensils fell from shelf; several ground fissures observed
and sand venting through fissures common (Fig -17); pillars of wooden houses shifted.
Pokkadera: This locality is built on tidal flat surrounded by swamps; most people felt the shock;
seiches reported; almirah tumbled during shaking; utensils fell from shelf (Photo-18); ground
fissures noticed, affected metalled roads; two storied RCC building developed foundation cracks
trending N20o E (Fig -19), columns separated from shear walls with a tilt towards west.
Rampur: The area is near the coast surrounded by coastal swamps and is flat; most people felt the
shock; standing difficult; few reported about giddiness; ground cracks developed with ejection of
water through it; two storied RC building collapsed due to column failure which were not bounded
with shear walls (Fig -20).
Danapur: The area is having flat to undulating topography; most people felt the shock; standing
difficult; few reported giddiness; auto rickshaw standing on level ground swayed during the quake;
standing scooter fell; ground cracks developed; RC buildings developed foundation cracks.
Chainpur: This locality is at higher elevation with undulating topography; similar effects like above
reported by the people; animals behaved abnormally prior to and during the quake; ground fissures
conspicuous near nallahs and ground subsidence observed at places; minor cracks in walls of RC two
storied buildings.
Hanspuri: This is near to a swampy land with undulatory high topography to the east; most people
felt the shock; standing difficult; apart from horizontal motions in ground a circular motion was also
experienced by the people; both N-S and E-W trending ground fissures developed with as long as
50m in length, individually with nearly 20cm width; perennial well got dried up after the quake; both
katcha and RC buildings developed minor cracks in foundation and walls.
Padmanavapuram: This is on the base of a hill slope near the coast; most people felt the shock;
standing difficult; horizontal movement in roughly E-W direction; stationary objects like TV,
Almirah fell; seiches reported in ponds; minor cracks in RC framed houses; cracks developed in
passenger waiting shade near Padmanavapuram primary school.
Rangat: This township is situated over both undulating topography and flat valley areas and
adjoining hill slopes; most people experienced the tremor; difficult to stand; false wooden partition
in APWD Guest House fell alongwith the utensils from shelf; splashing of water observed in ponds;
extensive ground cracks developed on the banks of Rangat river (Fig -21), as well as, near Sitapur
village with stepwise subsidence towards the river bed with evidences of liquefaction; one RC
building near Hotel Avis totally collapsed (due to constructional defects) (Fig -22); vertical cracks
observed in the wall of APWD (RC framed two storie d) Annexe building; minor shear cracks at
passenger hall of the jetty and pounding damage at jetty floor (Fig -23).
______________________________________________________________________________________________
30
Parnashala: The area is situated over a higher undulating topography; most people experienced the
tremor; difficult to stand; ground shaken in E-W direction; objects fell from shelf; stationary truck
moved during the quake; ground fissures observed; water level increased in Rangat river after the
quake.
Kaushalyanagar: It is situated over an undulating topography surrounded by high hills in its north;
most people felt the tremor; difficulty in standing; standing scooter fell; utensils fell from racks;
ground fissures developed near water bodies and swampy land; water level in nallahs increased.
Atter Jig: This is in an intermountain valley area; most people felt the shock; standing was difficult;
horizontal N-S trending ground shaking reported; tremor felt in moving vehicle; ground fissures near
nallahs alongwith land subsidence affecting houses (in Atter Jig no 11 Police Chowki); almirah fell
during shaking; landslides reported in nearby hill; walls of katcha houses damaged.
Jarwa Territory area: A great part of Middle Andaman, along the western margin remains
inaccessible due to restrictions imposed by Andaman Administration. The tribal welfare officer,
Kadamtala informed that large ground fissures were observed at places on the hills. It has also been
reported that the Jarwas got panicked and shifted towards the ATR (Andaman trunk Road); no
casualty was reported. Islands of the western territory viz. Flat island, have been reported to be
uplifted due to the earthquake.
Hence, a general Intensity of VII has been assigned for this area with high intensity VIII at
some localities in the western part (Table -2).
Table-2
AREA
DUKE NAGAR, KAUSHALYANAGAR, KADAMTALA
AND HANSPURI
INTENSITY
VIII
MAYABUNDER, KARMATANG, TUGAPUR,

BILLIGROUND, HARINAGAR, KAMALAPUR,
DHRAMPUR, POKKADERA, RAMPUR, DANAPUR,
CHAINPUR, PADMANAVAPURAM, RANGAT,
PARNASHALA AND ATTER JIG.
VII
Figure 10: Pounding damage near

the contact of the main and
approach jetty in Mayabander,
Middle Andaman
Figure 11: Structural failure of

short piles below the approach
jetty at Mayabander, Middle
Andaman
______________________________________________________________________________________________
31
Figure 12: Ground fissure on the floor of

Mayabander helipad and sprouting of
liquefied sand
Figure 14: Liquefied sand ejected through

sinuous ground fissures at Tugapur 7
Middle Andaman
Figure 13: Cracks in shear wall of a RCC

building in Mayabander jetty, Middle
Andaman
Figure 15: Sinuous ground fissure trending

N20E at Harinagar Middle Andaman
Figure 16: Ground fissure split tree trunk at

Duke Nagar, Middle Andaman
Figure 17: Linear liquefied vents at

Dhrampur, Middle Andaman
______________________________________________________________________________________________
32
Figure 18: Utensils fell from shelf at

Pokkadera Middle Andaman
Figure 19: Foundation crack trending N20E

at Pokkadera Middle Andaman
Figure 20: First floor resting on ground due

to failure of ground floor load bearing
columns at Rampur Middle Andaman
Figure 21: Ground fissure with subsidence
towards river at Rangat Middle Andaman
Figure 22: Total collapse of RCC building

at Rangat Middle Andaman
Figure 23: Pounding damage of jetty floor

at Rangat Middle Andaman
______________________________________________________________________________________________
33
SOUTH ANDAMAN
In South Andaman island different grades of damage in different parts were observed. Most of the
population is concentrated in this island though an appreciable portion in north and northeastern part
falls under Jarwa Territory where movements are restricted. Locality wise damage (Plate-3) survey
report is detailed below:
Chidiyatapu: This is the southernmost locality of South Andaman Island and situated over
undulatory topography; most people felt the shock; standing difficult; one single story masonry
restaurant of Type B structure suffered Grade-1 damage.
Beadonabad-Burmanalla sector: These are coastal villages over a, more or less, undulatory
topography; most people felt the shock and experienced a whining sound; it was difficult to stand;
ground shook horizontally; hanging objects swayed heavily; utensils fell from racks; one
nonperrenial spring, near GSI drilling camp, started to pour out water immediately after the
earthquake; RC farmed Type C buildings developed Grade 1-2 damages.
Bhatu Basti-Garacharma sector: The topography of these areas are undulatory and elevated; most
people felt the shock; mostly sidewise shaking experienced with spurts of vertical motions in the
waning phase of the quake; giddiness felt by few people; articles fell from shelf; standing objects
moved; water level at dug wells increased and few streams got water charged after the shaking;
building damage not reported.
Sippighat: It is situated mostly over reclaimed tidal flat and along slopes of the adjoining hills; most
people felt the shock; standing was difficult; seiches in standing water reported; one Type A building
suffered Grade 5 damage; The eastern and western walls of the second floor verandah of one Type C
RCC building (Bharat Sevashram Sangha) fell (Grade 3 damage)(Fig -24). Near Sippighat coffee
Plantation/Ayappa Swamy temple area, over a ridge crest, Type B buildings show Grade 3-4
damages with collapse of three side walls alongwith cracks in other walls and in foundation (Fig 25); nearby another masonary building developed cracks and one of the verandah wall collapsed (Fig
-26); contact between two retaining walls of the temple area got detached from each other due to
shaking (Fig -27).
Nayashahar: This locality is over undulatory high ground; most people felt the shock; sidewise
movements felt; seiches reported; plasters fell from walls of a temple.
Calicut-Bimlitan area: Undulatory high ground; most people felt the shock; standing was difficult;
materials fell from shelf; splashing of water observed in standing water bodies; Type A and B
buildings suffered Grade1-2 damages.
Austinabad: Area undulatory by the side of hill slopes; most people felt the shock; standing was
difficult; single storied RC building of Type C suffered Grade 2 damage.
Junglighat-Dollyganj-School Line sector: Area over undulatory high ground; most people felt the
shock and panic was high; standing was very difficult; sidewise E-W movement; few felt giddiness;
standing objects like Almirah fell; splashing of water in both standing water and in narrow nallah
(near school Line area) reported; ground fissures developed along the Kamraj road (between Air Port
and Secretariat); Type B-C buildings suffered Grade 2-3 damage.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
34
PLATE-3
______________________________________________________________________________________________
35
Aberdeen Bazaar-Marina Park-Cellular Jail: The area is mostly situated on undulatory high
topography; most people felt the tremor and the panic was high; standing was difficult; minor cracks
developed in the shear wall of Dhanalakshmi Hotel; gaping joints developed along the contact of the
side walls and foundation of the two storied RCC building (Dhanalakshmi Hotel); miners fell in
Jama Masjid (Fig -28); N-S trending boundary wall of the Cellular jail in front of the office of the
Chief Register of birth and death was collapsed (Fig -29); plasters had fallen from the frontal arch of
the Ramkrishna Mission building in marina park (Fig -30); overall, in this area, the Type B-C
buildings had suffered Grade 2-3 damages.
Phoenix Bay-Chattam Jetty area: Pounding damage on the jetty floors; RC column supported
scooter stand in Phoenix Bay jetty collapsed (Fig -31); Port Management Board office building
(Type C structure) suffered Grade 3 damages (Fig -32).
Guptapara-Manjery-New Manglutan sector: These localities are mostly over a flat to slightly
undulatory unconsolidated valley filled sediments; most people felt the shock; standing difficult;
animal behavior abnormal prior to the quake; objects fell from shelf; ground fissures (as wide as 20
cm) conspicuous affecting even metalled road; RC floored wooden house in Guptapara developed
cracks in foundation; plasters fell from shear walls; in Manjery one masonry wall fell; overall, the
Type B/C structures had suffered Grade 2-3 damages.
Collinpur-Manpur sector: These villages are built over clayey soils within intermountain valleys;
human reactions are similar to the above; en echelon ground fissures trending N30o W and N70o W
sprouted liquefied sands in Collinpur area; liquefied sand was expelled through vent was also
observed (Fig -33); small landslide along road observed near Manpur (Fig -34); a nearly Km long
ground fissure had split one RC building of Mr Biplab Biswas; near Manpur bazaar several ground
fissures had expelled liquefied sand with ground subsidence; almost all the buildings of Type B/C
structure had developed Grade 2 or 3 damages; one single storied restaurant suffered Grade 5
damage in Collinpur .
Namunaghar-Shaitankhari-Kadakchang sector: These localities are mostly over undulating
topography surrounded by hilly regions. Most people felt the shock in the form of a E-W sidewise
movement; giddiness experienced by some; standing difficult; utensils fell from kitchen shelf;
seiches in standing water bodies; near Namunaghar one stone crusher machine spring fitted on pillars
(4 nos.) fell when the springs snapped during shaking. Ground fissures near nullah developed at
places; spring water showing increased volume of discharge near Shaitankhari Rubber Board office.
Namunagarh primary school, a two storied RC building with asbestos roof developed subvertical
cracks; plasters came off along shear cracks on the walls at places; in the Rubber Board office (single
storied RCC building) have developed vertical cracks in shear walls; contacts between foundation
and shear walls have also developed cracks; in Kadakchang area house of Mr. N. Hamsa have
developed cracks along the wall (both eastern and western) and floor; cracks have also come up in
the side staircase along its contact with shear wall; Type B/C structures are showing Grade 2-3
damages.
Bichadera-Miletilek-Jirkatang sector: This is a hilly region with colluvial cover; human responses
are similar to above; trees swayed during the shaking; also sound of bombardment heard before the
earthquake in Bichadera area; ground fissures along nallahs near Jirkatang Police Chowki and
Bichadera area; single storied Type B structures developed Grade 1-2 damages; two chimneys have
fallen in Govt. Quarters at Mile Tilek (single storied RC building with RC roof) (Fig -35); within
Jirkatang to Nilambur jetty ( within Jarwa territory) cracks along several stretches of Andaman
______________________________________________________________________________________________
36
Trunk Road (ATR) was also observed; at places culverts on small streams were found to be
damaged.
Shoal Bay-Wrightmyo area: Mostly flat area adjacent to creek; human responses are similar to the
above; humming sound before and during the earthquake in Wrightmyo area; utensils fell from shelf;
ground cracks trending N80o E affecting both ground (Fig -36) and metalled road; culvert over one
stream got badly damaged due to shaking near Shoal Bay 8; silty material alongwith profuse water
ejected through fissures near Shoal Bay 8; buildings of Type A/B suffered Grade 1-2 damages.
Ograjbraj: In this locality, a Godown of Malabar society with approximate dimension of 8m (w) x
15 m (l) x 6 m (h) got heavily damaged; the three walls and the roof suffered total collapse (Fig -37).
Kanyapuram: A two-storied RCC house with GI roof of Mr Hamid was totally collapsed; a car got
trapped under the subsided first floor (see figure in chapter I).
Nayagaon: A newly constructed three-storied RCC building suffered Grade 5 damage; the entire
building caved in due to failure of load bearing base columns (see figure in chapter I).
Bamboo Flat: A newly constructed house of Md Arif show Grade 5 damage (Fig -38); this two
storied structure with RCC columns, beams and roof caved in and the ground floor got completely
crushed and the first floor came to the ground.
Ferrarganj-Caddleganj-Tushnabad: The area is situated over a wide valley surrounded by hills;
most people felt the shock; standing was difficult during the quake; ground shook laterally in both
NE-SW and E-W direction; Almirah fell in Caddleganj area; materials fell from shelf; ground cracks
developed in Caddleganj (in primary school campus) and Tushnabad area sprouting liquefied sand
and water; Type C buildings suffered Grade 2-3 damages in Tushnabad and Type A structures
suffered Grade 3 damages in Caddleganj area
Tirur-Herbertabad area: The area is situated over an intermountain valley surrounded by hillocks.
Majority of people felt the shock; it was difficult to stand and walk steadily during the shaking;
lateral ground shaking was noticed by all the persons interviewed; materials fell from shelf; standing
bus swayed and moved; ground cracks (often arcuate) developed with sand sprouting; Type B and C
buildings suffered Grade 3 damage (Fig -39).
Water supply schemes of Port Blair

See Chapter 1
Based on the macroseismic survey enumerated above, a general intensity of VII has been assigned
for the South Andaman Island with a visibly higher intensity of VIII for the western part of the island
(Table3).
______________________________________________________________________________________________
37
Table-3
AREA
GUPTAPARA, SIPIGHAT (AYAPPA
SWAMY TEMPLE AREA),
WANDOOR, COLLINPUR AND
TIRUR-HERBERTABAD AREA.
INTENSITY
VIII
VII
CHIDYATAPU, BEADNABADBURMANALA, BHATU BASTIGARACHARMA, PORT BLAIR,
BICHDERA-MILE TILEKJIRKATANG, SHOAL BAY,
OGRAJBRAJ, BAMBOO FLAT,
CALICUT-BIMLITAN,
NAMUNAGARH-SHAITANKHARIKADAKCHANG AND TUSHNABAD.
Figure 24: Collapse of second floor side

wall Bharat Sevashram Temple Sipighat
South Andaman
Figure 25: Collapse of walls in poorly

constructed RC building Ayappa Swamy
Temple Sipighat South Andaman
Figure 26: Collapse of wall in masonry

building Ayappa Swamy Temple Sipighat
South Andaman
Figure 27: Detachment of walls Ayappa
Swamy Temple Sipighat
______________________________________________________________________________________________
38
Figure 28: Fall of minars at Jama Masjid,

Abeerdeen Bazaar, Port Blair
Figure 30: Damage of frontal arcade of RKM

building, Marine Drive, Port Blair
Figure 29: N-S trending boundary wall fell

due to shaking at Cellular Jail, Port Blair
Figure 31: Collapse of scooter shade at

Phoenix Bay, Port Blair
Figure 32: Damage in Port Management Figure 33:Sand blow structure developed by
Board building at Phoenix Bay
expulsion of liquefied sand through vent at
Collinpur. South Andaman
______________________________________________________________________________________________
39
Figure 34: Landslide triggered by earthquake

near Manpur, South Andaman
Figure 35: Concrete chimney fell at Education
Dept. Quarter, Mile Tilek, South Andaman
Figure 36: Ground fissure at Shoal Bay, South

Andaman
Figure 38: First floor came into ground floor

level on collapse of stilted columns, Md.Arifs
house, Bamboo Flat, South Andaman
Figure 37: Godown of Malabar Society

showing grade 5 damage at Ograbraj, South
Andaman
Figure 39: Damaged Police Chowki showing

shear cracks, Tirur, South Andaman
______________________________________________________________________________________________
40
BARATANG ISLAND
In Baratang island interview of the officer in charge (Mr Pujan Prasad) at Police Chowki,
revealed that most people had felt the tremor; panic was high; it was difficult to stand during the
severe shaking that lasted for nearly a minute; it was also reported that many felt upward movement
first followed by lateral shaking; standing objects vibrated; hanging objects swayed; seiches reported
in standing water bodies; metalled road cracked (Fig-40), subsided (Fig-41) and uparched (Fig -42)
at places between Nayadera and Jarwa Creek over a stretch of about 800 m; tree trunk got split and
separated (see figure in chapter I). Several new mud volcanoes appeared; land subsidence noticed
near new mud volcano sites along gaping ground fissures in both N25o E-S25o W and E-W directions.
Some poorly constructed houses collapsed. A general intensity of VII has been assigned for this
island.
The Forest Range office suffered Grade 2 3 damage in the form of shear cracks in walls and
gaping settlement cracks in the floor. A number of steel almirah and racks containing office records
and the hanging tube light fell down during the earthquake (GSI, 2005).
Mud Volcano
In the Baratang Island, two major and some minor mud volcanoes erupted during the
earthquake of 26 December 2004. In case of the one at Jarwa Creek (declared as a tourist spot by
Andaman administration) reported to have erupted with great violence soon after the major tremor. It
was also reported that a series of explosions that lasted for several minutes accompanying the
eruption could be heard from distances as far as 2-5 km from the site. Splashing of mud upto great
height and flames coming out of one vent were also reported (GSI, 2005). During the visit of the
Director general, GSI and his team of senior scientists in the second week of January 05, the total
volume of erupted mud at Jarwa Creek was found to be 1600 cubic m (as per the Forest authority this
figure is 2400cubic m). It is quite certain that such huge volume of mud was ejected out within a sort
period of time after the earthquake.
At one place (120 08 31.5; 920 47 28.4) gaping en echelon cracks having a depth of 1.5 m
and maximum width of 1.1 m have developed along N25 oE trend extending either side of the road.
On the northern side of the road a small mud volcano site with 6 small craters have been found. The
diameter of the craters varies from 4 cm to 21 cm. The largest crater emits grey colored liquid mud
that produces a mud-cracked surface on drying. Ground cracks (E-W and N25oE-S25o W) and
associated land subsidence was also noted near the mud volcano site. At Jarwa creek the mud
volcano that erupted as recently as on 18th February 2003, was reported to have renewed activity
since 26th December 2004. However, when visited on 17th January 2005 this activity have been found
to have subsided. Here the erupted mud is having a flattened bun shaped outline. About 3 to 4 craters
are found on the mud surface. Active craters still show ejection of grey viscous mud with or without
small rock particles (Fig -43). Gaseous matter was emanating from these craters at times with hissing
and blurring sound at irregular intervals. One dried up crater showed red colored dry mud (Fig 44). At Rajatgarh, a newly erupted mud volcano having similar features but with larger aerial extent
and having larger rock particles associate with the dried mud found at the day of the visit apart from
2 to 3 dried up craters no signs of activity was noticed. Several trees were found to be partially
submerged under the erupted mud.
During the second phase of field visit in 19th March-2nd April 2005, it was found that the
mud eruptions were continuing with development of more subsidiary craters in Jarwa Creek site and
the rate of expulsion had increased.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
41
HAVELOCK ISLAND
General panic prevailed during the quake, most people felt the shock; utensils fell from the shelf; EW shaking was reported; RCC buildings of Type B and C developed minor cracks (Grade 1
damage).
A lower intensity of VI has been assigned for this island.
Figure 41: Subsidence of

Figure 40: Cracks on metal metalled road, Baratang
road, Baratang Island
Island
Figure 43: Subsidiary crater ejecting viscous

mud at Jarwa Creek, Baratang Island
Figure 42: Up arched metal

road, Baratang Island
Figure 44: Dried up vent showing red

coloured mud ejecta at Jarwa Creek,
Baratang Island
______________________________________________________________________________________________
42
LITTLE ANDAMAN
This island (Plate-4) is situated about 250km south of Port Blair and has been severely affected by
the surges of tsunami masking the effects of earthquake damages along the coastal tract. The
interview of the local people and the field traverses during the first phase of survey revealed that the
earthquake intensity was quite high viz. VIII in updated MSK-64 scale. The reactions of the shaking
is summarized below:
PLATE-4
______________________________________________________________________________________________
43
Hut Bay: This is the entry point in the Little Andaman and most of the population of this island is
concentrated in this area. Most of the people reported that it was difficult to stand, one person was
reported to have fallen on the ground during the tremor; unusual sound accompanied the earthquake;
it was also felt within moving vehicles; metalled road was found to be cracked and up arched (Fig 45); second floor of a RCC building was collapsed due to failure of the columns of the first floor
showing Grade 4 damage (Fig -46), the collapsed roof was shifted further by the giant waves of the
tsunami later on); the columns of the Port Control Tower building was failed during shaking Grade
4 damage (Fig -47), later on the building was tilted on ground by the tsunami); other than these the
remnant foundations are also showing cracks in it.
16 km site: This information was collected at Car Nicobar by interview of a person present over here
during 26 th December 2004; he reported development of extensive ground cracks with sprouting of
liquefied sand; an earthen dam developed cracks (dimension not known) which had totally drained
out the stored water.
A general intensity of VIII has been assigned for the study area of this island.
Figure 45: Road crack and up arching

at Hut Bay, near 7km, Little Andaman
Figure 46: Grade 4 damage in RCC

building at Hut Bay, Little Andaman
Figure 47: Collapsed port

Control Board Tower near je tty,
Hut Bay, Little Andaman
______________________________________________________________________________________________
44
CAR NICOBAR
Most of the areas studied along the east coast are devastated by the tsunami that masked the
effects of earthquake to a great extent. In addition to the ground survey, eyewitness accounts of local
people had been given considerable importance.
It was reported by most people that during the earthquake (which lasted for about 3-4
minutes), standing was difficult, general panic was high and the ground was shaken horizontally. In
addition to that, stationary objects fell from rack and shelf, standing bus swayed at places, ground
fissures were developed and sand and water were sprouted through the fissures at many places.
Wooden buildings and RCC structures of Type B and C suffered grade 3 damage due to earthquake.
In some cases, it was observed in case of RCC buildings, that the construction was of poor quality
and design. Moreover, liquefaction of the subsurface granular unconsolidated sandy materials might
have accentuated building/structure damage.
Summarized accounts of damage survey carried out at different areas (Plate-5) are detailed
below:
PLATE-5
______________________________________________________________________________________________
45
Malacca : Most people reported that it was difficult to stand during the earthquake, few felt
giddiness, panic high, shaking horizontal in E-W direction, long slender objects like palm tree and
electric poles swayed, standing bus shifted by few meters; water and sand mixture sprouted upto a
height of 3-4 meters through ground fissures generated during the earthquake near jetty; metalled
road bulged and cracked near Malacca jetty (Fig -48) due to liquefaction, supporting column of
APWD water tank developed cracks, minor cracks in the shear wall of the Jetty office; cracks had
developed along short columns in the ground floor of new annexe building of the hospital (Fig -49);
contact between two separate portions of the Deputy commissioners office got widened during
shaking (Fig -50).
Mus: Most people reported that it was difficult to stand, high panic, few felt giddiness, seiches in
standing water, Almirah and TV fell on ground alongwith the objects from shelf and rack, ground
fissures not conspicuous, old port control tower building (three storied RC building) got highly
damaged and passenger hall near jetty have developed both vertical and horizontal cracks). AHW
building (single storied RC building with RC roofing) near jetty have developed cracks (both vertical
and horizontal) on the shear walls (Fig 51); vertical cracks have developed in the columns also.
Columns of water tank near jetty also got damaged (Fig -52).
Air Force Area: Effects on human was similar to the other areas of the island, utensils and other
objects fell on ground, several E-W trending cracks observed on roads, Commanders house got
damaged by lateral spreading during the earthquake (Fig -53) minor cracks observed in the houses
escaped damages caused by tsunami, Air crew rest room at the Air strip (one storied plastic roofing
on stilted column) collapsed due to column failure (Photo-54). Failed columns were bent (Fig -55)
shear cracks also were visible on the remnant part, E-W walls of the second floor of Air Terminal
building fell during shaking.
Kankana: Most people reported that it was difficult to stand, high panic, few felt giddiness,
horizontal ground movement reported by the people along E-W direction, Almirah fell during
shaking, ground cracks conspicuous with sand and water sprouting, building damage due to
earthquake was not reported by the local people interviewed.
Tamaloo-Kinyuka-Taupioming-Lapati sector: Most people had found it difficult to stand and
walk steadily during shaking, high panic; materials fell from shelf; standing objects like T.V. and
electric poles fell; water splashed out of tanks, drums etc. mostly E-W lateral shaking was
experienced by the people; some RCC building (one storied with tin roofing) collapsed; Several
single storied wooden houses on RC stilted columns at Kinyuka as well as at Taupioming (Fig -56
& 57) were also damaged due to shaking.
Based on the Macroseismic survey general Intensity of VIII has been assigned for the study
areas of the Car Nicobar Island.
KATCHAL
The information regarding earthquake damage intensity was collected through interview of local
people at Relief camp in Port Blair. Most people felt the shock; standing was difficult; people
crawled and felt giddiness during the earthquake shaking; both E-W and N-S shaking was felt by the
people; waves observed on ground by some people. Utensils fell from shelf; Almirah fell on ground;
water splashed out from the containers; ground fissures developed and sand sprouting was
conspicuous; in one instance it was reported that the latrine door got broken due to shaking in a
single storied tin roofed RC building; in a single storied RC floor wooden framed hospital building
______________________________________________________________________________________________
46
cracks developed in floor and plasters came off. Based on the Macroseismic survey Intensity of VIII
has been assigned for the study areas of the Katchal Island.
Figure 48: Damaged metalled road,

up arched and eroded, exposing
basement near Malacca jetty, Car
Nicobar
Figure 50: Repaired shear wall fracture,

Figure 49: Vertical fracture on the column,
DC office, Malacca, Car Nicobar
Hospital, Car Nicobar
Figure 51: Vertical/ horizontal cracks in

shear wall, AHW building, Mus jetty, Car Figure 52: Damaged pillar of water tank
near Mus jetty, Car Nicobar
Nicobar
______________________________________________________________________________________________
47
Figure 53: Tilted RC building due to lateral Figure 54: Air crew rest room damaged due
spreading, Air Force Colony, Car Nicobar
to failure of load bearing column, Air strip,
Car Nicobar
Figure 55: Closer view of damaged column in Figure 54
Figure 56: Grade 4 damage of Church, Figure 57: Failure of RC load bearing
Kinyuka, Car Nicobar
base column causing collapse of wooden
house, Taupioming, Car Nicobar
______________________________________________________________________________________________
48
NANCOWRY ISLAND
Information regarding earthquake damage intensity was collected through interview at Car
Nicobar. Most of the people reported that it was difficult to stand; general panic; all people came
outdoor; giddiness felt by some; ground shook laterally in E-W direction; utensils fell from shelf;
about 4m long and 20 cm wide ground fissures reported to have developed; two storied RC structure
of Medical building developed cracks along shear walls.
PILLOWMILLOW ISLAND (NEAR LITTLE NICOBAR)

The information regarding earthquake damage intensity was collected through interview at
Campbell Bay relief camps. Most people felt the shock with a hissing sound just before the
earthquake; standing was difficult; ground shook laterally; ground waves observed; ground fissures
developed and liquefied sand sprouted through these; one storied RC building with asbestos roofing
developed minor cracks.
GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND

In this island (Plate-6) the macroseismic survey could only be done around Campbell Bay
region during the second phase of work. Tsunami had inflicted severe damage masking the effects of
earthquake in most of the areas along the coastal tracts.
Campbell Bay: Most of the people reported that it was difficult to stand; general panic; all people
came outdoor; ground shook laterally in E-W direction; utensils fell from shelf; refrigerator
overturned; water splashed out of tanks; longitudinal sinuous ground fissures trending N40o W
observed near Port Control Tower Building, slumps in sloping ground near the cracks damaging the
boundary walls (Fig -58 & 59); in APWD Guest House building, situated at a higher elevation,
developed cracks in foundation extending into the plinth area (Fig -60), also in a short RC column
holding the wooden pillars supporting the asbestos roofing had developed vertical cracks (Fig -61),
in one instance the shear wall of Room no 1 had got horizontal cracks at shear wall and foundation
contacts (Fig -62); near 2.5 km, lighthouse tilted during shaking (Fig -63); in Port Control Tower (a
three storied RC building) is damaged, the intensity of damage decreased upward; in tall buildings
inertial movement concentrate the force of shaking at the ground level produce destructive basal
shear, this may be the cause for the greater damage to the lower floors; cracks are aligned both in
horizontal and vertical directions along shear wall column joints and shear wall-tie beam joints,
shear walls were also developed huge cracks (Fig -64); side staircase got separated from shear wall
during shaking (Fig -65).
Jogindernagar: Tsunami had flattened almost all the houses with foundations intact in some cases;
in few instances crack due to earthquake was observed over remaining foundations.
Based on the Macroseismic survey Intensity of VIII has been assigned for the study areas of the
Campbell Bay region of the Great Nicobar Island.
Based on the Macroseismic survey Intensity of VIII has been assigned for the study areas of
the Great Nicobar Island.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
49
PLATE-6
______________________________________________________________________________________________
50
Figure 59: N40W trending ground fissure with

Figure 58: Slump scar along ground slumping damaging boundary wall of PCT building,
Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar
fissure, Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar
Figure 60: Foundation cracks in APWD Figure 61: Vertical cracks on short column in
guest house, Campbell Bay, Great APWD
guest house, Campbell Bay, Great
Nicobar
Nicobar
______________________________________________________________________________________________
51
Figure 62: Basal cracks at the contact of wall

and basement in APWD guest house, Figure 63: Tilting of Lighthouse, Campbell
Bay, Great Nicobar
Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar
Figure 64: Damaged ground floor of PCT

building, Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar
Figure 65: Separation of staircase from
shear wall, PCT building, Campbell Bay,
Great Nicobar
______________________________________________________________________________________________
52
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Macroseismic survey of the great earthquake of 26.12.2004 has revealed that the
intensity (as per revised MSK-64) is higher in Nicobar Group of Islands (VIII) in general while in
the Andaman Group of Islands (i.e. South, Middle and North Andamans) the intensity is
comparatively less (VII) with occasional higher intensities (VIII) at some areas along the western
part of the islands. In case of Havelock Island, which occurs to the east of the Andaman Group of
Islands, the intensity is distinctly less (VI). Since, many parts of the islands are inaccessible and a
greater part of the study area of Middle and south Andamans lie within Jarwa territory and thus could
not be studied in detail, isoseismal zones could not be delineated. As far as, the effect of the
earthquake on mainland is concerned, the coastal tracts of West Bengal and Orissa have been mildly
affected indicating intensity of III-IV. Also, the coastal areas of Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh
indicated intensity of II to III. In the intensity zoning map by USGS an intensity of VII has been
assigned for Port Blair while the same for Kolkata as II-III and the same for Vishakhapatnam and
Chennai as IV.
Regions of lower damage may alternate with regions of higher damage as ground motions
locally gets affected by the topography and geology prevailing in the vicinity. Castellani et al (1978),
from his numerical model study of the topographic effects at mountain sites showed that the presence
of valleys and mountains induce variety of reflections and refractions amplifying the intensity of
ground motion. Moreover, it is well known that the softer the ground more severe are the damage
effects (Scheidegger 1985). The pockets of higher intensity observed within otherwise lower
intensity zones all over the Andaman Islands must be due to the combined effects of topography and
local geology.
Macroseismic survey has revealed that in general, wooden structures were less damaged
compared to modern RC structures. The building damages observed at various localities indicate that
at many cases the structures without adequate shear resistance in vertical members resisting the
earthquake effects, especially, the structures on stilts, behaved very poorly under lower seismic
intensity of VII as per MSK scale. In some cases, the base columns were not tied with shear walls.
Similar results were observed in case of Bhuj earthquake of 2001.It is therefore imperative that
designs of structures including various RC buildings and harbor structures need to be examined by
competent structural engineers to provide adequate seismic resistance in them. Since the entire
Andaman and Nicobar Islands belong to an area of high seismic activity (zone V of the Seismic
Zoning Map of India), for any construction activity, the BIS code on earthquake resistant designs
need to be followed strictly.
It has also been observed that the quality of RCC in case of many collapse structures was
found to be inferior. Presence of shell/coral fragments in sand used for construction has been found
to be a common phenomenon. Also, quality of steel used in some buildings was found to be of
inferior quality and concrete of low strength. The quality of construction materials also should be
examined prior to their use. It was also observed that often the masonry work was very poor in case
of damage buildings and proper supervision by the suitable engineers is therefore also necessary. It
has also been observed that many buildings/structures got damaged due to lateral spreading and
liquefaction related phenomenon in low-lying areas, in the vicinity of water bodies. Adequate care
needs to be taken during construction of any building/ structures over such areas. It may be necessary
to carry out SPT, permeability and other geotechnical tests of sub -surface/soil samples for
construction of heavy structures in such areas and also for other areas. In other words, site-specific
geotechnical investigations may have to be undertaken. It may be relevant to note that in case of
______________________________________________________________________________________________
53
Bhuj earthquake, an eight storied type C building constructed over hard ferruginous sand stone
suffered only minor cracks whereas a four storied type C building constructed over sandy shale
suffered grade 5 damage in the same area (Ameta et al., 2005). In the investigated areas, in many
cases damage to type B structures was due to shallow foundation depth, ageing of mortars (resulting
in formation of cavities) or due to absence of PCC (Plain cement concrete) layer at foundation level
or RCC level at plinth level. Absence of PCC at foundation level caused loose contact of the
structures with ground and during disharmonic vertical ground motion and subsequent horizontal
ground shaking, the buildings collapsed partially. Proper cares need to be taken at foundation level
and during construction level by providing proper reinforcement. It is also felt necessary to upgrade
technical knowledge of the engineering community engaged in planning, design and construction of
structures in A&N group of islands. For this, suitable training programmes may be arranged for the
personnel of department like APWD, AHW, MES etc., engaged in construction activities in A&N
islands. Moreover, key projects for seismic design for construction of ne w structures and seismic
retrofitting of existing structures need to be taken up in the islands.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Dr M K Mukhopadhyay and Dr M M Mukherjee, Deputy
Director General, GSI for their constant encouragement, active guidance and for providing logistic
supports, as and when required, during the course of work and suggesting necessary modifications
for improvement of the report. The authors are also thankful to all scientists of GSI who has helped
in different stages of investigation and preparation of this report. Cooperation received from the
Chief Secretary and other officials of Andaman Administration is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCE
Ameta, S.S., Chandra Madhav, Rai, D.K., Gill, P.S., Wadhawan, S.K. and Khaparde, A.R. (2005):
Geotechnical microzonation of Bhuj town area, Kutch district in view of 2001 Bhuj
earthquake. Contr. Kangra Earthquake Cent. Seminar, Spl. Pub. GSI, No. 85, PP. 267-277.
Billham, R and Wallace, K (2005): Future Mw>8 earthquake in the Himalaya: Implication from the
26 December 2004 Mw=9.0 earthquake on Indias eastern plate margin. Cotributions to
Kangra Earthquake Centenary Seminar, GSI. Spl. Publ. No. 85, p.1-14.
Bolt, B. A. (1993): Earthquakes and geological discovery. Scientific American Library, 229 p.
Castellani, A., Riccioni, R. and Robusti, G., (1978): surface effects on seismic waves. ISMES
(Bergamo) Repts. 106(3): 91-103.
Dasgupta,S. and 14 others (2000): Seismotectonic Atlas of India and its environs. Geological
Survey of India Special Publication.
Grunthal, G. (1998) European Macroseismic Scale 1998. Conseil de L'Europe, Cahiers du Centre
Europeen de Geodynamique et de Seismologie, v.15
GSI (2005): Report entitled A Preliminary Report on Investigation of Effects of the SumatraAndaman Earthquake of 26 December 2004 In Andaman and Nicobar Islands, GSI
unpublished Report.
Hochstetter, F.Von (1866): In contribution to the study Physical Geology of the Nicobar Islands in
voyage of the Austrian Frigate Novara around the world in 1857-1859. (Geology, Part 2, vol.
2, p. 83-112 Vienna). Translated by F. Stoliczka, Rec. Geol. Soc. Ind. V. 2(3), p. 59-73,
1869.
Scheidegger, A. E., (1985): Recent research on the Physical aspects of earthquakes. Earth-Science
Review, 22, 173-229.
Sengupta, S, Sanyal, S and Mukherjee, A (2002): Macroseismic Survey Report on the Diglipur
earthquake, in North Andaman Islands, 14 September 2002. GSI unpublished Report, 2002.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
54
LOCATION INDEX
Area
Shyamnagar
Radhanagar
Swarajnagar
Krishnapuri
Jal Tikri
Kishorinagar
Diglipur
Parangara
Nabagram
Kalighat
Ramnagar
Karmatang
Harinagar
Duke Nagar
Kamalapur
Parnashala
Pokkadera
Mayabunder
Tugapur
Chainpur
Padmanavapuram
Rampur
Kaushalyanagar
Rangat Bay Jetty
Errata Jetty
Atter Jig
Kadamtala
Latitude
NORTH ANDAMAN
130 23/ 25.5//
130 23/ 0.0//
130 20/ 30//
130 15/ 27.6//
130 26/ 37.3//
130 11/ 37.3//
130 14/ 37.3//
130 09/ 55.1//
130 08/ 50.3//
130 07/ 21//
130 06/ 04.8//
MIDDLE ANDAMAN
120 50/ 39.1//
120 40/ 10.9//
120 39/ 15.2//
120 42/42.5//
120 31/ 26.3//
120 54/31.1//
120 52/50.9//
120 49/50.3//
120 44/ 02.5//
120 36/ 53.7//
120 30/ 29.6//
120 32/ 0.6//
120 29/ 13.5//
120 27/ 13.2//
120 21/ 16.5//
120 18/ 53.3//
920 55/ 34.5//

920 55/ 34.1//
920 56/ 27.6//
920 57/ 19.9//
920 53/ 47.4//
920 52/ 26.7//
920 58/ 37.6//
920 53/ 11.2//
920 51/0 1.9//
920 57/0 0.3//
920 59/ 35.3//
920 56/15.6//
920 53/ 23.7//
920 52/ 50.0//
920 53/ 27.6//
920 54/ 27.5//
920 54/ 22.8//
920 52/ 13.1//
920 50/ 09.5//
920 48/ 39.2//
920 57/ 02.8//
920 54/ 44.4//
920 49/ 36.1//
920 57/ 32.3//
920 53/ 54.6//
920 46/ 15.6//
920 47/ 29.2//
BARATANG
120 08/ 31.5//
120 07/ 45.7//
920 47/ 28.4//

920 47/ 37.8//
SOUTH ANDAMAN
110 34/
110 34/ 54.9//
110 36/ 41//
110 35/ 28.9//
110 32/ 17.5//
110 33/ 42.3//
110 35/ 33.2//
110 35/ 32.5//
110 36/ 19.6//
110 35/ 46.4//
110 35/ 40.2//
920 40/ 45//

920 44/ 20.9//
920 42/ 21.5//
920 40/ 41.3//
920 39/21.4//
920 39/ 0.8//
920 42/ 59.8//
920 42/ 16.9//
920 40/29.7//
920 38/ 34.6//
920 36/ 40.4//
Nilambur Jetty (Polica Chowki)

Jarwa Creek mud Volcano Site
Dhanikhari Dam
Bedonabad
Garacharma
Sippighat
Guptapara Jetty
New Manglutan
Calicut
Bimlitan
Ayappa Temple
Manglutan
New Wandoor
Longitude
______________________________________________________________________________________________
55
Dollyganj
Namunagarh
Shoal Bay 8
Collinpur
Bichadera
Manpur
Tushnabad
Hut Bay
Mus
Lapati
Taopioming
Chuckchucha
Kinyuka
Tamaloo
Malacca
Air force colony
Kimios
110 37/30.1//
110 41/ 01.3//
110 48/ 41//
110 41/27.7//
110 45/ 35.3//
110 41/ 40.2//
110 40/ 49.1//
920 42/ 39.9//

920 40/ 55.7//
920 43/ 13.2//
920 36/ 10.9//
920 39/ 11.3//
920 36/ 23.1//
920 37/ 27.3//
LITTLE ANDAMAN
100 37/ 19.2//
920 32/ 42.9//
CAR NICOBAR
9014/ 30.2//
9013/ 51.8//
9013/ 10.9//
9013/02.7//
9012/ 30//
9011/20.1//
9010/ 31.0//
9008/ 58.6//
9007/42.5//
920 46/ 58.8//

920 47/ 48.8//
920 48/ 35.5//
920 48/ 38.0//
920 48/ 48.6//
920 49/10.8//
920 49/ 41.1//
920 49/ 23.9//
920 46/ 36.7//
GREAT NICOBAR
93055/ 42.5//
Campbell Bay 70 00/ 29.3//
______________________________________________________________________________________________
56
ANALYSIS OF SATELLITE DATA FOR CHANGES IN COASTAL

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF ANDAMAN - NICOBAR ISLAND DUE TO
26 DECEMBER 2004 EARTHQUAKE
D.P.Das, S.S. Ghosh, D. Chakraborty and K.Pramanik
Photogeology and Remote Sensing Division, GSI,
29 Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Kolkata 700 016.
INTRODUCTION
An earthquake of magnitude 9.0, the worlds most severe one over the last 40 years, hit the
sea off the west coast of northern Sumatra on the early morning of 26th December, 2004 that
triggered the devastating tsunami in the Indian Ocean. The deadly tsunami waves caused widespread
destruction in 11 countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The impact of earthquake on the Indian
subcontinent was considerable in the Andaman-Nicobar islands due to their proximity to the
epicenter (3.24N/95.82E) of the great earthquake. Remote sensing study can provide an ample scope
for detection and assessment of the impact areas on real time basis if the acquisition of satellite data
covering that part of earth segment is readily available. One of the important applications of modern
remote sensing technique is digital change detection over time to assess dynamic changes of terrain
features for disaster management. Digital change detection using satellite data is the viable and
quickest means for assessing the extent of morphological changes in the aftermath of earthquake and
tsunami ravaged Andaman-Nicobar group of islands. The accuracy of analysis, however, depends
upon the spatial resolution of data analysed, the degree of image registration and the scale of
measurements. The change detection techniques using remotely sensed data have been mostly
applied by the earth scientists for landuse change analysis, forest monitoring, urban changes, study of
shoreline changes, drought and disaster monitoring and other environmental hazards. Realizing the
temporal capability of digital remote sensing data, the present satellite remote sensing study was
taken up to evaluate of the impact of devastating earthquake on coastal morphology, and the effects
of tsunami that hit the entire Andaman-Nicobar islands, causing inundation of coastal areas, creek
basins and large-scale damage to property and life.
METHODOLOGY
The basic premise for change detection using satellite data is that changes in radiance values
due to landcover and morphological change between two dates must be large with respect to radiance
changes caused by other factors like differences in cloud cover condition, variation of sun angle,
atmospheric illumination condition, differences in soil moisture etc. A large number of change
detection techniques have already been developed but the accuracy of change detection techniques
depend largely upon the degree of temporal de-correlation, resolution of sensor data, change
detection algorithm used and finally the scale of measurements. Among the techniques available in
the digital image-processing domain, direct comparison between two co-registered data sets is the
quickest and reliable means for assessment of the temporal changes.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
57
Digital satellite data of pre- and post earthquake acquired by various sensors on board Indian
Remote Sensing satellite (IRS) were procured from NRSA (Department of Space), Hyderabad after
viewing the coverage, quality (state of cloud cover) and date of pass of the browsed data products
made available in the NRSA website. IRS- P6 LISS III sensor data operating in four spectral bands
(green, red, near infra-red and short wave infra-red wavelengths) with ground resolution of 23.5m as
well as AWiFS four bands (very near infra-red and short wave infra-red wavelengths) data with
ground resolution of 56m covering Andaman-Nicobar islands were used as study inputs. Besides,
IRS- P4 OCM 8 band data having 360m ground resolution as acquired from NRSA were also used
for synoptic study. A list of Satellite data products procured for assessing pre- and post earthquake
ground realities in parts of Andaman and Nicobar Islands are given in the table below. Survey of
India degree sheets 86C, D, G, H, K, 87A, B, C, D, E, H, 88 E, F were consulted and used for georeferencing of images and annotation of maps.
Sr.
No
Path/Row
Date of pass
Pre-tsunami
Post-tsunami
Satellite/Sensor
Remarks
1
2
3
4
5
6
115:64
115:65
115:66
115:67
116:68
116:69
29.01.04
29.01.04
17.03.04
12.11.04
27.02.04
22.03.04
30.12.04
30.12.04
30.12.04
30.12.04
04.01.05
04.01.05
IRS P6/ LISS-III

IRS P6/ LISS-III
IRS P6/ LISS-III
IRS P6/ LISS-III
IRS P6/ LISS-III
IRS P6/ LISS-III
115:65
22.02.04
30.12.04
IRS P6/ AWIFS
115:70
29.01.04
30.12.04
IRS P6/AWIFS
11:14
17.01.04
28.12.04
IRS P6/ OCM
Pre-Tsunami data
relatively
cloud
free, while the post
tsunami data show
cloud coverage at
patches.
Full scene with
cloud
coverage
more
in
the
southern part
Sub scene with
cloud coverage
Full scenes with
relatively
cloud
free data.
DIGITAL IMAGE ANALYSIS

Geometric rectification of digital temporal satellite data was initially made with the help of
GCPs using Survey of India degree sheets to obtain distortion free and planimetrically corrected
images (RMS error below pixel size) in one common projection system for ready comparison
between the co-registered temporal data sets and topographic base maps. To begin with very coarse
resolution (360m) IRS- P6 OCM data of pre- and post tsunami period covering the entire island belt
was studied for quick reconnaissance and over all assessment of coastal changes caused by the
earthquake. The study of OCM images was followed by time contextual analysis involving both IRSP6 AWIFS and LISS III four bands sensor data to detect significant morphological changes taken
place along the coast of a few selected parts of the island belt. Time contextual analysis allows
detection of ground changes in the geographic environment caused by natural phenomenon. In the
present study, the change detection analysis has been performed by direct superimposition of
temporal co-registered images by swiping one over the other, which enabled detection of island wise
coastal morphological changes caused by emergence and submergence of land including inundation
of low lying areas as an effect of earthquake related tectonic disturbance. The study brought out
information on inundation of agricultural land in the fringe areas of mangrove swamps, destruc tion
of coastal vegetation where erosion occurred, change in coastline configuration, appearance and
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
58
disappearance of sandy beaches and shallow depth corals. The study, however, revealed that an
overall emergence of coastal land with increase in surface areas occurred especially along the
northern and western margins of the islands situated in the north and western part of the main island
belt. On the other hand, submergence of coastal land particularly along the northern and western
margins has taken only in southern parts of the island belt till Indira Point. Central part of the island
belt comprising major parts of the Middle and South Andamans including Little Andaman, however,
shows no perceptible effect of coastal emergence or submergence at the scale of mapping (1:50K)
with given pixel resolution.
Changes in Coastal Geomorphology

Landfall and East Island
These two small islands are located in the northernmost part of the island belt (Plate 1a)
which experienced significant land emergence with incre ase in surface areas in the form of sandy
beach mostly along the northern and western margin of the island (Fig.1). Earlier crenulated
coastline configuration due to wave erosion has been markedly changed into more smoothened one
as a result of land emergence accompanied by wave generated sand deposition. Maximum
emergence of land in the western part of Landfall Island is about 1.3km, whereas for East Island it is
about 600m.
Part of North Andaman
Evidence of emergence of rocky coast is quite evident on post tsunami image. A maximum
of 300m increases in land area has been measured only along northern coastal margin of North
Andaman (Fig.2). Significant land emergence with increase in surface areas in the form of newly
formed sandy beach are observed only in the case of peripheral small islands namely, West Island
(360m), Reef Island (350m) and Cliff Island (180m).
North Sentinel Island
An isolated small island lying to the west of South Andaman (Plate 1b) shows remarkable
accretion of sandy beach material all along its coast, which suggests significant land emergence to an
extent of 900m in the west and 75.5m in the east (Fig.3).
Part of South Andaman around Port Blair
The mapped area (Fig.4) does not show any perceptible change in coastline configuration
between pre- and post tsunami dates. Post tsunami data only could delineate the extent of tsunami
related inundation areas only along the western margin of Navy Bay and in the fringe zone of
mangrove swamps around Bamboo flat area.
Katchall Island
Post tsunami image (Plate 2a) clearly depicts major change in coastal configuration due to
transgression of sea across southwestern coastline. Comparison of pre- and post tsunami P6 LISS III
data shows overall situation of island submergence with effects of ol cal erosion and deposition
particularly along its western margin (Fig.5). Major submergence of land is noted south of Lamoh
where earlier situated creek basin has been totally submerged. Recession of coastline has taken place
along the axis of the creek basin to an extent of 3.2km and across 2.5km.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
59
Trinkat Island
The Trinkat Island (Plate 2b) shows major morphological changes all along its western
margin and along the creek basins .The Island has been found separated into two parts due to
impoundment of water along NE-SW trending Kui Kamella creek in the north. Significant
submergence of island along NW-SE southern creek channel near Kapilla is quite evident on the post
tsunami image, and as a result of which the island has become almost breached along the creek
(Fig.6).
CONCLUSION
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Study of six selected sectors was taken up on the basis of reconnaissance through OCM and
AWiFS data. Of the six selected areas, significant changes in coastal configuration and island
morphology have been noticed in Katchall and Trinkat Islands due to the effect of land
submergence.
Overall observations made on the imagery for the entire island belt revealed (a) emergence of
land of varying extent mostly along eastern and western coastal parts in the north of the island
belt, (b) submergence of coastal land mostly along the western margin of the southerly situated
islands, (c) no perceptible change in coastal morphology caused by land emergence or
submergence in central part of island belt at the scale of mapping except North Sentinel Island,
and (d) minor inundation around creek basins due to tsunami in central part of the island belt.
Differential land emergence and submergence of coastal area at the western and eastern margin
of the northern and southern parts of the island belt is conspicuously observed, which suggests
vertical movement- cum-tilting of islands.
Digital change detection analysis using temporal data always provide true picture of natural
phenomenon useful for impact assessment study. High-resolution LISS III data provided
change/no-change information at very high level of accuracy.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The study was carried out under the guidance of Dr. Kalyan Sarkar, Director, PGRS
Division. The authors also express their deep gratitude to Dr. S.K. Ray and Shri Sujit Dasgupta, for
the interest and the suggestion offered during the work.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
60
Plate 1a: IRS P6 AWiFS FCC of 30th December, 2004 showing part of North
Andaman, Landfall, East Island and West Island
Plate 1b: IRS P6 AWiFS FCC of 30th December 2004 showing North Sentinel Island
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
61
Plate 2a: IRS P6 LISS III FCC of 4th January 2005 showing Katchall Island
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
62
Plate 2b: IRS P6 LISS III FCC of 4th January 2005 showing Trinkat Island
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
63
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REPORT ON SUMATRA-ANDAMAN EARTHQUAKE & TSUNAMI, 26 DEC 04
64
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65
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66
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67
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68
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69
26 DECEMBER 2004 EARTHQUAKE:

COSEISMIC VERTICAL GROUND MOVEMENTS IN THE ANDAMAN
Sumit Kumar Ray and Anshuman Acharyya
Geological Survey of India,
27 Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Kolkata 700 016
INTRODUCTION
An attempt was made to study the nature of coseismic vertical ground movements of the
great earthquake of 26 December 2004, in the Andaman Group of Islands. The study is based on
field observations only. The objective was to characterise and determine different parameters of the
causative fault, inde pendent of seismological and geodetic survey data and interpretations. At the
planning stage of this work, it was considered that we may take advantage of the long coastline with
several coastal swamps, inter-tidal mud flats, creeks, lagoons etc. and use the sea level as a reliable
reference datum to estimate and map the vertical ground movement. Accordingly a methodology was
worked out, which was found suitable in the course of the fieldwork that followed. Finally, a
coseismic vertical movement map was pre pared and interpreted, to characterise the causative fault.
In strike-slip or thrust faults, or in oblique slip faults with combinations of thrust and strikeslip components, no point in the hanging wall can move below its pre-faulting level. Differentia l
uplift, because of along-strike slip variation, may tilt the hanging wall block, but cannot cause
subsidence. In that context, wide-spread land subsidence in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which
are situated in the hanging wall of the rupture of the 26 Decemeber 2004 Sumatra-Andaman
earthquake, at first appears baffling, because the seismologists have unanimously characterised the
fault movement as thrust (USGS 2004). Is the submergence unrelated to coseismic vertical
movement? What then is the cause of land submergence in vast areas? Our studies primarily address
these questions.
Scope of the present work

Modification of the coastline because of submergence of land below the waves was recorded
in a visit to the South Andaman Island about a fortnight after the great Sumatra-Andaman earthquake
of 26 December 2004. Submergence of large areas in the Sippighat-Chauldari and Ograbraij sectors,
and rise of the level of the High Tide Line (HTL) above the pre-earthquake maximum HTL records
in the Corbyns Cove area, Chatham Jetty and Bamboo Flat Jetty were observed. Residents of the
Island reported that for about a week after the earthquake and tsunami, the tide cycle remained
disrupted and did not follow the known tide pattern. The level difference between the HTL and the
Low Tide Line (LTL) used to be very little (about 30 cm or so). They further reported that the tide
cycle was gradually getting restored and the process was still on at the time of our field visit on 7
January 2005. The tide gauge data, which would have provided reliable information about temporal
distribution of tides as well as tide levels, were not available. Only the predictive tide tables were
available in the newspaper media. However, in view of the uncertainty about post-tsunami
stabilisation of the sea level and the possibility of seiche effect in the bays and lagoons, no studies to
map vertical ground movements using the sea level as the reference datum, was carried out at the
time of the visit (during 7 - 12 January, 2005). Only a very general observation that the LTL around
Port Blair remains at or slightly above the pre earthquake HTL was recorded at the time of the
January 2005 visit.
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71
Comparison of the pre- and post-earthquake satellite imageries shows emergence of land in
some sectors and submergence in some others in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. A detailed
account of the studies on land emergence and submergence, based on satellite imageries is available
in another chapter of this volume. Although land emergence and submergence can be mapped by
using pre- and post-tsunami satellite imageries of high resolution (meter scale), those are not suitable
for mapping the coseismic vertical movements because of the following reasons.
1. As the great earthquake had generated a great tsunami, a straightforward correlation of
land emergence with tectonic uplift and submergence with tectonic subsidence is not possible.
Erosion or deposition associated with the tsunami might have contributed to submergence and
emergence respectively. So, on-the-spot examination is necessary to map coseismic vertical
movements.
2. It is difficult to have a realistic estimate of vertical movement form the satellite
imageries.
We have mapped coseismic vertical movement distribution in the Andaman Group of
Islands (north of 11oN latitude), based on field observations from 7 to 12 January, and 9 to 17 May
2005, and have interpreted the map to build a model of coseismic vertical movement. The map and
the model have been analysed to find an explanation to the enigmatic feature of uplift in some parts
and subsidence on others in a domain of thrust faulting. Our observations and interpretations are
independent of seismic data interpretation results and are based only on field observations. This
paper shows how the map of vertical ground movements helps to independently arrive at the
conclusion that the causative fault of the earthquake was a thrust fault, and the trace of the ground
rupture of the thrust fault is parallel to the trench axis of the eastward subduction of the Indian plate
below the Burma plate. The map also helps to build a model, which can explain coexistence of
subsidence and uplift. We have also discussed the environmental impact, particularly impact on the
mangrove swamp ecology, because of the vertical movements.
METHODOLOGY
High precision ground geodetic survey is the most appropriate and reliable method of
determination of fault related ground vertical movement. However, one prerequisite of the method is
that pre-faulting high precision levelling survey data must be available. The exact vertical
component of ground movement can be determined only by comparison of pre- and post-faulting
survey data. We could not apply that method, as we do not have the required pre-faulting survey
data.
In our present study we have used the sea level, which gives a reliable datum for
comparison. Pre and post -faulting sea level remained unchanged and by field observations along the
coast of the islands, in the inland lagoons, mud flats and swamps, it was possible to estimate vertical
ground movement at several spots. The tide status at the time of our observation was also considered
for estimation of ground movement and necessary correction attended.
As explained in an earlier section, it was necessary to make a distinction between land
emergence and uplift, and between submergence and subsidence, at every spot of observation. How
this distinction was made at each spot, has been indicated in the next section, where the field
observations, their significance, and estimates of vertical ground movement have been presented.
Although the basic tenet of our methodology is that the sea level has remained unchanged
and provides the reference datum for detection of earthquake-related ground level changes, we have,
in the following discussions, used the expressions rise and fall of the level of High Tide Line
(HTL) / Low Tide Line (LTL), or at places simply rise and fall of water level. The terms rise
and fall have been used depending on whether the level of the HTL/LTL on the ground or on manmade structures like embankments, retaining walls, piers of jetty etc. is at a higher or a lower
______________________________________________________________________________________________
72
elevation respectively. A rise in the level of the HTL or LTL indicates ground subsidence, whereas a
fall indicates uplift at the observation point.
In our estimates of vertical ground movement, we have relied mainly on the following three
categories of evidence about pre-faulting coast line configuration/sea level.
i) Direct where one of the authors (SKR), was familiar with the pre-faulting configuration
of the high tide line and the low tide line, observed in the course of previous fieldwork in the
Andaman Islands. In such spots, a direct comparison gave an estimate of vertical movement.
ii) Indirect (a): Several man-made structures like beach roads, landing jetties, even landing
sites on small creeks through the swamps which the islanders used, give a clear idea about prefaulting elevations with respect to the sea level. For example, the along-shore roads, landing sites etc.
were obviously above the sea level even in the highest of the high tide, and the landing sites were
navigable. We have observed inundation of some coastal roads at high tides, which are signs of postfaulting submergence. Some of the landing sites ar e no longer navigable indicating uplift.
Considerable changes in the drainage have been noticed and have been used for estimating ground
movement.
iii) Indirect (b). We have relied on the information provided by the local residents,
particularly who live very close to the sea coast, about configuration of the previous tide levels, and
that information have been used for estimation of ground movement.
OBSERVATIONS ON LAND EMERGENCE/SUBMERGENCE

Field traverses covering the eastern and western coasts of the North, Middle and South
Andaman Islands were taken to record and analyse the nature of post -earthquake ground uplift and
subsidence. The locations described in the following text are shown in Fig. 1. This record embodies
on-the-spot observation, estimation and extensive crosschecking of information on pre-earthquake
ground data gathered from number of sources. In most of the cases, unequivocal accounts of past
spring tide (pre-earthquake highest high tide) and neap tide data could be obtained. No ambiguous
data were taken into consideration. Estimation of the difference between pre and post earthquake
highest HTL (preferably spring tides) has enabled us to infer the signature of relative movements of
ground.
SOUTH ANDAMAN ISLAND
Corbyns Cove
The area lies in the eastern fringe of the island. Photographs (Plate 1 & 2) of November
2004 and May 2005, depicts the changes that are also schematically shown in Fig.1. Before the
earthquake, the clean sandy beach along a small cove (hence the name Corbyns Cove) used to be a
favourite spot of the visitors from Port Blair and the tourists. An along-shore motorable road used to
separate the beach from the restaurants/hotels and resorts that used to cater to the need of the tourists
and visitors. A concrete-cum-masonry retaining wall on the seaward side of the road had three to
four stair steps, which used to provide access from the road to the beach level below (Plate 1). A
part of the beach used to remain exposed even during the spring tides. In contrast, in the second
week of January 2005, we observed that the leading edge of the waves laps on the retaining wall, and
the seawater completely submerges the beach at high tides. On spring tides, the water level rises to
submerge even parts of the long-shore road. This ingress of the sea at the cove is an indication of
ground subsidence. A comparison of the level of the HTL before and after the earthquake gives an
estimate of about 1.25 m coseismic ground subsidence in this area.
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73
On our revisit to the spot in May 2005, we observed about 1 meter of vertical sand
accumulation all along the beach. The accumulated sand has buried the steps on the retaining wall,
which are no longer visible (Plate 2). Sand replenishment has been accentuated due to coseismic
subsidence and play of higher energy wave ingress almost up to the road level (Fig. 1). Thin sand
layers are also noted as segregations on the shore road, indicating that the present ingress of sea
surge during high tide inundates the road level. It is noteworthy that rock outcrops along the
Corbyns Cove coast now remain submerged even during low tide (Plate 3). The same
outcrops used to be exposed along the coast (Plate 4) during low tide and had repeatedly
been examined earlier by geologists of GSI. Subsidence of land to the tune of 1 m is
envisaged in this part.
Figure 1: Schematic section across Corbyns cove beach showing progressive changes in beach
morphology
Sippighat and other areas in the south-central part around Port Blair
Large stretches of residential areas and agricultural fields with standing crops were seen
submerged in the course of our visit to Chauldari-Sippighat areas in January 2005. (Plate 5). The
area lies at the tip of a lagoon, which opens to the sea at the Port Blair-Bamboo Flat gap. Because of
ground subsidence, the lagoon boundary has advanced further inland resulting in submergence of
residential areas and agricultural fields. Similarly, coseismic ground subsidence has resulted in
submergence of large tracts of agricultural fields in the Ograbraij area, along the fringe of a lagoon,
which opens to the sea at a strait further to the north. The Andaman Trunk Road connecting the
South Andaman with the Middle and North Andaman passes from Port Blair, through Garacharama,
and through the Sippighat-Chauldari area, to the Middle Andaman. This was a busy all-weather
asphalt-topped road. However, after the earthquake, in the course of our visit in January 2005, we
______________________________________________________________________________________________
74
observed inundation of wide stretches of residential areas and agricultural lands on both the sides of
the road in the area, and the high tide water flowing over the road. The submerged areas are affected
by tidal play. Revisit to the area in May 2005, revealed that the areas are still submerged and affe cted
by tidal play (Plate 5). It may be mentioned here that about a decade ago, the areas were open low
lands where construction activities started only recently. Construction activities to raise the level of
the road by about 1 meter, is going on in this area since January 2005. Our estimate is about 1 meter
ground subsidence in the Sippighat area and about 80 cm in the Ograbraij area.
Plate 1: Corbyns cove beach, South Andaman,

November 2004. Note retaining wall with steps
(inset for close up view) in the backshore.
Plate 2: Corbyns cove beach, South

Andaman, May 2005. Note the sand
accumulation up to road level (marked
by yellow bar), covering entire retaining
wall. Arrow indicates HTL during spring
tides.
Plate 3: Corbyns cove, opposite museum. Rock

outcrops marked by red circle have become
submerged.
Plate 4: Corbyns cove, opposite museum,

prior to earthquake. Note outcrops of
Andaman flysch. (Courtesy: Dr. T. Pal, GSI, ER)
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75
9.1.05
Plate 5:
Sippighat
area in Jan
and May
05. Note
the
unfinished
submerged
buildings.
10.5.05
Plate 6: Chidiyatapu beach with very

narrow strip of intertidal zone
Plate 7: Vijaynagar 5 beach, Havelock island.

Green arrow shows pre-earthquake HTL while
red arrow indicates post earthquake HTL
Plate 8: Harmony resort area (near

Radhanagar), Havelock island. Note
submerged agricultural land.
Plate 9: Karmatang beach, Middle Andaman.

Arrow indicates the berm.
Plate 10: Aerial bay (near Machhidera),

North Andaman. Note recession of sea from
mangrove colony.
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76
The accounts of the local sources reveal that there is a rise of 80cm of high water line
(HWL) compared to pre -earthquake HWL in the Mithakari Jetty. Present high water flows only
20cm below the jetty level, creating problem for berthing of boats and hence the jetty has become
non-functional. However, the jetty height at Dandaspoint was about 1.5m above the previous high
water level. There is still a difference of about 0.5m between the present high water level and the
jetty level, making the Dandaspoint jetty functional. The Junglighat jetty has also become nonfunctional due to this problem.
Chatham
At the Chatham Jetty, the difference between the level of the pre-earthquake HTL and the
present level was measured as 1.2m. The road in front of the Fire Brigade at Chatham gets inundated
during the new moon / full moon, which is in stark contrast to the pre-earthquake records. Before
26.12.04, the level even at high tides used to remain more than a meter below the road level. Ground
subsidence of about 1.2m is estimated at Chatham.
Chidiya Tapu
The area lies at the southernmost tip of the island. The sea water line has risen in the area
inundating the beach even during low tide. At present the net beach width becomes almost nil (Plate
6) with sea front touching the bank. The estimated subsidence here is about 0.75m.
Wandoor
The area falls in the western coast. The present spring tide line is about 30 cm higher than
the corresponding pre-earthquake level, indicaing about 30 cm vertical subsidence in the Wandoor
jetty area. In the Wandoor new beach area, in front of the restaurants and the resort about a
kilometer to the west of the Wandoor jetty, the New Moon (08.05.2005) HTL level was measured
as 26m above the previous (i.e. pre-earthquake) level. The forest officials and the local people
reported no apparent change in the coastline of Grub Island and Tarmugli Island. The estimated
subsidence of land (26-30cm) in Wandoor is much lower than what has been estimated at Sippighat
or Corbyns Cove areas.
Havelock Island
Havelock Island lies to the east of South Andaman Island in the Andaman Sea. The
Havelock, Neil and other islands form the easternmost group of Islands in the Archipelago, which is
known as the Ritchies Archipelago. Within the island, the jetty (Gobindanagar area), Vijaynagar,
Mithanali, Kalapathar areas fall in the eastern part whereas the Radhanagar beach falls in the
western part.
The beach at the Dolphin Resort (Vijaynagar) records a 30cm higher level of the high tide
line compared to the pre-earthquake level. In the Mithanali (Vijaynagar 5) area, the level difference
between the line of maximum ingress of New Moon high water prior to the earthquake and the recent
has been measured as 24 cm (Plate 7, man at left indicates present HTL of new moon). The Forest
Range Officer, Havelock informed that agricultural fields in Kalapathar area have been badly
affected as those get submerged during (post-earthquake) high tide. Near the Harmony Resort, the
agricultural land of Shri Manidra Mridha was found submerged (Plate 8). Shri Mridha reported that
post-earthquake, the agricultural land around his house gets submerged under 20 cm of water
during new/full moon days. There is no appreciable change in water level in Havelock jetty. But
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77
interestingly there is tsunami deposited sand both near the embankment of jetty as well as in the
Radhanagar beach. The beach slope at Radhanagar is 30 . One tidal creek inlet, at right angle to
coast, was found blocked because of tsunami sand deposition. Through this creek, tidal water enters
and floods the paddy fields of Shri Mridha (mentioned earlier) on new moon/full moon high tides.
Plunging type breakers were observed here, which may be due to local uplift of the beach and
consequent change in beach slope
It is inferred that there is only minor land subsidence of about 20cm in the western part of
the Havelock Island. It is recommended that the tsunami depositional facies may be studied in few
locales in the island.
Nilambur jetty, Baratang Island

Forest department sources report a maximum of 50cm of rise in water level in comparison to
pre-earthquake conditions, which implies about 50cm ground subsidence in the area. The creeks in
the mangrove swamp remains filled with tidal water even during low tide.
MIDDLE ANDAMAN
Uttara jetty
This area represents southernmost part of Middle Andaman. Inquiry and observations reveal
20-40cm rise in water level both in high tide and low tide. The small creeks in the mangrove swamp
areas, which used to get completely drained during low tide time before the 26 December
earthquake, now always remain filled with water. Submergence due to minor subsidence (20-30cm)
is inferred here.
Bakultala creek/Shyamkund
The water level during tides remains almost the same as in the pre-earthquake times.
However, rise of about 5-10cm in the water level has been reported from some parts of the creek.
There is negligible submergence, if any, in this sector.
Nimbutala/Rangat jetty
Precise estimation of changes in the pre and post earthquake water level in the jetty area is
difficult. However, tips of several rock outcrops (near the coast), which earlier used to remain
projected above the waters, now get submerged beneath 20-30cm of water during high tide. The
observations suggest land subsidence in the area.
Panchabati beach
There is no change of tidal water level or configuration of the beach in the pre and post
earthquake scenario.
Aamkunj beach
No detectable change in HTL.
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78
Sivapuram beach (south of Cuthbert bay)

No detectable change in HTL.
Dharmapur/Nimbudera/Billiground
All the nalas including the Betapur nala between Nimbudera and Billiground are flowing
easterly to the sea without any significant post -earthquake change. There is no evidence of reversal,
drying up or ponding of water flow.
Mayabandar jetty
The high tide/low tide water in the jetty flows 10-15cm lower than the previous levels,
indicating very minor uplift in this part.
Rampur creek/Rampur beach

The creak indicates about 15cm lowering of high tide level. Rampur beach as such
represents a domain of tsunami erosion with removal of beach sand.
Karmatang beach
The beach, situated in the eastern coast of Middle Andaman, is characterized by a berm
(raised beach) having landward slope of 1-20 (Plate 9). A comparison of the pre and post earthquake
HTL level shows a fall of about 15cm indicating coseismic uplift in the area.
NORTH ANDAMAN
Aerial Bay/Machhidera
The mangrove colony along the coast in the Aerial Bay stands now on dry ground, even
during high tides, because of land uplift and consequent recession of the sea front (Plate 10). In the
Aerial Bay jetty, the present high water line is 20cm below the barnacle layers mounted on the jetty
piers, which indicates about 20 cm vertical uplift.
Kalipur beach
The present high water mark is about 20-40cm below the previous (pre-earthquake) mark.
The noteworthy feature is the emergence of rocky sea floor as a linear island between Kalipur beach
and the Craggys Island. Previously the rock outcrops of the linear island were not visible during
high tide. But in the post-earthquake scenario the rocky outcrops are always visible (Plate 11).
North of Kalighat
There is noticeable change in the northern part of Kalighat tidal creek. After the earthquake,
the high water line shows a remarkable drop of about 95cm (Plate12). The nearby mangrove colony
stands now on dry exposed ground, as the area is no longer affected by tidal play. Navigation along
the creek has been badly affected.
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79
Kalighat jetty
The jetty was previously used for the ferry service from Kalighat to Mayabandar
along the creek and the strait leading to the open sea. Ferry service has been withdrawn as
the creek has lost the required navigability, which may be due to tsunami sand deposition
along the creek and/or ground uplift. Presently, small boats can sail only during spring tides.
The difference between the post-quake spring tide HTL and the previous/pre-earthquake
spring tide HTL (high water line) in the jetty was estimated (Plate 13) as 95cm. The
maximum high tide flow on many occasions in the pre-earthquake scenario, used to overtop
the jetty level. Coseismic vertical uplift of about 90-95cm has been estimated in the Kalighat
area.
River Bridge at Ramnagar
This is a bridge over a perennial river that used to flow towards east. The river has become
completely dry after the earthquake (Plate 14). Bank erosion and fresh channel sands (Plate 15)
indicate that the river channel was active till recently. The sluice below the bridge has several
openings, which are clogged with water borne debris (Plate 16). Uplift and consequent tilting of the
ground is postulated in this location where the base level of the river has risen above the LTL
thwarting tidal action.
Taralait Bay (Ramnagar beach)

The area is located in the eastern part of North Andaman. The high water line in the beach is
40-50cm lower than that of the pre-earthquake time. There are two distinct marine terraces on the
beach the older raised one is covered by vegetation/grass and the new terrace is about 8m east of
older terrace. The HWL used to touch the surface of the older (higher) terrace in pre-earthquake
time. There is a tidal inlet, which used to debouch in this coast, but now occurs as a hanging feature
without water (Plate 17, arrow points to the mouth of the tidal inlet). This is an example of a hanging
stream, formed as a result of ground uplift.
Radhanagar nala/creek
Radhanagar is situated in the western part of North Andaman. During lowest low
tide, it was observed that the creak was almost dry except for a thin layer of water flowing towards
sea. The pre-earthquake level of the low water line (LWL) used to be at least 1m above the present
level (Plate 18). The creek was navigable round the year and local people used it as a waterway for
carrying sand and other marine products from the sea coast to the inland villages by boat. The boats
with sand and other cargo could sail along the creek. It is no longer so because of ground uplift.
Shyamnagar /Shaymnagar creek

The creek at Shyamnagar has got cut off from the sea, with several boats stranded on the
dried up channel (Plate 19). Presently (i.e. post-earthquake) there is no tidal inflow into the creek
even during high tide. The remnants of the creek and vestiges occur as local stagnant pools of water
(Plate 20). Navigation along the creek, transport of material etc. used to be regular activities prior to
earthquake. Emergence of land because of coseismic vertical uplift of about 1.0m has been inferred
here.
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80
Plate 11: View from Kalipur beach, North

Andaman. Circle shows emerged islands in
post-quake scenario.
Plate 13: Kalighat jetty, North Andaman. Green

arrow shows pre-earthquake HTL while red
arrow indicates post earthquake HTL
Plate 15: Ramnagar, North Andaman.

Evidence of active river bed with bank
erosion and sand deposition prior the quake
Plate 12: North of Kalighat, North Andaman.

Green arrow shows pre-earthquake HTL while
red arrow indicates post earthquake HTL
Plate 14: Ramnagar, North Andaman.

Arrow indicates direction of river water
flow before earthquake
Plate 16: Ramnagar river bridge, North

Andaman. Arrow indicates pre-earthquake
direction of river water flow with clogged
debris in the sluice of the bridge.
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81
Kishorinagar/ Mangrove Forest/ Gudinala creek

This area lies in the western fringe of North Andaman. All the tidal creeks near Kishorinagar
village have almost dried up, and large stretches of mangrove are under threat of extinction because
of withdrawal of tidal water from this area (Plate 21, the creek shown is located east of Gudi nala).
The difference of highest high tide measured in the region is 1.2m below the level before earthquake.
Ground fissure, lateral spreading and landslip were noted in the nearby Kishorinagar village. The
adjacent mangrove forest has totally dried up because of lack of any tidal play even during highest
high tide (Plate 22). The marginal parts of the mangrove swamps near the creeks show evidence of
ground movement due to lateral spread (Plate 23), which may be attribute d to seismic ground
shaking associated with the 26 December 2004 earthquake. The ground surface of the mangrove
forest exhibit mud cracks (Plate 24) suggesting post-earthquake aerial exposure of the mangrove soil.
During our boat cruise, effects of lateral spread on the mangrove forests were observed. Large
chunks of ground of about 30 to 40 m length, along with the mangrove plants standing on them, have
slipped about 10-15m from the bank to the middle of the creek (Plate 25, note the dried up colony of
mangrove brought by landslip to the middle of the creek from the bank). Although we were sailing in
the creeks during high tides, the barnacles were seen attached to the substrate of mangrove branches
at a higher level about 1 m higher than the creek water level (Plate 26). Another unusual feature
observed in the course of the cruise was the greenish brown to greenish yellow colour of the creek
water. As we cruised along towards the open sea, the colour gradually started changing to the normal
sea-green, and about a couple of kilometers inland from the open sea, the creek water colour was
normal sea green (see discussions in a later section).
Paschim Sagar/Casuarina Bay

The beach shows retreat of sea with exposure of large span of foreshore and backshore (Plate
27). Near the mouth of the tidal creek there is currently active erosion of the coast. The present high
water line is 1.3m below the pre-earthquake high tide line. On the vertical section of the beach (now
raised as a berm), a dark coloured 30cm laye r of dried up and compressed mangrove twigs and
branches partly altered to peat, and overlain by 80cm thick sand layer was noted (Plate 28). This
sand layer may as well represent an earlier episode of storm surge or palaeo-tsunami with a transient
subsidence. The entire section has got exposed due to recent vertical uplift of the beach by about
1.2m. Recent uplift has exposed rocky surfaces along the coast of the island towards south of the
Casuarina Bay.
Our observations reveal that vertical ground uplift increases from about 30cm to about 1.2m
from the eastern to the western coast of the northern part of North Andaman Island. The abrupt postearthquake changes in the drainage system, particularly of the creeks and streams flowing to the west
to the sea , indicate differential vertical uplift.
INTERPRETATION
Based on the estimated vertical movements at different observation points, we have drawn
contours, of +1.0, +0.5, 0, -0.5, and -1.0 meter vertical movement (Fig. 2). The positive signs
indicate uplift, and negative sign subsidence with respect to the pre-earthquake elevation. The zero
contour indicates no vertical movement, and may be called the neutral line (Bilham et al., 2005, in
press). The hachured and stippled characters in Fig.1 demarcate the areas of tectonic uplift and
tectonic subsidence respectively. The following conclusions can be drawn from the contour map.
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82
Plate 17: Ramnagar beach, North

Andaman. Arrow indicates tidal inlet that
became hanging and hence dry.
Plate 18: Radhanagar creek, North Andaman.

Note narrow relic of a once navigable
waterway.
Plate 19: Shyamnagar creek, North

Andaman. Note the completely dried up
tidal river as a direct spin off earthquake.
Plate 20: Shyamnagar creek, North

Andaman. Note ponding of stagnant water
in lower levels
Plate 21: Kishorinagar creek, North

Andaman; totally dried up after
earthquake
Plate 22: Mangrove forest near Kishorinagar,

North Andaman, remains dried after
earthquake. Arrow indicates pre-earthquake
HTL.
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83
Plate 23: Kishorinagar (Gudi nala) creek,

North Andaman. Wide lateral spread near
the bank of the creek.
Plate 25: Gudi nala. Note the dried up

colony of mangrove brought by landslip to
the middle of the creek from the bank; also
note the colour of water.
Plate 28: Paschim sagar, North Andaman.

Note the newly emerged expanse of beach.
Plate 24: West of Kishorinagar, North

Andaman. Note mud cracked surface on a
previously submerged mangrove forest.
Plate 26: Gudi nala , North Andaman, near

sea; during high tide. Arrow indicates preearthquake HTL (spring tide)
Plate 29: Paschim sagar, North Andaman.

Arrow shows rootlets of mangrove.
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84
1. All the contours are sub-parallel, with a general NNE-SSW trend. Those, in turn are
parallel to the trench axis of subduction of the Indian plate below the Burmese plate (Curray et al.,
2005). This parallelism of the contours with the trench axis indicates that the causative fault of the
vertical movements, i.e. the surface of the earthquake-generating fault of 26 December 2004, is subparallel to the trench axis, and so is the trace of the fault. From observations in the Islands only, the
exact trace of the fault in the Bay of Bengal sea floor to the west of the Andaman Islands, can not be
inferred. However, generation of a great tsunami because of the earthquake indicates that the tip line
of the fault slip intersected the ground surface, i.e. the fault was a ground-rupturing fault.
2. Sub-parallel disposition of the contours indicates that, in the scale of our observation and
resolution, there was no significant lateral slip variation in the study area.
3. The ground to the west of the neutral line has been uplifted, and uplift increases from the
neutral line to the west. This pattern of spatial variation of vertical uplift indicates that the causative
fault has a significant thrust component (i.e. the fault is either a pure thrust fault, or a thrust fault
with strike-slip component). The westerly increase of uplift indicates that the trace of the thrust fault
lies further to the west of the Andaman Islands. This westerly increase in uplift is likely to continue
up to the trace of the fault, where it would be maximum (Fig. 3). How far to the west the rising trend
of uplift continues, i.e. location of the trench axis on the sea floor, could not be determined by this
study, which was restricted to ground observations.
4. The gradient of westerly increase of uplift may be used to estimate uplift (i.e. vertical
component of slip) of the causative fault. From Kalipur/ Ramnagar beach at the eastern coast, to the
Paschimsagar area in the western coast, through Kishorinagar village in North Andaman Island, we
have well constrained data set, which gives an off-fault gradient of tectonic uplift (in a direction
orthogonal to the fault trace). By extending the gradient up to the trench axis (Fig.5), we get 6.3 m
vertical uplift on the fault, if the fault trace coincides with the trench axis. This estimate will be less
if the fault trace is further to the east of the trench axis. So, 6.3m is the estimate of maximum
possible vertical component of slip on the causative fault along that particular line.
5. The ground to the east of the neutral line has been affected by tectonic subsidence, which
increases from the neutral line towards the east. How far to the east the subsidence continues is not
clear. We have estimated maximum subsidence in our study area around Port Blair. To the east of
Port Blair area in South Andaman, we have only one set of observations in the Havelock Island in
the Ritchies Archipelago. In the Havelock Island, the vertical movement is almost negligible (less
than 30 cm). So we may infer that east of the neutral line the subsidence increases up to a certain
distance and then decreases to neutral, i.e. the regional level. However this conclusion is constrained
by only one set of observations at the Havelock Island.
The contours of subsidence are also parallel to the neutral line. As already discussed, the
subsidence cannot be explained by faulting.
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Figure 2. Distribution of co-seismic vertical movement of the 26 December 2004 earthquake in the
North, Middle and South Andaman Islands. The estimates of vertical movement are shown in the
contours (dashed line). Contours indicate +1.0, +0.5, 0, -0.5, -1.0 meters of vertical movement
with positive and negative signs for uplift and subsidence of ground respectively. The 0 contour
passes through the area of no vertical movement (the neutral line). Hachured character -area of
tectonic uplift; Stippled character- area of tectonic subsidence. Tectonic elements taken from
Seismotectonic Atlas, GSI, 2000
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Figure 3. Sketch to show that in thrust faulting, vertical uplift is maximum at the fault interface,
and gradually decreases away from the fault (F-F) to nil (off-fault decrease in vertical
component of slip) at the neutral line. The lines a-a", b-b", c-c" are pre-faulting horizontal
markers in the hanging wall, Because of thrust faulting, the points a, b, and c, on the hanging
wall at the fault interface, slips to a', b' and c' respectively. a-a', b-b' and c-c' are dip slip
components at different depths.
MODEL TO EXPLAIN LAND SUBSIDENCE

Fig.3 illustrates that in thrust faults, the vertical component of dip-slip is maximum in the
hanging wall at the fault interface. As we move away from the interface, the component gradually
decreases and ultimately becomes nil at the neutral line. The contour pattern of vertical movement is
in agreement with this theoretical deduction of off-fault variation in vertical component of slip (i.e.
vertical uplift) of thrust faults.
However, beyond the neutral line, in the dip direction of the fault, all points in the hanging
wall should remain at their pre-thrusting level. In that context subsidence to the east of the neutral
line, and parallelism of the subsidence contours with the neutral line appears enigmatic.
Our observations at Havelock Island indicate that subsidence increases towards east of the
neutral line up to a maximum, and then as one proceeds further to the east, gradually decreases to nil.
This feature of subsidence can be explained by a model (Fig.4), which envisages elastic crustal
buckling because of the horizontal compression due to convergence of the two plates of the
subduction zone. The crustal shortening during the long interseismic period, resulted in antiformal
arch and resultant increase in accumulated elastic strain. Slip, generating earthquake, occurred when
the accumulated strain exceeded the strength of the fault plane. The coseismic slip was associated
with down buckling or elastic unfolding of the antiform, which resulted in land subsidence, as
explained in the model (Fig. 4).
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Figure 4. Schematic diagram to explain simultaneous uplift and subsidence in different sectors
because of coseismic vertical movement of the 26 December 2004 earthquake. (a) Configuration at
the early inter-seismic stage. Thin lines are horizontal markers in the crust. PP' is the pin line. The
earth's surface with respect to the sea level, the position of the islands and the trench axis are shown.
(b) Because of horizontal compression due to subduction-related plate convergence, the crust
deforms by elastic buckling. The pin line PP' moves closer to the fault surface. L-L' is the crustal
shortening. Because of this uparching of the crust (red lines), the islands rise at higher elevations, and
grow in area because of land emergence above the waves. This is the phase of interseismic uplift
because of elastic buckling of the crust, which is a slow process (30 -50 mm per year rate of
convergence). (c) Release of the accumulated elastic strain by reverse faulting, and simultaneous
unfolding of the anticlinal arch. Slip (i.e. earthquake) occurs when the accumulated elastic strain
exceeds the strength of the fault plane. As a result of reverse faulting, areas close to the fault shows
tectonic uplift which, from a maximum at the fault interface, gradually decreases towards the neutral
line. On the far side of the neutral line, the ground surface subsides because of unfolding of the
anticlinal arch. Subsidence increases away from the neutral line to a maximum and then decreases to
nil (i.e. return to pre-faulting regional level).
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Figure 5: Across the Andaman Islands, an E-W gradient of tectonic uplift is observed. Uplift
increases from 0.3m at the eastern coast (Kalipur) of North Andaman Island to about 1.2m at the
western coast (Paschimsagar) along a particular line. Extending the same gradient further to the
west up to the trench, an estimate of 6.3 m vertical component of the earthquake slip along that
line is obtained.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
The North Andaman Island has been affected by uplift resulting in disruption of drainage
and change in ecology of the areas, which were intertidal mud flats and mangrove swamps before the
earthquake. Large areas of the mangrove swamps have been uplifted above the present high tide
level. As a consequence seawater cannot enter these uplifted parts of the mangrove forests and the
forests on those parts will gradually perish. However, if the local administration and the Forest
Authorities arrange adequate protection, these uplifted parts of the tidal flats, which earlier used to
support a rich mangrove colony, will gradually change to a sweet-water-fed forest.
The drainage of the westerly flowing rivers in North Andaman has been affected because of
a change in their gradients. Segments of the creeks and inland channels have dried up, leaving
stagnant pools of water on the riverbed. This has adversely affected the lives of the local residents of
Radhanagar, Shyamnagar, Kishorinagar and other areas in North Andaman, who earlier used these
channels for transportation of men and material by boat, and access to the sea for fishing and other
activities related to their livelihood. However, there is a possibility of restoration of the westerly
gradient by erosion of the riverbeds by monsoon water, in the subsequent years.
In the course of boat journey through the Gudi nala and the creeks leading to Paschim Sagar
area, it was observed that the colour of the creek water is deep yellow (turmeric yellow)/ brownish
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yellow. The yellow colour gradually fades and changes to normal greenish blue colour as we
approached the open sea. According to the local residents of Kishorinagar, this abnormal change in
the colour of water in the creeks of the mangrove swamp was recorded after the rains in early May
2005. This feature indicates changes in water quality because of the earthquake and the resultant
vertical uplift in the area. It has been mentioned earlier that the mud flats in the mangrove swamp in
the Kishorinagar area have been raised above the present high tide level. The salt water of the sea,
which supported the wide variety of biota in the mud flats including the mangrove colony, is no
longer available in the swamps and mud flats, which are gradually drying up (Plate 24, desiccation
cracks) posing a threat to the biota. Change in the colour of creek water, according to our
observations, is an impact of the ecological changes in the swamps.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Similar studies may be carried out in the islands south of 110N latitude i.e. in the Little
Andaman Island and the islands of the Nicobar group.
There is a possibility of restoration of the westerly gradient of the river channels in North
Andaman, which has been disrupted because of differential uplift. Field observations to monitor the
changes in the drainage may be undertaken.
Studies to monitor change in water quality and soil properties in the uplifted and submerged
parts of the Andaman and Nicobar islands may be taken up.
REFERENCES
Bilham, R., Engdahl, E.R., Fedl, N., and Satyabala, S.P. (2005). Partial and complete rupture of the
Indo-Andaman plate boundary 1847-2004, Seis.Res.Lett (in press)
Curray, J.R. (2005) Tectonics and history of the Andaman Sea region, Jr. Asian Earth Sc. (in press)
USGS (2004) http://equint.or.uss.gov/neic
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BATHYMETRY AND MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS ALONG ANDAMAN

ARC-TRENCH GAP IN THE POST EARTHQUAKE SCENARIO OF
26TH DECEMBER 2004
R. Sengupta, D.K. Deb Ray, A.K.Dasgupta, S.K.Ghosh, S.Dutta, Renjith M.L., N.G.Tom
D.Chakraborty, S.C.Biswas, B.K.Nandi, K.K.Mukherjee, P.J.Joseph and A.Das
Marine Wing, Geological Survey of India, Kolkata 700 091.
ABSTRACT
Comprehensive and wide scale variation in the seabed morphology and magnetic
anomaly patterns have been recorded over ten different transects after the great earthquake of
Sumatra, which occurred on the 26th December 2004. These changes are indicative of
tremendous hydromechanical failures and associated low temperature oxidation and alteration of
mineral phases in the oceanic basalt wherein titanomagnetite series changes due to low
temperature (< 300C) oxidation reducing the magnetic intensity of the ocean floor. Evidences
of such changes and the elastic rebound along these planes of the oceanic floor have been
recorded by the present survey. This explains the cause of epidemic aftershocks in the region.
INTRODUCTION
The great earthquake in Sumatra on the 26th December 2004 has been the fourth
devastating earthquake in the millennium, which has attracted the attention of earth scientists on
a global scale. The associated Tsunami and loss of life and property have added a dimension of
propanity and social evil to this event, which is probably the highest in degree in the
rememberable past. This has changed the morphology of this Arc-Trench system, changing
bathymetry in local scale and fracturing the oceanic lithosphere over a wide zone of about 100120 km, over a north-south distance of 1000-1200 km from its epicenter (USGS website) in the
south to the northern tip of Andaman Nicobar group of island. This entire zone now represent a
varitable laboratory for the study of dynamic changes in the lithosphere caused due to a sudden
release of energy to the tune of 1024 Nm by the earthquake and its potential rebound to normal
state by readjustment over a span of time in future, through creation of more and more
aftershocks of lesser magnitude that are cascading even now.
Obviously such huge burst of potential energy in such a shot time span, will be converted
partly into mechanical energy which will definitely produce changes in the morphology of the
lithosphere; part of it will be transformed into acoustic energy to produce a rocking motion in the
lithospheric columns; but a substantial part of it will be transformed into heat energy that will
cause convection from the lithospheric mantle to the layers above, as much water will be released
from the down going subduction slab. Such movement of channlized water and other fluids will
eventually set-in hydrothermal activities along a few favoured zones, where secondary
permeability will develop due to mechanical failures. This will eventually bring forth low
temperature oxidation and alteration of the minerals in the overlying layer-2 and layer-3 of
oceanic crust.
It is well known that important ferromagnetic minerals in ocean basalts like the
titanomagnetite (xFe 2 TiO4 . (1-x) Fe 3 O4 ) and the titanomaghemite series (x FeTiO3 . (1-x) Fe 2 O3 )
are primarily responsible for oceanic magnetic anomalies. It is also known that the minerals in
the titanomaghemite series are much less magnetic, being essentially antiferromagnetic with
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small defects (Vacquier, 1972; Jones, 2004). The Curie temperature of the titanomagnetite series
decreases with increasing x in an approximately linear fashion from 578C (x=0, magnetite) to
153C (x=1, ulvospinel). So the normal remnant magnetization (NRM) in rocks depends mostly
on the concentration of their magnetite contents. This reduces when titanomagnetite is oxidized
at temperatures less than, 300C. This produces cation-deficient titanomaghemite, a process in
deep-sea basalts (Smith & Banerjee; 1986). The lowering is as much by at least one order of
magnitude (Jones, 2004).
In northern hemisphere comparatively more and more negative anomalies are recorded
with increasing normal remnant magnetization (NRM) in the present field. A loss of
magnetization (magnetic susceptibility) will therefore appear as decrement in the amplitude of
magnetic anomaly, when compared with the old one. Thus any changes in the patterns of
magnetic anomalies which are bound to occur due to mechanical, acoustic and hydrothermal
(heat) changes, already discussed above, will provide insights to the propagation of mechanical
failures/ invasion of hydrothermal and associated oxidation/ alteration of mineral phases and
finally into the layer of decollement (horizontal stratification) and vertical faults (normal/ thrust/
strike-slip) which help in separating/ cutting of such hydrothermal/ mechanical energy
propagation across the horizontal and vertical planes. Obviously such horizontal/ vertical planes
delimiting energy propagation, discussed above, are the new signatures of crustal deformities
inflicted into the crustal/ lithospheric mosaic due to the great earthquake. The opposite is true for
reverse magnetization, which pertains to older age.
PRESENT WORK
With a view to map zones/ areas of profound crustal deformities, in the post great
earthquake scenario, the Marine Wing of Geological Survey of India, mounted a special cruise
SM-177, onboard its Research Vessel Samudra Manthan on 18th January 2005 for a period of 25
days. Fig.1 shows the cruise tracks along with tectonic elements (Curray, 2005-in press) on
which fresh bathymetry and magnetic (TF) observations are taken. The cruise tracks covered the
area of the Andaman Arc-Trench system, down to the southern limit of the EEZ, south of which
the great earthquake of Sumatra occurred. Care has been taken to repeat atleast ten earlier
transects on which previous bathymetry and magnetic (TF) data exist, for comparison.
The position location for the present bathymetry as well as magnetic data in SM-177 has
been controlled by GP-1650 WD System, Bathy-2000 and Cesium vapour magnetometer have
been used for recording the bathymetry and the magnetic (TF) data respectively. The old data
were however acquired using different instruments and positioning systems in different cruises, a
description of which is given in the Appendix-I.
Magnetic data of SM-177 has been corrected applying IGRF coefficients of 2010. The
old data have been processed using the DGRF coefficients of the respective epochs. In a few
cases, partial coverage along a particular transect, in two different times, have been synthesized
to figure out the complete transect for comparison with the new data. Over transect-8, a baseline
correction has been applied to one segment of the profile for continuity.
Results and Discussions
Bathymetry
Ten different transects from down south to north in increasing order have been plotted in Figures
2, 3 and 4. The recent bathymetry has been plotted in solid blue over the old counterpart in solid
red colour. Considering the errors in position location and bathymetry data recorded previously
by SATNAV (location) and read from analog charts (bathymetry) respectively, the errors in the
position is 200-300 m; while in bathymetry the maximum error (instruments plus personal) is
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approximately 13.7m. The error in position location reduced to 50m and 10m after
introduction of GPS and DGPS in year from 1995 and 2001 respectively (Appendix-I).
Installation of Bathy-2000 permitted depth determination with the accuracy of few centimeters.
Analyses of bathymetry data show significant structural and morphological changes of
the seafloor as a result of this major earthquake. The basis of the findings is a comparative view
of the seafloor before (within the last 15 years) and after the earthquake. The replicate
measurements are not error free. Different location finding techniques and different instruments
for measurement of depth (discussed above) introduce artifacts and enlarge the error bounds.
Proper care was however taken to filter out and minimize such noise from the signals. These are
presented in the profiles (Figs. 2, 3 & 4) and discussed below.
Bathymetric profile along traverse 1 (Fig. 2), the southern most E-W profile in the area,
indicates change in topography between longitude 93o 04 and 93o 12, on the inner slope of the
accretionary prism, compared to the bathymetric data recorded in the year 2001 (SM-148).
Bathymetric profile (Fig. 2) along line-2 (6oN lat.) shows minor change in the bathymetry along
the trench slope and the accretionary prism between 92o 45 and 92o 55E when compared with the
profile of SM-142 cruise during which same positioning system was used and bathymetric data
were recorded on Raytheon Echo sounder. Profile along line-3 (lat. 7o 40) when compared with
SM-55 data (ships positioning system used SATNAV system with Raytheon Echo sounder)
shows some irregularities in the accretionary prism part between 92 and 93E (Fig. 2). These
irregularities might also be due to data acquisition from different instrumental sources. Profile
along line-4 (8o 40N lat.) when compared with earlier cruise profile (SM-87) again shows
bathymetric changes along the trench axis and minor topographical mismatch with the earlier
data within the accretionary prism, but beyond 92.1E the comparison is not reliable as the earlier
data did not follow the same latitude. The data is very much compatible between 91.3 E and
92.1 E.
Bathymetric profile (Fig. 3) along line-5 (940N lat.) when compared with earlier SM-55
data does not show much variation except for minor irregularities around 91.5o E long. This could
happen also due to positional error as during SM55 when position fixing was carried out with
SATNAV. Around 91E longitude a rift with graben like structure is observed. The bathymetry
along the traverse-6 (Fig. 3) brings out clearly the accretionary prism, East Margin Fault,
Diligent Fault, Invisible Bank and West Andaman Fault from the west to the east. The
bathymetry data could be compared continuously up to 92.5 and as such no major changes
except for a change in the sea floor morphology between 9110.4 and 9119.4E where a very
prominent u-shaped valley exists. When echograms of SM-55 and the present cruise are
compared, some reactivation of about 8 to 14m in the seabed is observed in the post earthquake
scenario. In areas north of 10N latitude, bathymetric profiles (Figure 4; profiles 7, 8, 9 and 10)
do not show any significant change when compared to earlier bathymetric profiles except for
some minor changes. Plotted on a compressed scale of 1cm equal to 1000m the change in the
seafloor morphology is not very apparent to comprehend. Moreover, the position locations are
also different which makes comparison ineffective. To overcome the constraints in data
presentation we have determined the bathymetry value, constraining the position location, and
plotted them over two different traverses 1 and 2 (Fig.5) where GPS has been used for locating
cruise tracks. It is significant to note from this exercise that while overall changes in bathymetry
is well within the acceptable limits of error (25m), in a zone nearly 1.5-5 km in width, the
changes in bathymetry is remarkable and is over several tens and hundreds of meter. These zones
certainly represent the hydromechanical flextures and associated deformations indicating largescale mechanical disruptions of the ocean floor that occurred following the great earthquake. The
elastic rebound of the oceanic lithosphere is still continuing through these cracks, which has
created an epidemic of aftershocks in the area.
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Magnetics
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Magnetic anomalies over the ten transects have been plotted along with bathymetry in
the same Figures 2, 3 and 4. The recent magnetic (TF) anomalies have been plotted in dotted blue
over the old counterpart in dotted red. A perusal of these clearly depicts that the magnetic (TF)
anomalies are quiter compared to the normal oceanic strip magnetic anomaly in the east of the
trench and over the accretionary prism. It is worthwhile to note that the degree of quietness is
variable from south to north. As one proceeds northward the quietness diminishes and the old
order prevails qualitatively (along a portion of profile 4 and 5; 6 to 10) signifying minimum
changes in magnetization even in the post great earthquake scenario. Thus the disappearance of
sudden jumps (quietness) in the magnetic anomalies in the northern sector can be directly
correlated with slow rate of subduction of the Indian plate under the Burmese Arc/ Asian plate
a view expressed by Vacquier (1972) and supported by Curray (2005-in press) in his
reconstruction of the tectonics of the Central Andaman Basin from 32 Ma through 4 Ma. Thus
we conclude presence of asperities, along 8N, 10N and north of 1230 latitude, in an E-W
direction, where rate of the eastward subduction has been hindered by different transcurrent
faults. This is corroborated by the study of the seismotectonic pattern in this area (Das et al, DST
News Letter, 2004) whereas the rate of subduction elsewhere, towards south, is more rapid when
compared to the north.
Normally the consumption of oceanic lithosphere at the trenches implies disappearance
of fossil remanant magnetization (Vacquier, 1972). Thus lineated magnetic anomalies are absent
in the Andaman Arc-Trench system east of Ninety East Ridge due to destruction of remanant
magnetization as an effect of deformation and movement of fluids in the secondary pore spaces
(Jones, 2004). This is evident in some portion of outer slope and accretionary prism and over
trench zone across the Sunda subduction complex. Depending on the nature and degree of
change in the magnetic anomalies, recorded during the present survey with respect to the old one
along each traverse, is divided into two/ three sectors (profiles 1 to 7) viz., S1, S2 and S3.
Reduction of magnetic anomalies about 100-150 nT are observed in the sector S1 over
the profiles 2 to 5 and a huge change of 500 nT is recorded over the same sector of the profile -1.
In this sector the subducting Indian plate suffers intense deformation during the great earthquake
of Sumatra resulting cracks/ faults increasing permeability through which hydrothermal fluid
come up to the upper label. Low temperature oxidation in this region, induced by thermal fluid,
reduced magnetic susceptibility of the oceanic layers 3 and 2 lowering magnetic anomalies in
this sector. This conclusion is supported by the fact that the sea-floor heat flow on accretionary
complexes is normally lower than over sediment-covered oceanic crust of the same age situated
far from the plate boundary (Watanabe et al, 1977). But the absence of linear or smoothly
varying temperature gradients at many sites shows that fluid flow is common. Regions where
anomalous temperature gradients i.e., the large variation in heat flow on the surface of the
accretionary prism indicate that heat is passed to shallow levels by channelized fluid flow
through high permeability fault zones (Langseth et al, 1990; Foucher, et al, 1990).
The previous magnetic profile over the transect-1, the southernmost transects
however, still remains an enigma to be explained. A look at the profile immediately suggests that
the bathymetry and the magnetic anomaly over this area are totally contradictory to each other.
Such a situation can only happen when the magnetization of oceanic layers 2 and 3 cannot be
modeled by horizontal tectonic elements below the outer slope, the trench zone and the
accretionary prism. But a diapiric intrusion below these will certainly explain the magnetic
behaviour. In such an eventuality since the diapiric intrusion will have a lithospheric mantle root
it will reflect in the free air gravity signature of the area. Das et al (DST Newsletter sent in
Feb.05) have reported a huge gravity high over this area, which corroborates out present
hypothesis. Thus this huge diapiric intrusion which has been acting as a strong asperities
hindering subduction, as a result of whic h the Sunda trench has taken a easterly bent producing a
cusp structure near 5N has been shattered by this devastating earthquake due to flexure
deformation of the oceanic crust. Thus the observations of Laryseth and Silver (1996) suggesting
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vigorous hydrothermal cooling of the upper oceanic crust, enhanced by faulting during flexure
deformation holds the key to the loss of the magnetic response over this traverse over the part of
outer slope, the trench zone and the accretionary prism. This intense deformation also propagated
towards north along the Sunda subduction complex. Considering the location (nearly 3.2N) of
this great earthquake, which is very near to this zone, this is easily acceptable. Hence the highest
intensity of low temperature oxidation, recorded over profile 1, where a previous 500 nT
anomaly has changed to 50 nT is ideally acceptable due to nearness (170 km) of the epicenter of
this devastating earthquake. This zone (i.e., zone-1) over transects 1 to 5 is shown by hatches in
the Figure 1. The +200nT anomaly can be explained through activation of pre-existing fault with
vertical slip, which restricted the movement of fluid in the west of 92.7E
The sector S2 marked over the transect 4, 5, 6 and 7 over the accretionary prism, the
newly observed magnetic anomalies retain its old patters but change in the amplitudes. This only
suggests that the thrust fault associated with the overriding plate along the plane of subduction is
not continuous all along its depth. On the contrary these changes their behaviour and become
decollement and their near horizontal attitude below the accretionary prism (AP) creates a
permeability barrier for the upcoming low temperature fluids, responsible for alteration of
minerals and associated reduction of magnetic susceptibility as discussed above. The changes in
amplitudes of the anomalies are accounted for activation of the pre-existing faults changing its
slip and invasion of hydrothermal fluid in the fault planes. These sectors (S2 over above
transects) are marked by the hatches zone-2 in the Fig. 1, inferred as asperity and obstruct the
subduction process. This is also true for a small section over the transect 2 and 3 where pre
earthquake magnetic anomaly show a small high over the magnetically quiet zone.
Similarly, the changes in the anomaly values/ patterns over the sector S3 of the profiles 1
to 8 suggests that the great earthquake of Sumatra has mechanically damaged the ocean floor and
re-activated the pre-existing faults to produce pathways for the low temperature fluids to come
up, for reduction of magnetic susceptibility. The careful study of bathymetry, which is presented
in compressed scale, reveals impression of deep-seated faults on the seabed. Change in the slips
of these faults and invasion of hydrothermal fluid through these fault planes promotes low
temperature oxidation as discussed earlier. Any one of these or both the process might have been
active in the zone-3 (Fig. 1), comprising of the sector S3 over the above transects, accounted for
the change in the observed magnetic anomaly. The high amplitude magnetic anomaly indicating
faults in the outer slope along traverses 3, 4 and 5 might have been destroyed due to the normal
process of subduction (discussed earlier) suggest zone of asperity obstructing subduction of
Indian plate beneath the Burmese plate.
The changes in the magnetic anomalies observed (parallel shift and reduction in the
amplitudes) over the transect 9 & 10 are due to slow rate of subduction of Indian plate. This area
is not affected by intense hot fluid activity as the aftershocks due to the recent earthquake of
Sumata have been hindered by different transcurrent faults (in E-W direction) discussed above.
Spectral analyses of magnetic data
Conventional analyses of power spectrum (Treitel et al., 1971) of the pre and post
earthquake magnetic anomalies over all the ten transects have been performed through shifting
window (overlap of 70-80%) of variable length (60-100 km) depending on the profile length. The
deepest magnetic interface determined for two sets of data (pre and post earthquake data) along
each profile and plotted in the Figure 6. The information about the depth of magnetic interface is
not possible at the both end (30-50 km) of a profile because each window yields a single depth
and it is plotted in the middle point of the window. This fact imposes a limitation on the
quantitative interpretation. The root mean square error in determination of these interfaces is
about 10% and it is acceptable in geophysical interpretation.
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The disposition of the magnetic interfaces (Fig. 6) for pre and post earthquake magnetic
data brought out a gap of variable width over transects along different latitudes as well as
different sectors of a given profile. The gap is measured with respect to the pre earthquake
magnetic interface and it is attributed to the change in magnetization of the oceanic crust and the
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change in the depth of the faulted oceanic blocks due to the recent devastating earthquake as
discussed in the earlier sections. So, a negative gap indicates shallowing of the magnetic
interface with respect to old one. The negative gap is more in almost all portions of southern
profiles (profile 1, 2 & 3) where magnetic interface raised by 2-4 km and supports the more rapid
rate of subduction of Indian plate and the most intense tectonic activities discussed earlier.
Similarly, relatively slow rate of subduction is supported by the small negative gap in the
northern sector of the area (transects 5 to 10). The small positive gaps along the traverses 4, 5, 6
& 8 can be explained by faulted oceanic blocks in the outer slope, the trench zone and in the
inner slope of accretionary prism of the Sunda subduction complex. The asperities suggested in
earlier sections are also corroborated with this view.
CONCLUSIONS
1) Recent bathymetry and magnetic survey over the Andaman-Arc-Trench system indicate largescale hydro-mechanical fracture of the ocean floor caused by the great earthquake of Sumatra
on 26th December 2004.
2) These fractures have induced large-scale upward movement of huge quantity of water by low
temperature convection.
3) Such low temperature convection (300C) has influenced oxidation/alteration of mineral
grains and a reduction in magnetic intensity/susceptibility which has been recorded has
magnetic highs in several transects over the Outer Slope and Trench.
4) Low cost bathymetric and magnetic survey has thus proved to be an important technique to
comprehend the tectonic effects of the great earthquake in the region.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to Mr. B. K. Saha, Dy. D. G., Marine Wing, Geological Survey
of India for his inspiration to conduct the work. They wish a deep sense of gratitude to Dr. L. K.
Das, the then Director (Geophysics), MW for his involvement with this work and valuable
suggestions for interpretation of magnetic data. Thanks to Dr. B. P. Pal, Director (Geophysics),
MW for his guidance for data processing. The cruise participants collecting the pre earthquake
bathymetry and data used in this report have been acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Curray, J. R. (2005). Tectonics and history of the Andaman Sea region. Journal of Asian Earth
Sciences, 73, (Article in Press), Figures 19-22.
Das, L. K., Pal, B. P., Ghatak, S. K., Nandi, B. K., Singh, R., Saha, B. K. (2004) Morphotectonic
connotations of the eastern seaboard of India from free air gravity map A study.
DCS DST News, August 2004, 18-21.
Das, L. K., Pal, B. P., Nandi, B. K., Singh, R., Ghatak, S. K., Mukherjee, K. K. (2005) Post
earthquake changes in the crustal architecture of the Arc-Trench system in the Bay
of Bengal and the Andaman Sea A crustal dynamic study. DCS DST News (in
press).
Foucher, J.P., Le Pichon, X., Lallemant, S., Hobart, M., Henry, P., Benedetti, M., Westbrook, G.
and Langseth, M., Hoba, M. (1990). Heat flow, tectonics and fluid circulation at
the toe of the Barbados Ridge accretionary prism. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 95, 8859-8867.
Jones, E. J. W. (2004), Marine Geophysics. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Chichester, pages 177-181,
342-343, 441-442,
Langseth, M. G., Westbrook, G. K. and Hoba, M. (1990). Contrasting geothermal regimes of the
Barbados accretionary complex. Journal of Geophysical Research, 95, 8829-8842.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
102
Smith, G. M. and Banerjee, S. K. (1986). Magnetic structure of the upper kilometer of marine
crust at Deep Sea Drilling Hole 504B, eastern Pacific Ocean. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 91, 10337-10354.
Trietel, S., Clement, W. O. and Kaul., R. K. (1971). Spectral determination of the depths of
buried magnetic basement rocks. Geophys. Jour. Roy. Asia. Soc., 24, 415-428.
Vacquier, V. (1972) Geomagnetism in Marine Geology. Elsevier Oceanography Series, 6,
Amsterdam, pages 68-69.
Watanabe, T., Langseth, M. G. and Anderson, R. N. (1977). Heat flow in back-arc basins of the
western Pacific. In Island arcs, Deep Sea Trenches and Back-arc Basins (Editors
M. Talwani and W. C. Pitman III). Maurice Ewing Series 1, American
Geophysical Union, Washington DC, 137-161.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
103
APPENDIX - I
The equipments deployed for collecting bathymetry, magnetic and navigation data onboard R. V. Samudra Manthan for
different cruises from 1987 to 2005.
Sl.
No.
Cruise
Year
1.
SM -177
2005
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
SM -148
SM -142
SM -128
SM -121
SM -120
SM -104
SM -095
SM -055
SM -36A
2001
2000
1998
1997
1997
1995
1994
1989
1987
Echo sounder employed

Type
Accuracy/ error
Bathy-2000
Frequency : 3.5 kHz
Raytheon LSR
Frequency : 3.5 kHz
10 cm
Instrument : 50 cm
+
Maximum personal
error: 13.2 m
(for the least sweep
rate used for
measurement of
higher depth)
Magnetometer employed
Type
Accuracy/
error
Cesium
magnetometer
0.01 nT
Model : G-880
Proton precession
magnetometer
Model: G-811
Positioning System emp loyed

Type
Accuracy/ error
FURUNO GPS
receiver
Model : GP 1650WD
10 m
(GPS mode)
GPS
Model : NP-210
50 m
MX1107 Dual
Channel Satellite
Navigator
50m (rms) +
370 m/knot
speed error.
0.1 nT
___________________________________________________ _______________________________ __________

104
SEISMOTECTONICS OF THE ANDAMAN- NICOBAR REGION: CONSTRAINTS

FROM AFTERSHOCKS WITHIN 24 HOURS OF THE GREAT
26 DECEMBER 2004 EARTHQUAKE
Sujit Dasgupta, Basab Mukhopadhyay and A. Acharyya
Geological Survey of India, 27 J. l. Nehru Road, Kolkata- 700 016, India
ABSTRACT
174 aftershocks of magnitude 4.8 occurred on 26 December 2004 following the great
Sumatra-Andaman shallow foci thrust earthquake that struck on the India- Southeast Asia plate
interface. Out of these, 112 shocks define the fault rupture plane while another 62 events locate
along the different strands of the West Andaman Fault (WAF). From spatio- temporal distribution of
aftershocks the primary rupture plane show 3 distinct segmentation from south to north. These
segments terminate alon g the transverse lithospheric hinge faults. Average down-dip width of
rupture is 140km and total rupture area is around 2.0 105 sq km; with an average slip of 15 meter
seismic moment (Mo) calculates to the order of 1.2 1030 dyne.cm. Seven unilaterally propagating
shocks from south towards north occurred within 130 minutes of the mainshock that ruptured the
entire fault segment with an average rate of 167m/ sec. Similar seven sequential northward
propagating shocks also characterize the WAF. 13 best double couple HRVD solutions including the
mainshock indicate primarily thrust mechanism though normal and strikeslip solutions are also
included.
INTRODUCTION
The Andaman arc together with the Burmese Arakan Yoma hill ranges present nearly
3500km long subducting margin in the northeastern part of the Indian plate where varying degrees of
seismic activity, volcanism and active deformation are evidenced. The region serves as an important
transitional link between the Eastern Himalaya collision margin and the Sunda arc (a part of the
West Pacific arc system). Seismicity and tectonics of this convergent margin though studied in
details (see among others Curray, 2005; Dasgupta et al. 2003), nevertheless is insufficient to propose
any medium to short-term predictive model for the occurrence of such great inter-plate earthquake
like the one that struck on 26 December 2004. Notwithstanding a few soft claims in the media on the
forecast of this major earthquake that created havoc via tsunami all along the Indian Ocean rim
countries, the event could not have been predicted within a reasonable space, time and size window
with the present knowledge of earthquake physics, statistics and tectonics.
Basic seismological data, on which our understanding of this mega-event is derived, is
largely provided by the USGS web site. From the study of NEIC earthquake catalogue both in the
pre- and post- 26 December 2004 scenario we had demonstrated (see http//:
www.gsi.gov.in/suma_eq.htm) spatio-temporal variation of seismicity pattern; between 1st January
and 26th November 2004 there are records of 260 events from the region, while in the period since
27th November till the great earthquake of 26 December there was a clear seismic quiescence of one
month. We had further shown that all aftershocks that struck on 26 December 2004 (193 as listed on
08.02.2005) form three distinct linear clusters along the subduction mega-thrust and two more
clusters along the West Andaman fault. We have revisited the NEIC catalogue (as on 09.06.2005) to
find that 283 aftershocks are recorded on 26 th December itself and in this note we discuss the
seismotectonic setup of the Andaman- Nicobar region based on spatio-temporal behavior of 174
aftershocks (M 4.8) that occurred on 26th December following the mainshock.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
105
ANALYSIS
A total of 112 aftershocks (M 4.8) occur along the mega-thrust plane. Except one event
(no.25; Table 1) that locates south of Nias the rest occur north of the mainshock. The northernmost
aftershock (no. 147; Table 3) recorded locates close to 14N latitude. The fault rupture due the
earthquake thus propagated 11 degrees (> 1200 km) from 3 (epicenter) to 14N. Another 62
aftershocks occur within the overriding Andaman-Sumatra lithospheric plate, loading primarily the
West Andaman Fault (WAF) system up to western part of the Andaman Spreading Ridge (ASR).
Except 11 slightly deeper (max depth: 61 km) shocks all are shallow foci events (< 40km). Ten
aftershocks are of magnitude (mb, Ms or Mw) greater than 6.0 including one event of Mw 7.2 (no.
53; Table 1). These 112 mega -thrust plane aftershocks are plotted in solid circles (Figure 1) on a
simplified tectonic map (after Curray, 2005) superimposed with 40km contour (red line) on top of
the Benioff zone and nine (f8 to f16) lithospheric hinge faults within the subducting Indian plate
(both after Dasgupta, et al, 2003). The mainshock locates on the Benioff zone where it is segmented
by the fault f16.
From the spatial distribution pattern of aftershocks the entire rupture plane can be divided
into three segments. The southernmost segment I containing the mainshock, is about 570km long,
trends N40W and extends up to the hinge fault f13 (revised from our earlier study; see Dasgupta et
al. 2005). 54 aftershocks originated from this segment define the rupture plane. The strongest
aftershock (no.53) locates close to the northern margin of segment I. Best double couple solutions
(HRVD) for the mainshock and 6 aftershocks (no. 53, 133, 141, 150, 164 and 165; in bold font,
Table 1) are schematically shown (Figure 1) and parameters listed (Table 5). While the mainshock,
aftershocks 53 and 133 show thrust mechanism, no.141 is a downdip compression reverse fault with
moderate right-lateral slip and no. 150 & 164 display normal faulting. The central or segment II is
between the hinge faults f13 and f11. This segment trends N15-20E and is about 400km long with
31recorded aftershocks (Table 2). The northern sector of this segment (between shock 63 and fault
f11) has appar ently remained unbroken on 26 December. The largest aftershock (no. 100, Table 2) is
of magnitude (Mw) 6.6 that gives thrust fault solution (HRVD). Fault segment III, between f11 and
f8, trends N15E with a fault rupture length of 500km. 26 aftershocks (Table 3) define the rupture
plane with the strongest shock (no.110) of magnitude (Mw) 6.3. While this event shows normal fault
mechanism, 3 more close by shocks (no. 120, 140 and 162) give strike-slip solutions with the NW
nodal plane indicating activity along fault f9 (see also Dasgupta et al 2003). Due to the presence of
lithospheric hinge faults within the subducting Indian plate, the Benioff zone is segmented resulting
several shallow and steeper dip segments; this is clearly brought out by the swerving nature of the
40km contour on top of the Benioff zone (see Dasgupta et al. 2003). Though aftershocks are
distributed throughout the entire mega-thrust plane they appear to be more concentrated in the
steeper segments.
We further shortlist 7 events that occurred in temporal succession along the unilateral
direction of rupture propagation. These 7 aftershocks (red solid circle in Figure 1) are no.1, 2 (in
rupture segment I, bold font, Table 1) and 9, 13, 14, 24 & 30 (in rupture segment III, bold font, Table
3) that define the entire fault rupture from the mainshock in the south to shock no. 30 in the north. It
took 2h 9m 50.76s to break up to the northern-most point of the mega-thrust since the mainshock,
traversing a total of about 1300 km fault length with an average rate of about 167meter/ sec. We are
inclined to believe that these 7 sequentially propagating shocks are triggered events rather than
aftershocks (sensu stricto) that usually strike via residual stress to break small asperities left by the
mainshock rupture. The unilateral propagating rates for the inter-events given by the respective
length/time are: 242m/sec (from mainshock to aftershock 1); 730m/ sec (from aftershocks 1 to 2);
250m/ sec (from 2 to 9); 158m/ sec (from 9 to 14) and 147m/ sec (from 24 to 30). These unilateral
Figure 1. Tectonic Map of Sumatra- Andaman Region (after Curray, 2005) with 112 aftershocks ( focal depth
40 km; + > 40 km) that occur on 26 December 2004 following the mainshock (star). f8- f16 are lithospheric
hinge faults and red line is the 40 km contour on top of the subducting Indian lithosphere (both after Dasgupta
et al. 2003). The fault rupture plane is shown in shades of yellow and green for the 3 segments (I-III).
7aftershocks that occur sequentially from south to north along the mega-thrust; for numbers refer to Tables 14. Beach ball diagrams are HRVD best double couple solutions; for parameters see Table 5. Red star: volcano;
N- Narcondam, B- Barren. ASR- Andaman spreading ridge; MPF- Mae Ping Fault; TPF- Three Pagodas Fault;
SSF- Shan Scrap Fault; WAF- West Andaman Fault; RF- Ranong Fault; KMF- Khlong Marui Fault.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
107
Table 1: Chronological listing of aftershocks on 26 December from fault rupture segment I

No
YEAR
MO
DA
Hr M n Sec
LAT
LONG
DEPTH
0
1
2
7
8
12
16
17
23
25
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
00 58 53.45 3.30
01 17 10.33 4.94
01 21 20.66 6.34
01 40 07.13 5.84
01 48 52.07 5.43
02 15 23.57 6.17
02 30 28.94 6.72
02 34 52.15 3.99
02 46 20.74 4.24
02 53 13.04 0.06
95.98
94.27
93.36
93.15
94.46
93.47
93.08
94.14
93.61
97.04
30
30
30
30
51
30
15
30
30
30
mb
8.9
5.5
6.1
5.3
5.7
5.6
5.1
5.7
5.7
5.4
27
31
34
36
38
41
42
44
45
47
50
51
53
55
69
71
72
74
76
78
80
90
97
105
106
111
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
02 59 14.39 3.18
03 09 34.08 4.05
03 19 13.05 3.55
03 24 54.94 4.47
03 30 01.38 4.64
03 46 42.04 6.72
03 50 22.18 5.51
03 54 44.77 6.48
04 00 42.83 4.76
04 02 12.52 3.04
04 10 12.71 5.48
04 12 35.65 6.44
04 21 29.81 6.91
04 31 29.06 6.99
05 23 50.8
3.35
05 51 40.01 6.45
05 55 49.4
3.17
06 09 30.84 6.34
06 16 14.68 5.84
06 22 35.25 5.34
06 38 36.05 6.65
07 59 37.72 3.23
09 07 38.95 3.42
09 43 19.38 5.53
09 44 20.36 5.73
10 29 49.0
5.17
94.38
93.53
94.29
94.07
94.00
93.33
94.25
92.89
93.79
95.89
92.92
93.23
92.96
93.18
94.09
93.43
93.94
93.20
93.36
93.07
92.96
93.91
94.34
93.14
93.10
93.48
30
30
30
26
25
46
48
30
16
30
36
3
39
36
18
29
23
29
26
23
16
31
25
30
36
46
5.7
5.4
5.5
5.8
5.2
5.0
5.3
5.1
5.2
5.4
5.4
4.8
6.1
5.0
5.2
5.2
5.1
4.8
4.9
5.1
5.4
5.3
4.9
5.1
5.2
5.3
113
121
123
126
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
10 43 29.95
11 17 08.52
11 50 28.09
12 30 59.49
6.53
3.25
6.39
3.89
92.83
93.75
93.25
94.44
36
30
61
30
5.4
5.2
5.2
4.9
127
132
133
135
141
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
26
12 46 06.37 5.40
13 44 08.07 3.97
13 56 40.17 2.78
14 11 28.31 3.67
15 06 33.24 3.65
93.28
94.39
94.47
94.02
94.09
25
31
30
30
17
4.9
5.1
5.5
5.2
5.6
MAGNITUDE
Ms
Mw
Mo
8.9
9.0
3.95E+29
7.5
7.2
7.23E+26
5.9
5.9
8.62E+24
6.1
6.0
1.07E+25
Table 1 conti nued
______________________________________________________________________________________________
108
No
142
143
146
148
150
156
157
159
160
164
165
YEAR
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
MO
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
DA
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
Hr Mn Sec
LAT
15 12 21.55 6.73
15 13 20.84 5.37
15 36 54.02 4.12
16 21 27.41 5.15
16 55 17.27 3.86
181449.54
4.80
181655.97
3.37
183143.48
6.32
183207.92
3.84
19 03 49.21 4.09
191955.57 2.79
LONG
92.98
93.43
93.85
94.32
94.50
94.09
94.10
93.32
93.32
94.22
94.16
DEPTH
18
30
39
41
30
30
28
30
26
30
30
mb
5.3
5.4
4.9
5.4
5.3
4.8
4.8
5.3
5.1
5.5
5.5
MAGNITUDE
Ms
Mw
Mo
6.2
5.4
1.70E+24
5.5
6.1
2.36E+24
1.76E+25
Table 2: Chronological listing of aftershocks on 26 December from fault rupture segment II

No
10
15
19
20
22
26
28
29
33
59
62
63
64
66
86
89
98
100
103
104
107
112
114
137
149
158
168
171
172
173
174
YEAR
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
MO
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
DA
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
Hr Mn Sec
01 59 13.99
02 22 01.84
02 38 09.35
02 40 59.85
02 45 17.65
02 56 40.37
03 02 38.08
03 06 13.05
03 17 52.38
04 53 09.1
05 01 10.56
05 01 21.37
05 08 04.83
05 12 34.14
07 24 53.05
07 55 27.13
09 13 54.71
09 20 01.61
09 36 39.27
09 38 39.35
10 02 07.76
10 33 05.16
10 51 19.82
14 39 07.37
16 48 24.11
182931.78
21 20 42.31
21 44 38.22
22 46 11.06
23 04 26.65
23 31 45.58
LAT
8.39
8.87
8.49
7.48
8.46
8.61
8.61
8.19
7.21
8.19
9.30
9.46
9.03
8.46
7.42
7.48
7.31
8.88
9.35
8.96
7.65
8.70
7.63
8.30
7.22
8.06
8.58
7.03
8.99
9.29
9.02
LONG
92.45
92.47
92.35
92.43
92.61
92.29
92.33
92.46
92.92
92.93
92.21
92.18
92.46
92.28
92.64
92.36
92.19
92.38
91.86
92.33
92.79
92.62
92.31
92.36
93.03
92.20
92.14
92.56
92.51
91.97
92.38
Depth
30
15
33
30
30
30
30
27
30
30
30
30
30
36
34
30
33
16
30
30
31
39
30
30
49
30
30
30
36
30
30
mb
5.3
5.7
5.6
5.4
5.2
4.9
5.5
5.1
5.6
4.9
5.3
5.4
5.0
5.1
5.1
5.3
5.2
6.0
4.6
4.9
4.8
5.4
5.5
5.1
4.9
5.0
4.9
4.8
4.9
5.1
4.8
MAGNITUDE
Ms
Mw
Mo
6.6
6.6
9.77E+25
______________________________________________________________________________________________
109
Table 3: Chronological listing of aftershocks on 26 December from fault rupture segment III
No
YEAR MO DA
Hr Mn Sec
LAT
LONG Depth
9
13
14
18
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
01 52 43.0
02 15 49.5
02 15 59.78
02 36 10.09
10.38
12.26
12.32
12.18
92.12
92.28
92.50
92.94
12
20
26
38
mb
5.2
5.3
5.7
5.8
24
30
40
60
68
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
26
02 52 01.83
03 08 44.21
03 44 08.34
04 58 04.02
05 20 27.92
12.50
13.74
13.47
11.07
12.16
92.60
93.01
92.74
92.00
92.40
30
30
22
29
31
5.8
5.9
5.2
5.3
5.3
77
81
87
110
118
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
26
06 22 00.42
06 56 47.4
07 38 27.0
10 19 31.73
10 57 38.36
10.68
10.98
13.13
13.46
12.45
92.32
92.28
93.04
92.74
92.44
26
23
30
26
5
5.4
5.5
5.7
6.1
5.4
119
120
124
125
136
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
26
11 03 53.29
11 05 00.72
12 09 42.46
12 11 57.66
14 14 18.03
11.10
13.53
12.19
11.57
13.50
93.95
92.84
92.60
92.41
92.92
30
13
20
25
17
4.8
6.3
5.4
5.4
5.0
138
140
147
152
153
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
26
14 40 30.41
14 48 44.26
16 12 53.01
17 50 12.59
17 56 35.84
11.47
13.59
13.94
13.60
12.86
92.18
92.91
93.31
92.85
92.48
30
30
4
26
45
5.3
5.8
4.8
5.0
5.1
162
163
2004
2004
12
12
26
26
18 42 43.89
18 55 46.1
13.71
11.98
92.95
91.97
26
30
5.3
4.9
MAGNITUDE
Ms
Mw
Mo
6.0
6.3
3.22E+25
6.3
6.2
2.37E+25
5.7
5.7
4.40E+24
4.7
5.4
1.69E+24
afterslip or triggered slip rates are however less than the modeled rupture velocity of 2.0 to 2.5km/
sec in the mainshock rupture segment [Yagi, 2005; Chen Ji, 2005; Yamanaki, 2005]. Average downdip width of fault rupture is 150km in fault segment I, and 130km in segments II and III. Total
rupture area is around 2.0 105 sq km. With an average slip of 15 meter [and rigidity () as 4
1011 dyne/cm2 ], seismic moment (Mo) calculates to the order of 1.2 1030 dyne.cm, a value very
close to that given by Stein and Okal (2005).
The main earthquake of 26th December has loaded the entire fault system in the region both
in the subducting and overriding plates and transferred stress particularly to the West Andaman fault.
Several large aftershocks locate along this fault system and continue up to 10.5N latitude close to
the junction of WAF transform and ASR (Figure 2). 62 Aftershocks of magnitude 4.8 (Table 3) are
recorded on 26 December that display two distinct linear clusters. The southern cluster locates west
______________________________________________________________________________________________
110
Figure 2. Tectonic Map of Sumatra - Andaman Region (after Curray, 2005) with 62 overriding plate
aftershocks ( focal depth 40 km; + > 40 km) that occur on 26 December 2004 following the
mainshock (star). Sequential aftershocks along the West Andaman fault. Others legend same as
Figure1.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
111
of northern Sumatra while the other occurs east of Nicobar group of Islands, both due to activity
along different strands of WAF. Four shocks are of magnitude (mb or Mw) 6.0 and the largest (no.
109) gives a reverse fault solution (HRVD) but both the nodal planes trend ENE almost normal to
the WSF. In this segment of WAF there are also 7 unilaterally propagating aftershocks from no. 3 in
the south to no.128 close to ASR through no. 5, 21, 67, 82 and 83 (bold font in Table 3 & green solid
circle in Figure 2). Northward propagation rate from shock no.3 to 5 is 335m/ sec and 255m/ sec
from 82 to 83, while it is very slow ( 5m/ sec) in a patch between shocks 5 and 82 through 21 and
67 involving junction of two strands of WAF.
CONCLUSION
The 26 December 2004 Sumatra-Andaman Mw 9.3 earthquake is the largest recorded event
from this part of Indo- Southeast Asia convergent margin. Aftershock distribution pattern on the day
the earthquake struck indicate that rupture propagated unilaterally northwards from the mainshock
epicenter to break around 1300km of plate interface. Though this part of the subducting Indian plate
is fragmented by a number of lithospheric hinge faults, some of them acted as barriers for smooth
propagation of rupture resulting three well-defined fault segments. 7 unilaterally northward
propagating shocks from the mainshock to the distal part of the rupture occurred within 130 minutes
at a rate of 167m/ sec and these events are likely to be triggered earthquakes rather than usual
aftershocks. This great shallow foci interplate thrust earthquake has also seismically loaded the
overriding plate to activate two different strands of the WAF. HRVD best double couple solutions
indicate that though thrust faulting is the main mode of rupture, normal and strikeslip mechanism is
also operative. Detail study of aftershocks in relation to seismo -geological depth sections across and
along the arc is necessary to decipher the details of seismotectonics.
REFERENCES
Curray, J.R. (2005). Tectonics and History of the Andaman Sea Region. J. Asian Earth Sc. (in press).
Dasgupta, S., Mukhopadhyay, M., Bhattacharya, A. and Jana, T.K. (2003). The geometry of the
Burmese-Andaman subducting lithosphere. Jour. Seism. V. 7, pp. 155-174.
Dasgupta, S., Mukhopadhyay, B. and Acharyya, A. (2005). Aftershock propagation

characteristics during first 3hours following the 26 December 2004 Sumatra- Andaman
Earthquake. Gondwana Research (GNL section), V.8, n.4 (in press)
HRVD (2005). http://www.seismology.harvard.edu/CMTsearch.html
Ji Chen (2005) http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~jichen/Earthquake/2004/aceh/aceh.html
Mukhopadhyay, B., Acharyya, A. and Dasgupta, S. (2005) Aftershock investigation of 26th
December 2004 earthquake. http://www.gsi.gov.in/suma_eq.htm
Stein, S. and Okal, E.A. (2005). Speed and Size of the Sumatra earthquake. Nature, v. 434, pp. 581582.
Yagi, Y. (2005) http://iisee.kenken.go.jp/staff/yagi/eq/Sumatra2004/Sumatra2004.html
Yamanaki, Y. (2005) http://www.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/sanchu/Seismo_Note/2004/EIC161e.html
______________________________________________________________________________________________
112
Table 4: Chronological listing of aftershocks on 26 December from the Andaman- Sumatra upper plate
No
YEAR
MO
DA
Hr Mn Sec
LAT
LONG
DEPTH
3
4
2004
2004
12
12
26
26
01 22 25.59 7.42
01 25 48.76 5.50
93.99
94.21
30
30
mb
6.0
6.1
5
6
11
21
32
35
37
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
01 30 15.74 8.83
01 33 22.38 7.76
02 00 40.03 6.85
02 43 05.26 9.22
03 14 13.84 7.44
03 22 57.48 5.82
03 26 45.79 4.91
93.71
93.71
94.67
94.00
94.26
95.09
96.40
30
25
30
30
30
20
30
5.5
5.5
6.0
4.9
5.4
5.4
5.3
39
43
46
48
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
03 40 15.64
03 51 12.36
04 00 58.43
04 02 55.73
5.53
5.05
6.79
4.98
94.33
94.77
94.08
94.72
30
30
29
47
5.6
5.7
5.5
5.8
49
52
54
56
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
04 09 08.4
04 17 56.81
04 26 03.63
04 40 11.46
8.16
8.96
7.89
9.12
93.82
93.72
93.99
93.84
30
30
30
38
4.9
5.3
5.2
5.2
57
58
61
65
67
70
73
75
79
82
83
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
04 46 23.44 8.53 93.88

04 48 56.49 8.87 93.75
04 59 15.4
8.97 93.43
05 09 32.5
9.16 93.89
05 16 10.98 9.32 94.04
05 42 49.27 5.49 94.29
06 02 28.38 8.27 94.06
06 11 04.6
9.31 93.91
06 28 48.4
4.96 94.79
06 59 57.26 9.36 93.70
07 07 10.27 10.36 93.75
32
27
25
26
22
30
23
23
30
30
19
5.4
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.4
5.1
5.7
5.1
5.4
5.4
5.6
84
85
88
91
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
07 11 40.39
07 23 38.81
07 52 28.8
08 02 34.62
4.81
5.44
8.13
5.34
94.97
94.41
94.07
94.48
35
30
17
34
5.2
4.7
5.5
5.1
92
93
94
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
26
26
26
08 12 38.7
08 14 59.09
08 41 48.85
9.26
6.79
8.90
93.84
94.54
93.48
36
30
25
4.8
4.8
5.2
95
96
99
101
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
08 47 46.72
09 02 42.55
09 17 51.19
09 30 29.54
4.86
8.29
7.06
7.39
95.10
93.98
94.39
93.99
50
26
21
13
5.3
4.9
5.0
4.9
102
108
109
115
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
09 30 55.8
7.18
10 12 10.15 10.25
10 18 13.79 8.86
105358.42 10.19
93.76
94.31
93.74
93.68
30
30
30
30
5.4
5.1
5.5
5.3
116
117
2004
2004
12
12
26
26
10 55 07.5
10 56 02.59
95.13
93.83
30
30
5.2
5.5
4.26
10.07
MAGNITUDE
Ms
Mw
Mo
6.3
3.87E+25
Table 4 continued
______________________________________________________________________________________________
113
No
YEAR
MO
DA
Hr Mn Sec
LAT
LONG
DEPTH
122
128
129
130
131
134
139
144
145
151
154
155
161
166
167
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
2004
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
11 34 20.02 5.28 94.36

12 52 45.76 10.43 93.91
13 10 42.5
7.59 94.24
13 13 27.14 6.14 95.43
13 28 56.52 7.72 94.03
14 02 05.02 4.80 94.78
14 47 17.44 4.63 95.10
15 23 05.33 7.44 94.22
15 24 08.86 7.56 94.23
17 44 52.77 8.93 93.97
17 59 00.46 8.31 93.95
18 10 43.16 8.95 94.04
18 33 55.6
9.43 93.66
21 06 48.8
4.47 96.34
21 19 30.79 4.23 97.81
30
30
30
30
19
30
30
17
17
22
0
25
47
30
30
mb
4.8
5.1
4.8
4.9
5.2
4.8
4.9
5.0
4.9
5.2
4.8
5.0
5.1
5.5
4.9
169
170
2004
2004
12
12
26
26
21 25 33.15
21 25 43.24
30
30
5.0
4.8
4.75
4.33
94.85
95.07
MAGNITUDE
Ms
Mw
Mo
Table 5: Parameters for Best Double Couple Solution (HRVD) of Mainshock and 12 Aftershocks
No*
0
53
100
109
110
120
133
140
141
150
162
164
165
Nodal plane 1
st
dip
slip
329
351
333
272
1
29
307
137
96
289
144
304
342
8
27
38
40
41
56
35
56
48
37
69
38
34
110
121
82
115
-116
158
83
15
33
-73
174
-91
139
Nodal plane 2
st
dip slip
129
137
163
61
215
132
136
38
343
88
236
126
108
83
67
53
54
54
72
56
78
67
55
84
52
68
87
75
96
70
-69
36
95
145
133
-102
21
-89
63
T- axis
P- axis
B-axis
Pl
Az
Pl
Az
Pl
Az
53
64
80
73
9
38
78
33
47
10
19
9
56
35
25
102
283
291
355
58
350
299
190
102
216
342
37
22
7
7
71
11
11
13
12
76
11
82
19
221
239
248
164
181
257
221
91
43
317
09
38
220
3
13
4
15
17
49
4
53
39
10
68
16
24
130
144
340
72
23
155
314
200
144
96
251
23
120
* Refer to Tables 1-4
______________________________________________________________________________________________
114
AFTERSHOCK INVESTIGATION OF THE DECEMBER 26, 2004

SUMATRA-ANDAMAN ISLANDS EARTHQUAKE
O. P. Mishra, G. K. Chakraborty and O.P. Singh
Geological Survey of India, Kolkata 700 016.
SUMMARY
The devastating megathrust earthquake, mainshock (Mw 9.3) of December 26, 2004 (00h
58m 53s UTC) in the Indian Ocean occurred on the interface of the India and Burma plates in the
north Sumatra, about 1605 km NW of Jakarta, Java, Indonesia. The USGS estimated the epicenter of
the mainshock at 3.320N and 95.850 E and its depth at 28.6 km. The mainshock triggered by reverse
faulting generated a large rupture that propagated from the north Sumatra, Indonesia to north
Andaman Islands, India as a major source of aftershocks. The mainshock caused wide -scale damages
to both property and person (about 300,000 people were killed) due to strong shaking and tsunamis,
the devastation extended to most coastal countries of the Southeast Asia and its adjoining regions.
The Andaman-Nicobar (A & N) Islands was one of the worst effected Indian states due to this killer
tsunamigenic earthquake.
Six three-component digital short period seismograph (4-Reftek and 2-Kinemetrics)
stations were established in different parts of the A & N Islands, covering Car Nicobar, Hutbay, Port
Blair, Rangat, Diglipur, and Narcondum. About 18,000 aftershocks (M 3.0) were recorded during
the period from January 6 to March 16, 2005. Here, we present analyses of data recorded up to
January 31, 2005. The aftershocks attenuation with time follows the power law t-p, which stands
valid for the entire tectonic region of A & N Island, sudden burst of aftershocks activity was also
observed. Estimate of p-value = 0.9532 is near to normal value of 1.0, which suggests a slow decay
sequence of aftershock with complex and non-uniform stress change in a fault system (creep effects
and history dependent stress changes). The frequency-magnitude relation of the aftershocks also
followed the power law with average b-value = 0.7723 and it varies from 0.49 to 1.03, indicating the
compressive stress state of the region and its heterogeneous structure.
The aftershocks are located by one -station, two-station and multi-station methods depending
on the availability of the data, and 1177 events (M 3.0) are located that were recorded till January
31, 2005 using multi-station technique. The epicenter map shows a N S trending aftershock cluster
in an area of about 750 300 km2 , which reflects an approximate rupture dimension of the
mainshock beneath the study area; the ruptures propagated heterogeneously. The stress release,
stabilization of the A & N Islands and decay of aftershocks may take several months or even years
because of the large rupture dimension, about 1300 km from the north Sumatra to north Andaman as
reported by the USGS.
Depth estimate of the aftershocks was not accurate because of poor azimuthal coverage and
occurrence of aftershocks outside the seismic network in the region. One-station and two-station
methods provide epicenter locations with poor depth constraints. Multi-station method, however,
provided fair estimate of focal depth for nearby events. Aftershocks occurring outside seismic
network are located using differential time technique of converted depth phase, sP and direct P- and
S-phases, detected on the recorded seismograms for more than one -station. The aftershocks occurred
mostly at the depth range of 5 55 km, except a few beyond this depth range.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
115
We determined fault plane solutions of aftershocks recorded by temporary seismic network,

occurred at three different depth ranges (0-15; 16-30; and >31 km) in ten sub-blocks of the A & N
Islands and found that rupture propagated by normal, reverse and strike-slip faulting. The aftershocks
occurred off the subducted plate at a much shallower depth (< 10 km), and are caused due to local
tension in the overriding plate. The area in the vicinity of Barren volcanic zone shows normal to
strike-slip faulting due to predominant tensional forces, suggesting facilitation of brittle failure in the
weakened crust by the process of under-heating. The Narcondum volcanic zone exhibits thrust
faulting, indicating regional compressive stress, and the effect of under-heating is possibly not
prevalent in the month of January 2005 as Norcondum is dormant for few years.
INTRODUCTION
The devastating megathrust earthquake of December 26, 2004, occurred at the interface of
the India and Burma plates and was caused by the release of stresses that develop as the India plate
subducts beneath the overriding Burma plate (Bilham, 2005). The India plate begins its descent into
the mantle at the Sunda trench, which lies to the west of the earthquake's epicenter. The trench is the
surface expression of the plate interface between the Australia and India plates, situated to the
southwest of the trench, and the Burma and Sunda plates, situated to the northeast (Fig. 1). This is
the second largest earthquake after the 1960 great Chilean earthquake (Mw 9.5), which caused a
huge devastation in most countries of Southeast Asia (Kanamori and Cippar, 1974). The region has
been associated with several past damaging tsunamigenic earthquakes (Table 1) that caused enough
damage to both property and person (Petroy and Wiens, 1989; Zhou et al., 2002., Ortiz and Bilham,
2003).
The 26 December 2004 tsunamis caused damage in the entire coastal countries of southeast
Asia, which crossed into the Pacific Ocean and was recorded in New Zealand and along the west
coast of South and North America (USGS). The earthquake was felt (VIII) at Banda Aceh, (V) at
Medan, Sumatra, and (II-IV) in parts of Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar,
Singapore, Sri Lanka and Thailand. The earthquake was severely felt in the entire Andaman-Nicobar
Islands including Diglipur (north Andaman) and Mayabandar (middle Andaman) that caused severe
cracks in the well-built buildings and dislocations in pillars and floor of the Austin bridge which
connects middle Andaman and north Andaman. Strong earthquake shaking, however, caused cracks
and collapse of buildings leaving many injured, which in turn may suggest the severe shaking could
have resulted in easy collapse and more damage by subsequent tsunamis. A mud volcano near
Baratung, Andaman Islands began erupting on December 28, 2004 following the earthquake. The
pattern of damage provided us a vital clue to recognize the zone of the mainshock rupture, where
setting up of temporary 3-component digital seismographs were made.
Setting of Seismographs and Aftershocks Recording

It is observed that four large aftershocks (M > 6.0) occurred in a well- defined trend,
extending from the south to north (Fig. 1). Several aftershocks (M 5.0) were reported to
occur in the Andaman-Nicobar region by National Earthquake Information Center, USGS
(Fig. 2). Five digital seismographs were installed at Port Blair, Carnic, Hutbay, Rangat, and
Diglipur despite poor azimuthal coverage. Fortunately, these are places which comparatively
accessible in comparison to that of other adjoining areas of Andaman Nicobar Islands. The
station spacing ranges from 90 to 130 km. One seismograph was installed in the volcanic
zone of Narcondum for better coverage in the north Andaman region (Fig. 1). Efficient
instrument parameters are set up under event- triggered mode for recording more number of
aftershocks. The seismographs were operated by rechargeable Power-safe battery of 100
______________________________________________________________________________________________
116
ampere hour and the seismographs were incorporated with Global Positioning System (GPS)
for getting precise co-ordinates of station locations and for high precision time. The
locations of the seismograph stations are given in Table 2.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
117
Table 1: Past damaging tsunamigenic earthquakes in Sumatra-Andaman region

(Petroy and Wiens, 1989; Zhou et al., 2002; Ortiz and Bilham, 2003)
Year of occurrence
1797
1833
1843
1861
1881
1941
2000
2002
Place of occurrence
Centralwestern Sumatra
Southwestern Sumatra
Southeast Nias
Western Coast Sumatra
Car-Nicobar
Andaman Islands
Pagai Island
Simeulue Island
Magnitude (Mw)
8.4
8.7
8.0
8.5
7.9
7.7
7.8
7.6
Table 2: Details of seismograph stations that installed in different parts of the

Andaman-Nicobar Islands following the 26 December 2004 mainshock (Mw 9.3)
Place of
Station Latitude
Installation Code
(in
degree)
Longitude
(in
degree)
Date of
Installation
Date of
Removal
Type of the
Seismograph
Port Balir
PBR
11.6559N
92.7316E
06.01.2005
CarNicobar
CNB
09.1545N
92.8219E
08.01.2005
3-component SP
Digital
instrument
16.03.2005 REFTEK
(U.S.A)
1hz, 24 bit;
130db
13.03.2005
Do
Hutbay
HTB
10.5967N
92.5364E
11.01.2005
12.03.2005
Do
Rangat
RGT
12.5072N
92.9134E
13.01.2005
14.03.2005
Do
Diglipur
DGP
13.2465N
92.9763E
17.01.2005
15.03.2005
Narcondum
NCD
13.500N
94.300E
08.03.2005
3-component SP
Digital
instrument
KINEMETRICS
(U.S.A)
1hz, 24bit;
130db
3-component SP
16.03.2005
Digital
instrument
REFTEK
(U.S.A)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
118
This seismic network consisting of 6-stations was continuously monitored to record

occurring in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands and its adjoining region. A total of about 18,000
aftershocks were recorded between January 6, 2005 (16:30 IST) and March 16, 2005 (24:00 IST)
(Fig. 3) with an average of 240 aftershocks in a day during the month of January, 2005 (Fig.4a-e).
Seismograms recorded at 6-digital seismic stations are very much informative. Data recorded till
January 31, 2005 are analyzed, and an attempt has been made to understand seismotectonics of the
aftershocks in the Andaman-Nicobar forearc region.
Seismotectonic Setting
The Burma-Andaman arc marks the eastern margin of the Indian plate along which an
oblique convergence is suggested by many authors (e.g. Fitch, 1970; Curray et al., 1979; Verma et
al., 1978). The nature of convergence varies from continental type in the Burmese arc to oceanic type
in the Andaman arc. Based on seismic activity, the region is grossly divided into three zones: The
Burmese Arc (20-280N), the north Andaman arc (7-150N) and the south Andaman arc (0-70N), (Fig.
5). The central portion (15-200N), which is charactersied by low seismicity, marks a transition zone
between the two arcs, the Burmese arc and the north Andaman arc (Chandra, 1984). West of the
island arc is the Andaman-Nicobar Trench; it is linked with the Sunda Trench in the south. The
trench is a buried feature off Andaman-Nicobar Islands, and is filled with Bengal-Nicobar fan
sediments. The Burma sub-plate often referred to an overriding sliver plate or subduction fault zone,
forms western segment of the main Sunda plate. Oblique convergence of the India plate develops arc
parallel strike-slip faults all along the edges of the sliver plate that is also folded and uplifted in
strips, as the sub-plate rides over the subducted India plate.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
119
The major tectonic features in the region are the N-S trending Indo-Burma ranges in the
north, Andaman - Nicobar Islands in the south and the Sumatra fault system to the southeast (Fig.1).
The Andaman sea basin is considered to be a complex backarc spreading center. The sliver plate runs
along the plate convergent boundary from northern Burma past Sumatra and possibly past Java. In
Burma, the eastern border of the sliver plate, is defined by the dextral Sagaing fault zone (Curray, et
al., 1979) and the western fringe is marked by the Arakan-Yoma accretionary subduction complex
(Fig. 1). At the Andaman Sea, the western domain is composed of Andaman-Nicobar Trench and
accretionary subduction complex ridges. The oceanic layer between the Andaman-Nicobar group of
Islands and the Andaman Sea spreading center, in the east, is made up with complex north-south
trending faults, Nicobar rift valley and westward tilting little deformed cuesta of sedimentary frontal
arc ridges (Invisible Bank). The West-Andaman-Fault (WAF) is most prominent all along the
Andaman - Nicobar Islands, which appears to be continuous from west off of northern Sumatra to
where it is lost beneath the terrigenous fill of the Irrawaddy Martaban shelf (Curray et al., 1979).
Focal mechanism studies indicate that WAF is a north-south oriented dextral strike-slip fault (Fitch,
1972) (Fig. 1). Further east, the line of this fault is marked by the proximity of volcanic islands
(Barren and Narcondum) and seamounts (Alcock and Sewell). The inner volcanic arc forms a belt
with discontinuous submarine ridges of volcanic seamounts and the andesite volcanoes of Barren and
Narcondam Islands (Hamilton, 1979). The Narcondam is now extinct but the Barren is still marked
by an active volcano; it erupted in March 1991 after lying dormant for about two centuries (Haldar et
al., 1992).
Andaman-Nicobar region has high seismic potential and ti falls in the highest seismic hazard
zone V, on par of the Himalayan collision zone. A detailed study of past seismicity for the period
1916-1975 in the Andaman Sea was illustrated by (Verma et al. 1978). Dasgupta and Mukhopadhyay
(1993) and Dasgupta et al. (2003) studied subduction tectonics at Andaman arc and reported an eastdipping (40 -55) Benioff zone down to about 200 km focal depth in the forearc. Kumar et al. (1996)
studied 167 Harvard Centroid Moment Tensor (CMT) data in the Burma and Andaman arc regions
for the period 1977-1992. They reported distinct tectonic patterns between the northern and southern
parts of the Andaman. Orientations of the P and T axes in the southern part indicate active
subduction along the slab, whereas in the northern part the focal mechanisms do not conformable
with local trend of the arc. Presence of deeper (depth>90 km) thrust events is in disagreement with
the observation of Le Dian et al. (1984). The shallower (depth < 10 km) off the slab events show
normal and strike-slip faulting. Kayal et al. (2004) made aftershock investigation of the 13
September 2002 earthquake (Mw 6.5) and reported a transverse seismogenic structure to the north of
Andaman Islands. A detailed study of satellite gravity data in the region was ma de by Ghosh (1997)
to get 2-D subduction model in the Andaman Sea basin. Regional distribution of background
seismicity shows distinct tectonic patterns in northern and southern parts of the Andaman-Nicobar
Islands.
December 26 2004 Sumatra -Andaman Mainshock (Mw 9.3)

Earthquake parameters of the mainshock of December 26, 2004, in the Indian Ocean and
four large aftershocks occurred within 12 hours of the mainshock were estimated by the USGS (US
Geological Survey), National Earthquake Information Centre (NEIC), which are given in Table 3.
The mainshock shows 1.48 X 1030 dyne-cm as its seismic moment which is almost equivalent to the
1960 great Chilean earthquake (Mw 9.5) that associated with a seismic moment of 2.7 X 1030 dynecm (Kanamori and Cippar, 1974). The moment magnitude of the 26 December 2004 earthquake has
been modified from Mw 9.0 to Mw 9.3 based on the normal mode theory of vibration
(Stein and Okal, 2005). The USGS determined the Centroid Moment Tensor (CMT) solution that
shows a low angle thrust faulting (Figure 1). The fault plane details are given in Table 4.
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120
Table 3: Earthquake parameters of the 26 December 2004 mainshock and four big
aftershocks that occurred within 24 hours of the megathrust mainshock
Earthquake
Origin time
Location
Lat. Long
Depth
(km)
Magnitude
(Mw)
The
mainshock
2004.12.26
00hh: 58mm:
53.4ss
3.30N 95.98E
28.6
Thrust
IRIS,
NEIC
The Ist big

aftershock
2004.12.26
04hh:21mm:
26ss
6.90N 92.95E
10.0
9.0 (USGS)
9.3 (Stein
and Okal,
2005)
7.3
Thrust
do
The 2nd big

aftershock
2004.12.26
09hh:20mm:
1.6ss
8.88N 92.38E
16.1
6.6
Thrust
do
The 3rd big

aftershock
2004.12.26
10hh:19mm:
29.7ss
13.45N 92.79E
10.0
6.4
Thrust
do
2004.12.26
11hh:05mm
00.5ss
13.54N 92.88E
10.0
6.3
Thrust
do
th
The 4 big
aftershock
Type of Source
Faulting
Table 4: The Centroid Moment Tensor (CMT) solution of the mainshock (Mw 9.3)
Best double couple solution by USGS
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121
Nodal Plane 1
Nodal Plane 2
Principal Axes
T
Strike
Dip
Rake
Strike
Dip
Rake
Az
Pl
Az
Pl
Az
Pl
N31W
110
S51E
83
87
222
38
36
52
130
03
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122
Larger Aftershocks (M 5.0)

About 150 aftershocks (Mw 5.0) were recorded by different seismological institutions of
India (IMD) and abroad (USGS and IRIS) within one month of the mainshock (Fig. 2).
Seismological parameters are given in Table 6. Four largest aftershocks (M 6.3) occurred within 12
hours at a shallower depth ( 25 km), comparable with the mainshock faulting (Fig. 1). Normally
largest aftershock occurs within 24 hours with a 1.0 1.5 magnitude units lower than the mainshock.
The first largest aftershock (Mw 7.3) occurred near Campbell in the Great Nicobar Island within 3
hours of the mainshock (Mw 9.3), and subsequently, three other aftershocks occurred at Carnicobar
(Mw 6.6), Rangat (6.4), and Diglipur (6.3) along the mainshock rupture direction (Fig. 1). The
USGS and Harward University reported CMT solutions for the mainshock and these aftershocks. All
these four aftershocks occurred dominantly by thrust faulting as that of the mainshock.
AFTERSHOCK INVESTIGATION BY TEMPORARY NETWORK

Frohlich (1989) defined an aftershock as a secondary earthquake following a stronger
primary one (the mainshock) whose location and time of occurrence are a direct result of the
occurrence of the mains hock. This definition is regarded as a fundamental definition and it is in
unison with that given by Kisslinger (1996). One characteristic of aftershock sequences since the
beginnings of observational seismology is that the rate at which the events occur decrease steadily
with time after the mainshock. Detection and recording of aftershocks in the source zone by dense
seismic network (permanent and temporary) may shed important lights on aftershock sequences,
local tectonics, dimension of rupture zone and seismic imaging of the crustal heterogeneity and its
bearing on the genesis of earthquakes (Kisslinger and Hasegawa, 1991).
Six temporary seismic stations were set up in the Andaman-Nicobar Islands as mentioned
above to monitor the aftershocks. Due to several geographical locations, it was not possible to obtain
a good azimuthal control in laying the temporary network. However, we made a best possible
network and managed to monitor all installed seismographs continuously using Air, Sea and road
conveyances with the help of Andaman-Nicobar district administration. Out of 18000 recorded
events, about 15,000 common events were recorded by three or more stations, 2000 by two stations
and as many as 960 tremors were recorded at a single station at Port Blair. Here, we present analyses
of data, which were recorded up to January 31, 2005.
DATA ANALYSIS
Velocity Model
Earthquake location program requires a good velocity model given by Kayal et al. (2004) for
computations. The following velocity model (after Kayal et al, 2004), which is based on the study of
DSS (Deep Seismic Soundings), gravity data and knowledge of the geological information, is used
for the earthquake location analysis:
Velocity (Vp)
(km/s)
4.50
5.60
6.80
8.00
8.25
Depth
(km)
0
3
10
25
50
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The moho depth at 25 km is taken from gravity study (Ghosh, 1997). The DSS results show
that in the eastern shield margin the velocity (Vp) range is 5.6-6.2 km/s for the upper crust and 6.27.2 km/s for the lower crust (Kaila and Tewari, 1986). The computer program also requires Vp/Vs
for computation of the S wave arrival times. We used an average Vp/Vs 1.74 for the computation.
Aftershock Location
Precise location of an earthquake requires high precision P- and S- phase arrival data
recorded by a network with good azimuthal coverage. Further, it needs at least four seismic phase
data for the multiple regressions to estimate the four parameters of an earthquake: the origin time,
latitude and longitude of the epicenter and focal depth.
Although we had high precision digital data, we had many constraints for precise location of
the aftershocks. The main constraint was the poor azimuthal coverage of the network. Further, as the
seismic stations at all six locations were far away from the main shock epicenter; smaller magnitude
(M<3) aftershocks, were not recorded by these stations. However, the mainshock rupture propagated
up to north Andaman and our seismic stations were established up to the northern part of 600 km
rupture segment that extends from Carnicobar to Diglipur (Figure1). So, we recorded a large volume
of aftershock.
The common events recorded by multi-seismic stations were quite high, about 1200 events
were till 31 January, 2005 due to the adequate distances between stations. The higher magnitude
(M>5.0) aftershocks were, however, recorded by the global stations. We also attempted to locate the
aftershocks using the following methods to prepare PDE files:
i)
ii)
iii)
Multi-Station method,
Two-Station method,
Single-Station method.
Multi-Station Method
This is the common method of locating earthquakes. We used minimum 3P and 3S phases
recorded by at least three stations. The data are analysed by using the SEISAN computer program
(Havskov and Otte moller, 2000). Total 1177 events, recorded by three or more stations (up to
December 31, 2005), are analysed by this method. Epicenter and focal depths are fairly well
estimated (Fig. 5). The seismic (P & S) phases from multi-stations were used during location (Figs 6
7). However, the events occurred outside the seismic network in the forearc are required to be
relocated using sp-depth phase for better depth estimates (Mishra et al., 2003; Mishra and Zhao,
2004) The epicentre map is shown in Figure 5. The estimated parameters are shown in Table 7.
Two-Station Method
Although two seismic stations provide four seismic phase data (2-P and 2-S), good control
on depth or on the epicentre are not obtained due to large azimuthal gap. It is, however, possible to
have a better control on the hypocentre location by incorporating back azimuth of one of the stations.
The back azimuth is estimated using the three - component seismograms by the SEISAN program.
Out of 2000 events recorded by at least two stations, 77- aftershocks (up to January 31, 2005) are
located using the two-station method. The epicentres of the 77 aftershocks are fairly well located but
not the focal depths; the epicentre map is shown in Figure 8 and some sampes of seismograms
recorded by two stations are shown in Figures 9 -10. The estimated parameters are shown in Table 8.
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124
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125
One -Station Method

Single station three component digital seismograms may also be used for an estimate of
epicentre location. Roberts et al. (1989) illustrated epicentre location of an earthquake using single
station three-component seismic data. This method is now popular to have an estimate of epicentre
from the three component records at an observatory immediately after an earthquake. The arrival
times of P and S phases and the back azimuth (from station to source) are used for estimation of
origin time and epicentre (latitude and longitude). The ratio of horizontal component amplitudes
(east-west and north-south) at P arrival is used to derive back azimuth. We used the SEISAN
program to estimate the back azimuth.
This technique is, however, used only to estimate origin time and epicentre; focal depth
cannot be determined by this method. 165 events were recorded by single station (mostly at Port
Blair). 165 events are reliably located by repeatable azimuth and positive covariance (Fig. 11). The
method uses a fixed depth for epicentre location. We used 30 km as fixed depth, as most of the
aftershocks located by the multi-station method occurred at a depth range 15-55 km. Samples of
seismograms recorded on single station are shown in Figures 12 13. The estimated parameters are
shown in Table9.
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126
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127
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128
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129
Epicenter Map
Thus a total of 1419 events are located by the three different methods. Details of these events
are given in Tables 7 - 9. Epicenter map of all these events are shown in Figure 14. The map shows a
NW-SE trending cluster of aftershocks within an area 750 x 300 km2 . Some epicenters are away
from the N-S cluster of aftershocks; these may be local events triggered by the mainshock or by
reactivation of local fault system by the mainshock.
Aftershock Magnitude
In microearthquake survey, particularly with the analog records, duration magnitude is
mostly estimated as amplitude of the higher magnitude (M>3) earthquakes are clipped. Duration
magnitude of an event is estimated using the following relation: Md = - 0.87 + 2109 (T) + 0.0035D,
where Md = duration magnitude, T = signal duration in sec and D = epicentral distance in km. The
above relation is obtained by least square fit of the Richter magnitude and signal duration data of
known earthquakes (Lee et al., 1972). Hence, computed Md is comparable with the Richter
Magnitude (ML). The digital seismographs, however, have an advantage of recording earthquakes
with its full amplitude. Thus it is possible to estimate magnitude using the recorded maximum
amplitude of an earthquake. For estimation of ML equivalent amplitude of Wood Anderson
Seismogram is required. The SEISAN program has the facility of computing Richter magnitude (ML )
using the equivalent Wood - Anderson amplitude of the digital seismograms. The estimated
earthquake magnitudes are given in Tables 7-9.
Aftershock Attenuation
The modified Omori law describes aftershock activity on frequency-decay with time, which
follows the power law n(t) t-p , where p is the rate of aftershock decay with time and n(t) is the
number of aftershocks in unit interval of time (Watanabe, 1989). The p-value is the slope of log-log
relation. The p - value is normally equal to 1.0, but it is observed that it varies from 0.5 to 2.5 (Guo
and Ogate, 1995, Nanjo et al., 1998).
All the six seismic stations established along the rupture zone that propagated in the
Andaman-Nicobar Islands. They recorded maximum number of aftershocks. We installed the first
seismograph station on January 6, and it was in operation till March 16, 2005. Temporal variation of
the aftershocks recorded by seismograph stations are shown in Figures 4 (a - e), and the computed pvalue is shown in Figure 15. The observed p-value = 0.9532, which is near to normal value 1.0. This
estimate may suggest a slow decay sequence of aftershock along with complex and non-uniform
stress change in a fault system (creep effects and history dependent stress changes) (Gavrilenko,
2005).
Frequency - Magnitude Relation
The frequency-magnitude relation is also characterised by power law: Log10N = a - bM,
where N is cumulative number of earthquakes of magnitude M, and a and b are constants (Gutenberg
and Richter, 1954). It is a log-linear relation, the constant b is known as b-value, and is normally
close to 1.0. The b-value, however, varies from 0.5 to 1.5 depending on tectonic setting, tectonic
stress, magnitude ranges etc. (Scholz, 1990; Weimer and Wyss, 1997). The b-value is an indicator of
structural heterogeneity in 2-D fault plane, which varies from region to region depending upon its
tectonic behavior. The pattern of expansion of the aftershock zone differs from one tectonic regime
to another, and the expanding limits of that zone are related to the distributions of strength and stress
on the fault. This is why we divided the entire Andaman-Nicobar region into ten blocks depending
on aftershocks concentration and geotectonic settings for estimating b-value in each block and then
its overall average value.
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130
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131
The b-value is estimated using the aftershocks located in this study (Fig. 5). It is, however,
observed that the threshold value of magnitude is 4.5, above which more or less all aftershocks are
located. Thus more than 250 aftershocks (M>3.0) were available for b-value estimation in each block
(Table 5). The b-value varies from 0.49 to 1.03. The usual least-square fit method was applied to
estimate the b-value and it was found to be 0.7723 as overall value in the entire Andaman-Nicobar
region, which is lesser than the normal value 1.0 (Fig. 16), indicating a compressive and very
heterogeneous structure of the region.
Table 5: Showing b values in the different blocks with corresponding a values
Block
Number
Location of Blocks
Latitude
Longitude
LogN = a bM
Parameters a and b
a
b
Block 1
9 10N
92 93E
5.77
0.89
Block 2
10 11N
92 93E
5.52
0.83
Block 3
11 12N
92 93E
5.61
0.83
Block 4
12 13N
92.5 93.5E
6.34
1.03
Block 5
13 14N
92.5-93.5E
4.96
0.77
Block 6
11.5 12.5N
93.5-94.5E
3.56
0.49
Block 7
11 13N
91 92E
4.07
0.58
Block 8
9 -11N
93 -95E
5.39
0.79
Block 9
11.5 -14N
94 96E
3.82
0.50
Block 10
7 9N
93.5 96E
4.15
0.63
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132
Figure 16b. b- value estimation in different blocks
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133
The b-value is also estimated by the Maximum Likelihood method, which is based on
theoretical consideration (Aki, 1965). The b-value is estimated by the following formula :
loge
b = -----------M - M min
where M is average magnitude and Mmin is minimum magnitude in the given sample data. The
estimated b-value for the aftershock sequence is found to be 0.69. The value is comparable with that
estimated by the least square method.
Fault-plane Solution
Fault-plane solutions of the aftershocks play an important role in understanding the

main shock and aftershock generating processes. We selected the aftershocks at varying
depths (0-15; 16-30; > 31km) in each block (Fig. 14) and plotted the reliable first motion
data on the lower hemisphere by the SEISAN program. It is evident that the solution is fairly
constrained; all types of faulting normal, thrust, and strike-slip solutions are obtained in
different tectonic blocks (Figs. 17-18). The descriptions of solution parameters are given in
Table 10. The Bartung mud volcanic zone is associated with thrust faulting where the mud
and slurry materials were ejected to the surface on December 28, 2004 just after the
mainshock. The zone, comparatively near to the mainshock (near Carnic), generally strikeslip to normal fault solutions. It is important to note that the region of Barren volcanic zone
show normal to strike-slip faulting that may indicate crustal weakening due to under-heating
and contributing to dominant local tensional stress, which may facilitate the brittle failure
(Tatsumi, 1989; Zhao et al., 2002), whereas the Narcondum volcanic zone shows thrust
faulting, indicating that the effect of under-heating is possibly not prevalent as Narcondum
is dormant for few years, and seismogenic strength is possibly due to regional compressive
stress. The zone near Narcondum may relatively be compact in comparison to that of Barren
volcanic zone. The region near Andaman Trench shows thrust faulting, the compressive
stress acting normal to the trench. Some deeper events (>31 km) show normal faulting
indicating the events in the subducted Indian plate and generated by bending (tension) of the
subducted plate.
Depth Section
As explained above, focal depth estimate of the aftershocks was not well constrained due to
poor azimuthal coverage of the temporary network as well as the occurrence of aftershocks outside
the seismic network. The one-station method used a fixed depth to estimate the epicenter and origin
time. The two-station method did not provide reliable focal depth. About 1177 events were located
by the multi-station method. An E-W depth-section of these 1177 events along 90N latitude is shown
in Figure 19. The depth section shows an east dipping seismic zone, which is similar to that obtained
by Kayal et al. (2004). However, focal depths of forearc aftershocks are still poorly constrained. In
order to overcome this constraint, we have to relocate focal depths of aftershocks by using converted
phases between direct P- and S-arrivals. We detected sP-depth phase on recorded seismogram, which
may be used to estimate accurate focal depths of aftershocks that occurred outside the seismic
network in the forearc region. This technique of relocating depth of forearc and backarc aftershocks
has been used (Mishra et al., 2003; Mishra and Zhao 2004) for Japan subduction zone.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
134
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135
Table 10a. Composite Fault-plane solutions of aftershock clusters at three different depth ranges
in ten different blocks
Block No.
5
6
7
10
Depth Range (km)

Aftershock clusters at
three depth ranges
0-15
16-30
31
0-15
16-30
31
0-15
16-30
31
0-15
16-30
31
0-15
16-30
0-15
31
0-15
16-30
31
0-15
16-30
31
0-15
16-30
31
0-15
31
Strike
129.1
283.7
183.9
298.9
309.4
250.9
344.2
138.1
169.0
123.9
300.0
306.5
107.7
357.6
332.5
140.0
323.8
189.0
288.0
257.8
40.2
202.7
136.0
194.7
19.2
270.4
304.0
Inferred Fault-plane
Dip
Rake/
Slip
33.2
-61.8
74.4
-43.8
79.1
-65.5
83.3
-18.9
59.3
-23.6
41.4
-40.9
35.4
61.6
70.5
23.2
71.3
23.9
83.3
-18.9
50.0
-90.0
82.4
-49.6
63.5
-59.5
35.3
72.5
49.0
51.5
41.6
-46.9
62.4
-16.9
33.0
-90.0
42.0
-90.0
44.0
60.5
24.7
-75.5
50.5
-79.6
71.3
-23.9
74.4
-43.8
83.7
-13.6
85.0
8.7
62.0
-90.0
Type of
Faulting
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
TF
RF
RF
NF
NF
NF
NF
TF
TF
NF
NF
NF
NF
TF
NF
NF
NF
NF
NF
SSF
NF
NF : Normal Fault; TF : Thrust Fault; RF : Reverse Fault; SSF : Strike-slip Fault
sP-depth phase and depth location

The sP-depth phase data are used for relocating these aftershocks, which occurred outside of
seismic network. The sP depth phase is a remarkable later phase, radiated as an S-wave from an
earthquake under the subducted lithosphere, reflected at the ocean floor and at the same time
converted to P-wave and subsequently recorded by land seismometer as P-wave (Fig. 20a). The sP
depth phase appears clearly between the P- and S-wave arrivals predominantly on vertical
components of the recorded seismograms (Fig. 20b). There are several criteria to detect sP-depth
phase from the recorded seismograms. The reliability of focal depth by sP-depth phase is very high
and it is as accurate as Ocean Bottom Seismometer (OBS) observation (Mishra et al., 2003). In
future, extensive exercise to detect sP-depth phase is needed to relocate aftershocks accurately for
determining geometry of the subducting Indian plate and subduction 3-D images in AndamanNicobar Islands.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
136
Table 10b. Composite Fault-plane solutions of aftershock clusters at three different depth ranges in
ten different blocks
Block No.
2
3
5
6
7
8
9
10
Depth Range (km)

Aftershock clusters at
three depth ranges
0-15
16-30
31
0-15
16-30
0-15
16-30
31
0-15
16-30
31
0-15
16-30
0-15
16-30
31
0-15
31
0-15
16-30
31
0-15
16-30
0-15
31
Strike
216.1
330.7
176.6
110.6
171.7
161.0
110.3
169.0
300.0
359.0
278.9
166.8
61.6
197.6
137.5
355.3
332.7
285.0
229.4
116.7
219.0
261.3
152.7
90.0
290.0
Inferred Fault-plane
Dip
Rake/
Slip
40.8
15.5
60.5
42.4
73.0
17.2
73.0
17.2
60.5
42.4
56.0
90.0
55.7
7.6
71.3
23.9
90.0
20.0
90.0
82.0
62.4
-20.7
74.8
48.2
37.6
61.3
61.3
46.7
54.1
-37.5
62.3
-34.3
83.6
-39.6
35.0
-90.0
35.5
53.9
62.4
-50.9
51.8
-69.5
62.3
-34.3
65.6
-32.7
90.0
0.0
55.0
-90.0
Type of
Faulting
TF
TF
TF
TF
TF
TF
TF
TF
TF
TF
NF
TF
TF
TF
NF
NF
NF
NF
TF
NF
NF
NF
NF
SSF
NF
NF : Normal Fault; TF : Thrust Fault; RF : Reverse Fault; SSF : Strike-slip Fault
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137
______________________________________________________________________________________________
138
______________________________________________________________________________________________
139
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The Andaman Islands are far way from the mainland of India. Detailed seismotectonics or
structural studies by close - spaced seismological network are not made in the past. The aftershock
investigation of the September 13, 2002 earthquake sequence in the Andaman Islands was the first
survey of its kind, which was confined to the north Andaman. Sudden occurrence of big megathrust
earthquake (Mw 9.3) in north Sumatra provided us an opportunity to collect huge number of
aftershocks in the Andaman-Nicobar Islands for understanding the earthquake generating processes,
seismogenic structure/source area of the aftershocks in the regions of forearc and backarc of
Andaman-Nicobar Island. The outcome of this study may be useful for evolving a comprehensive
earthquake hazard mitigation model in near future. This investigation provided close-spaced
microearthquake network data, which is very useful in understanding the geodynamical processes of
the region.
Although due to inaccessibility in the sea the temporary six-station network lacks a good
azimuthal coverage, the epicentral locations are made with a fair degree of precision by different
methods, and the observed source area is fairly consistent. Three methods were applied to make
maximum use of the digital seismic data for epicentre determination. The epicentre maps produced
by the three methods show a consistent N-S trending aftershock zone (Fig. 14). Epicentres of all the
1419 aftershocks located in this study are shown in Figure 14; this map shows aftershock cluster area
750 x 300 km2 , oriented to N-S direction. However, aftershocks concentration is clearly visible to its
east and west, indicating heterogeneous propagation of the mainshock rupture in the AndamanNicobar Islands. The USGS locations of the main shock and the larger aftershocks fall within this
aftershock zone (Fig. 2). The aftershock cluster delineated in this study reflects the rupture area
beneath Andaman-Nicobar Islands.
The aftershock zone is well defined by the close-spaced temporary network. It has provided
a good data set showing a better picture of the aftershock zone (Fig. 5). It is interesting to note that
the global data (M 5.0) (Fig. 2) shows two prominent gap zones near 100N latitude, where almost
no aftershock (M 5.0) occurred. Two maps are compared in Figure 21. Our aftershock map (Fig.
21) revealed that these gaps witnessed many aftershocks of magnitude lesser than 5.0. This closespaced temporary network data proves the efficacy of microearthquake investigation. This
observation was useful to minimize the local panic that there may not be a chance of a big
earthquake in these gap zones. We found that the entire Andaman-Nicobar Islands is associated with
all three classes of aftershocks (initial aftershocks, describe the mainshock rupture; represent the
growth of original aftershock zone; triggered distant events by reactivation of pre-existing fault
system by the mainshock) that propagated from Nicobar to Andaman towards unlocked or decoupled
zone (Fig. 1).
Depth estimate of the aftershocks located by the two-station method is not well constrained,
and the estimate could not be made by the single -station method. Thus we have only 1177
aftershocks with a good estimate of depth, which are located by the multi-station method. The global
network located almost all the aftershocks (M>5.0) with some restricted depths at 10 and 33 km
(Table 6). The deeper event may be a local event, not an aftershock. Depth section of the temporary
network data shows an east dipping seismogenic structure (Fig. 19).
As explained above, fault-plane solutions of the main shock (MW 9.3) and the largest
aftershocks (MW 6.3 - 7.3) are compatible (Fig. 1). The northeast dipping NW-SE nodal plane is
comparable with the observed aftershock trend and oblique subduction (Fig. 1). The mainshock
occurred by a low angle thrust fault. Further, it is reported that to the north of the Andaman basin,
between latitude 15 0-200N, there is no much seismic activity. The Burma Trench activity, farther
north, latitude 200 -280N, is explained by northward dragging of the dipping Indian lithosphere rather
______________________________________________________________________________________________
140
than by an active subduction (Le Dian et al., 1984). These evidences suggest a transition in the
tectonic structure, and the low seismic activity in the central portion, latitude 150 -200N, may be
explained by this transition zone, or due to presence of thick pile of deep seated Irrawady sediments
that may hinder the brittle failure due to its ductility behavior. However, we located some
aftershocks beyond 140N at 15 30 km depth range (Figs.5 & 14).
The subducted seismic zone as evidenced by the local seismicity and the gravity observation
is used to understand the seismotectonics of the 2002 main shock and the best located aftershocks
(Kayal et al., 2004). A seismotectonic model is given in Fig. 19. The largest aftershock occurred
within the steeply dipping subducted plate due to regional compressional stress. These are typical
interplate thrust/reverse faulting earthquakes due to subduction tectonics. CMT solutions of thrust
faulting within the subducted plate at shallower (depth ~ 20 km) as well as at deeper depth (depth>90
km) in the Andaman basin area were reported by Kumar et al. (1996). They further reported normal
faulting and strike slip faulting for much shallower events (depth <10 km) off the subducted plate.
Our best located aftershocks at shallow (<10 km) and are located off the subducted slab; the
composite fault-plane solution of these shallower events indicates a normal faulting. Normal faulting
may be explained due to local tension in the overriding plate (Figs. 18 -19).
Two important aftershock parameters, p-value and b-value, are estimated. The p-value =
0.9532 is near to normal value1.0, indicates slow attenuation of the aftershock sequence (Fig. 15)
along the large rupture length generated by megathrust tsunamigenic earthquake. The complete
decay of aftershocks, however, may take several months or even a year in Andaman-Nicobar Islands.
Sudden burst of activity is also noted almost all seismograph stations (Fig. 4). This is Epidemic -type
of aftershock (ETAS) is a noticeable example of this deviation (Ogata, 1988). In such case, some
larger aftershocks yield new sequences of aftershocks and the deviation from the Omoris law can be
directly related to the occurrence of some large aftershocks in the region under investigation. As
noticed by Dieterich (1994) time-dependent nucleation process may not be required to explain the
temporal decay of aftershocks if other effects such as visco-elsatic or poroelastic processes are taken
into account. A recent study made by Gavrilenko (2005) demonstrated that hydromechanical
coupling in response to earthquake could be the possible consequences for aftershocks, showing
deviation from the Omoris law.
Andaman-Nicobar has been badly devastated and possibly associated with several minor to
major sea faulting, through which permeation of huge volume of sea water into the aftershock zone
cant be ruled out. This may facilitate the occurrence of more aftershocks due to poroelastic effects
and hence erratic trend of aftershock decay. Thus, we can infer that more than one variable is likely
to be playing a role in determining the rate of aftershock decay. Theoretical study suggests that fault zone heterogeneity and the rheology of the fault -zone materials, and the presence or absence of water
or other pore fluids are likely to be key components for much activity. The b-value was estimated for
different blocks and its variability is very significant from 0.49 1.03. The lower b-value, however,
indicates that lower magnitude aftershocks are less, and the region as a whole is under higher stress
regime.
The world's largest recorded earthquakes have all been megathrust events, occurring where
one tectonic plate subducts beneath another. These include: The 1960 Chile earthquake (Mw 9.5),
the 1964 Prince William Sound, Alaska, earthquake (Mw 9.2), the 1957 Andreanof Islands, Alaska,
earthquake (Mw 9.2), and the 1952 Kamchatka earthquake (Mw 9.0). All have generated large
ruptures. As with the recent event, megathrust earthquakes often generate large tsunamis that cause
damage over a much wider area than is directly affected by ground shaking near the earthquake's
rupture.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
141
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are thankful to the Director General, GSI, for his kind support and encouragement.
Guidance and support extended by Dr. M.K. Mukhopadhyay, Sri K.Chowdhury, Dr. J. R. Kayal, Dr
S. Sengupta Dy. Director Generals, GSI are gratefully acknowledged.
We express our sincere
thanks to Sri. Shyamal De, Sri C. S. Pathak, Sri N. P. Singh and Dr. D. Ghosh, Directors GSI, for
valuable suggestions during the field survey. The authors would also like to thank Shri C. S.
Venkiteswaran, Shri Basab Mukhopadhyay, Shri Angshuman Acharyya and Shri P. K. Chakraborty
for helping in data processing.
We are very much grateful to the local authorities, especially to His Excellency Prof. Ram
Kapse, Lt. Governor, A & Nicobar Islands, Mr. B. B. Bhatt, Ex. Chie f Secretary, A & N, Mr. D. S.
Negi, Chief Secretary, A & N Islands, Mr. Gyanesh Bharti, Dy. Commisioner, Dy. Commissioner of
Nicobar, Mr. A. K. Singh, Suptd. Police, Mr. Ajay Chagti, Addl. Commissioner, Mr. Rajesh Kumar,
Addl. Commissioner, Mr. CDQ Paul James, Director, Shipping services, Andaman-Nicobar Islands,
Mr. P. Nair, Tehsildar, Diglipur, Mr. S. S. Pillai, Tehsildar, Rangat, Mr. Sunil Kumar, Tehsildar,
Hutbay of Andaman Administration for their kind help and support during the field investigation.
We acknowledge thanks to Carnicobar Indian Airforce base especially to Mr. Ravi Dhar, Station
Commander, CARNIC, Mr. A. Srivastav, SQ. Ldr., MET (now in Hyderabad) and the entire group
of Airforce pilots for providing outstanding support in monitoring seismographic stations, installed
in remote places of the Islands. We sincerely thank Nandip Roy Sharma, Director, Hotel Blair for
arranging several accessories to conduct the field investigation.
Last but not least, meticulous scrutiny and useful suggestions by Dr. Sujit Dasgupta,
Director (Monitoring), GSI, Kolkata, GSI, Kolkata have greatly improved the presentation of our
results in the present form. Almost all figures in this paper are plotted using GMT (Wessel and
Smith, 1995).
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______________________________________________________________________________________________
144
TABLE-6
Aftershocks ( M > 5.0 ) ( USGS, IRIS/IMD )
Origin Time
YYMMDD
HH MM
SS
Location
LAT
LONG
DEPTH
MAG
Mw Mb
Source
IRIS/IMD
20041226
20041226
0058
0058
50.70
53.40
3.30
3.30
95.78
95.98
10.0
30.0
8.5
9.0
IRIS
IRIS
20041226
20041226
0121
0148
18.10
46.70
6.37
5.39
93.36
94.42
10.0
10.0
6.2
5.9
IRIS
IRIS
20041226
20041226
0215
0222
57.50
1.80
12.37
8.86
92.51
92.50
10.0
10.0
5.8
6.0
IRIS
IRIS
20041226
20041226
0234
0236
50.10
6.40
4.10
12.14
94.18
93.01
10.0
10.0
5.8
5.8
IRIS
IRIS
20041226
20041226
0251
0259
59.20
12.30
12.51
3.18
92.59
94.26
10.0
10.0
6.0
5.9
IRIS
IRIS
20041226
20041226
0308
0421
42.10
26.00
13.81
6.90
92.97
92.95
10.0
10.0
6.1
7.3
IRIS
IRIS
20041226
20041226
0421
0621
29.80
58.00
6.91
10.62
92.96
92.32
39.2
10.0
7.1
5.7
IRIS
IRIS
20041226
20041226
0707
0738
9.60
24.50
10.34
13.12
93.76
93.05
10.0
10.0
5.7
5.8
IRIS
IRIS
20041226
20041226
20041226
0920
0920
1018
1.20
1.60
12.70
8.87
8.88
8.95
92.38
92.38
93.73
10.0
16.1
10.0
6.5
6.6
5.5
IRIS
IRIS
IRIS
20041226
20041226
1019
1105
29.70
0.50
13.45
13.54
92.79
92.88
10.0
10.0
6.2
6.3
IRIS
IRIS
20041226
20041226
1105
1211
0.70
55.90
13.53
11.59
92.84
92.45
13.3
10.0
6.2
5.5
IRIS
IRIS
20041226
20041226
1356
1356
37.40
40.10
2.79
2.78
94.46
94.47
10.0
30.0
5.9
5.9
IRIS
IRIS
20041226
20041226
1448
1506
41.50
32.50
13.60
3.70
92.87
94.02
10.0
10.0
5.9
5.7
IRIS
IRIS
20041226
20041226
1506
1512
33.20
21.20
3.65
6.70
94.09
93.02
17.8
10.0
5.9
5.6
IRIS
IRIS
20041226
20041226
1903
1919
46.70
53.10
4.07
2.77
94.20
94.16
10.0
10.0
5.6
6.2
IRIS
IRIS
20041226
20041226
20041226
1919
0058
0148
55.50
51.10
42.70
2.79
3.34
5.39
94.16
96.13
94.42
30.0
10.0
10.0
6.1
20041226
20041226
0215
0222
57.00
1.00
12.38
8.84
92.51
92.53
20041226
20041226
0234
0236
50.00
6.00
4.10
12.14
20041226
20041226
0251
0259
59.00
12.00
20041226
20041226
0308
0421
20041226
0621
8.6
5.9
IRIS
IMD
IMD
10.0
10.0
5.8
6.0
IMD
IMD
94.18
93.01
10.0
10.0
5.8
5.8
IMD
IMD
12.51
3.18
92.59
94.26
10.0
10.0
6.0
5.9
IMD
IMD
42.00
27.80
13.81
6.97
92.97
92.81
10.0
10.0
6.1
7.0
IMD
IMD
58.00
10.62
92.32
10.0
5.7
IMD
______________________________________________________________________________________________
145
20041226
20041226
0707
0738
9.00
24.00
10.34
13.12
93.76
93.05
10.0
10.0
5.7
5.8
IMD
IMD
20041226
20041226
0919
1018
48.50
12.00
6.10
8.95
90.95
93.73
10.0
10.0
6.2
5.5
IMD
IMD
20041226
20041226
1019
1105
29.00
14.50
12.65
14.80
94.69
92.42
10.0
10.0
6.2
6.1
IMD
IMD
20041226
20041226
20041226
1209
1211
1356
56.50
12.80
37.20
13.80
11.59
2.62
92.25
92.46
94.60
10.0
10.0
10.0
5.8
5.5
5.5
IMD
IMD
IMD
20041226
20041227
1448
0032
47.20
13.10
13.66
5.50
92.37
94.46
10.0
10.0
5.9
6.0
IMD
IRIS
20041227
20041227
0049
0049
26.70
28.50
12.98
12.98
92.45
92.40
10.0
23.7
6.1
5.8
IRIS
IRIS
20041227
20041227
0747
0821
36.40
39.80
2.68
5.54
94.48
94.60
32.3
48.1
5.6
5.4
IRIS
IRIS
20041227
20041227
0837
0939
38.60
3.30
6.49
5.38
93.26
94.71
30.0
10.0
5.7
6.3
IRIS
IRIS
20041227
20041227
0939
0957
6.80
53.00
5.35
7.74
94.65
92.69
35.0
10.0
6.0
5.6
IRIS
IRIS
20041227
20041227
1005
1446
0.10
45.10
4.78
12.36
95.12
92.50
10.0
10.0
5.9
5.8
IRIS
IRIS
20041227
20041228
2010
1117
48.20
43.20
2.86
4.71
95.59
95.18
10.0
28.2
5.8
5.9
IRIS
IRIS
20041228
20041228
20041228
1117
1711
2147
43.80
14.70
26.80
4.73
9.91
8.93
95.21
93.76
93.74
36.0
30.0
9.5
5.7
5.5
5.5
IRIS
IRIS
IRIS
20041229
20041229
0139
0139
40.30
41.20
8.20
8.38
93.10
93.16
30.0
34.0
5.8
6.0
IRIS
IRIS
20041229
20041229
0150
0150
52.50
53.10
9.11
9.08
93.76
93.86
8.0
10.0
6.0
6.1
IRIS
IRIS
20041229
20041229
0556
0556
47.50
50.90
8.79
8.78
93.20
93.22
12.0
30.0
6.2
6.2
IRIS
IRIS
20041229
20041229
1850
2112
20.70
59.00
5.54
5.20
94.35
94.71
38.6
25.8
5.6
5.7
IRIS
IRIS
20041230
20041230
0104
0427
51.10
38.40
4.23
5.57
94.20
94.27
12.7
37.7
5.6
5.3
IRIS
IRIS
20041230
20041230
1734
1758
44.40
11.40
6.74
12.23
92.89
92.52
27.9
30.0
5.5
5.7
IRIS
IRIS
20041231
20041231
20041231
0224
0224
0957
0.50
1.00
0.20
7.12
7.13
7.62
92.53
92.56
93.97
14.0
11.9
23.3
6.0
6.3
5.4
IRIS
IRIS
IRIS
20041231
20041231
1058
1204
24.90
56.60
5.03
6.22
94.80
92.91
36.4
4.6
5.5
6.1
IRIS
IRIS
20041231
20041231
1204
1341
57.50
48.30
6.20
3.18
92.91
95.23
11.0
30.3
6.0
5.6
IRIS
IRIS
20041231
20041231
1438
1748
46.40
5.70
5.11
4.73
94.83
95.14
48.2
49.0
5.6
5.8
IRIS
IRIS
20050101
20050101
0155
0403
28.20
12.60
2.87
5.46
95.60
94.45
26.0
45.5
5.7
5.8
IRIS
IRIS
20050101
0625
44.80
5.10
92.30
11.7
6.6
IRIS
______________________________________________________________________________________________
146
20050101
20050101
0625
1908
44.90
6.20
5.05
7.29
92.26
94.35
10.0
37.7
6.5
5.9
20050101
20050101
1908
0155
7.80
43.00
7.34
4.33
94.46
94.63
55.4
10.0
6.1
20050101
20050101
0403
0625
20.20
56.20
6.05
5.60
93.23
91.70
20050101
20050101
20050101
1429
1728
1908
11.90
31.40
13.20
7.84
8.89
8.14
20050101
20050101
2223
2228
22.10
27.50
20050101
20050102
2311
0827
20050102
20050102
IRIS
IRIS
5.2
IRIS
IMD
10.0
10.0
5.5
6.3
IMD
IMD
92.55
91.19
93.97
10.0
10.0
10.0
5.6
5.0
5.9
IMD
IMD
IMD
9.03
8.01
93.98
91.99
10.0
10.0
5.0
5.5
IMD
IMD
32.80
41.60
6.61
3.21
92.15
95.43
10.0
8.4
5.0
5.9
IMD
IRIS
0827
1535
41.80
56.40
3.24
6.33
95.46
92.80
8.4
30.0
5.8
6.2
IRIS
IRIS
20050102
20050102
1535
0827
56.70
50.00
6.36
2.80
92.79
94.70
30.0
10.0
6.3
20050102
20050102
1212
1536
31.00
3.40
6.14
6.48
92.94
91.98
20050103
20050103
0914
1936
6.80
16.30
10.90
6.20
20050104
20050104
0913
0913
12.20
12.40
20050104
20050104
20050104
1826
1914
0205
20050104
20050104
5.2
IRIS
IMD
10.0
10.0
5.2
6.0
IMD
IMD
91.99
92.20
10.0
10.0
5.0
5.3
IMD
IMD
10.67
10.67
92.36
92.40
23.2
24.7
6.1
6.0
IRIS
IRIS
45.70
49.40
5.00
4.98
10.60
5.50
94.79
91.74
91.80
53.1
10.0
10.0
5.6
5.8
IRIS
IRIS
0913
1215
19.20
34.60
10.52
9.25
91.39
93.55
10.0
10.0
6.0
5.0
20050104
20050104
1256
1518
9.90
34.00
7.70
5.91
92.67
93.79
10.0
10.0
5.4
5.3
20050104
20050104
1826
1908
54.00
15.00
5.69
6.09
93.61
93.92
10.0
10.0
5.3
5.2
IMD
IMD
20050104
20050105
1914
0532
52.00
38.90
10.70
3.57
91.53
93.62
10.0
30.0
5.5
5.5
IMD
IRIS
20050105
20050105
1434
1454
31.30
4.20
5.54
5.52
94.75
94.38
30.0
41.1
5.5
5.6
IRIS
IRIS
20050105
20050105
1454
0532
4.80
45.40
5.49
4.40
94.39
93.30
48.8
10.0
5.9
20050105
20050105
20050105
0833
1231
1434
3.00
47.00
39.90
13.40
8.00
6.15
92.40
93.20
93.82
10.0
10.0
10.0
20050105
20050106
1454
0011
15.30
16.90
6.51
5.59
93.57
93.15
10.0
24.6
20050106
20050106
0056
0011
26.50
31.60
5.31
6.34
94.82
92.14
22.4
15.0
20050106
20050106
0056
0452
43.30
44.00
5.94
7.10
93.79
91.80
20050106
20050106
0754
1155
24.00
49.40
11.06
11.36
20050107
1049
15.00
8.82
5.3
5.3
IRIS
IMD
5.4
5.3
5.4
IMD
IMD
IMD
5.8
IMD
IRIS
5.7
6.2
5.7
IRIS
IMD
40.5
33.0
5.8
5.2
IMD
IMD
93.68
91.57
33.0
10.0
5.6
5.1
IMD
IMD
93.57
30.0
5.7
IRIS
______________________________________________________________________________________________
147
20050107
20050107
0759
1049
45.00
20.00
7.33
8.32
93.49
92.45
33.0
15.0
5.7
5.4
IMD
IMD
20050107
20050108
1850
0248
35.00
30.90
6.41
13.41
92.19
93.03
15.0
15.0
5.2
5.0
IMD
IMD
20050108
20050108
0530
0558
45.30
32.90
10.72
5.35
91.84
93.59
10.0
10.0
5.2
5.0
IMD
IMD
20050108
20050108
20050109
1231
1500
1716
36.50
3.70
46.50
11.90
4.97
3.25
92.70
91.12
94.23
10.0
10.0
30.0
5.3
5.2
IMD
IMD
IRIS
20050109
20050109
2212
1716
53.20
58.20
4.97
4.23
95.13
93.48
14.3
15.0
20050109
20050111
2213
0549
5.10
34.20
5.43
8.67
93.97
93.67
15.0
33.0
20050111
20050112
2256
1358
5.00
18.60
12.40
5.54
91.00
94.64
33.0
34.0
20050112
20050113
1358
0530
24.30
21.40
5.64
12.20
93.61
93.30
10.0
20.0
20050113
20050114
0852
1622
58.00
8.10
6.00
9.30
93.00
93.30
20050114
20050115
1748
0746
47.60
56.30
11.80
15.20
20050118
20050119
0302
1609
53.00
28.10
20050120
20050120
20050122
1517
1925
1838
20050122
20050122
5.5
6.2
5.4
IRIS
IMD
6.2
5.2
IMD
IMD
5.1
IMD
IRIS
5.7
5.4
5.1
IMD
IMD
33.0
10.0
5.1
5.0
IMD
IMD
92.70
92.20
38.0
15.0
5.0
5.3
IMD
IMD
23.00
4.50
94.40
92.00
33.0
15.0
5.0
5.2
IMD
IMD
41.10
54.20
12.80
13.60
7.40
14.68
92.50
92.80
92.67
10.0
33.0
30.0
5.0
5.2
IMD
IMD
IRIS
1258
1838
44.30
15.00
6.00
14.40
94.50
92.00
33.0
30.0
5.0
5.0
IMD
IMD
20050123
20050124
0431
0416
24.30
48.10
5.50
7.37
92.50
92.45
15.0
30.0
5.1
IMD
IRIS
20050124
20050124
0416
1800
47.10
1.60
7.50
9.10
91.80
94.50
15.0
15.0
6.5
5.0
IMD
IMD
20050126
20050126
1730
2200
29.40
42.20
8.30
2.91
93.98
94.43
25.8
10.0
20050126
20050126
1730
2200
32.80
3.70
8.40
1.10
93.90
97.10
20.0
33.0
20050127
20050127
0656
0819
59.30
7.70
7.99
7.97
94.05
94.02
30.0
30.0
5.5
5.5
IRIS
IRIS
20050127
20050127
20050127
0842
1147
1658
16.30
38.80
51.50
7.97
8.10
7.95
94.30
93.98
94.07
30.0
36.6
30.0
5.5
5.5
5.8
IRIS
IRIS
IRIS
20050127
20050127
1740
1852
46.80
38.90
8.02
7.88
94.15
94.08
10.1
30.0
6.0
5.5
IRIS
IRIS
20050127
20050127
2009
2240
52.60
48.10
5.56
8.06
94.36
94.09
30.0
30.0
5.8
5.6
IRIS
IRIS
20050127
20050127
0358
0522
41.50
25.10
7.70
8.10
93.60
93.10
33.0
33.0
5.4
5.0
IMD
IMD
20050127
20050127
0657
0726
3.70
6.40
8.80
8.80
93.80
94.00
15.0
15.0
5.8
5.6
IMD
IMD
20050127
0735
55.30
8.90
93.90
15.0
5.4
IMD
5.5
6.3
5.6
6.1
IRIS
IRIS
5.7
5.4
IMD
IMD
______________________________________________________________________________________________
148
20050127
20050127
0819
0837
17.30
1.90
8.80
9.30
93.80
94.20
26.3
22.4
5.5
5.1
IMD
IMD
20050127
20050127
0842
0910
22.20
54.90
8.20
7.60
93.20
94.90
15.2
15.0
5.3
5.1
IMD
IMD
20050127
20050127
0925
0952
33.40
30.90
8.60
8.90
93.90
93.90
20.0
30.0
5.2
5.4
IMD
IMD
20050127
20050127
20050127
1058
1147
1524
13.00
43.20
27.00
8.80
8.80
7.60
94.00
93.80
96.60
20.0
15.2
33.0
5.1
5.6
5.1
IMD
IMD
IMD
20050127
20050127
1534
1658
39.00
59.00
8.50
8.00
93.80
93.40
33.0
33.0
5.3
5.4
IMD
IMD
20050127
20050127
1740
1852
58.00
52.00
8.40
8.30
93.50
93.30
33.0
33.0
5.4
5.1
IMD
IMD
20050127
20050127
2010
2017
14.00
45.00
6.90
7.30
93.80
92.20
33.0
33.0
5.1
5.1
IMD
IMD
20050127
20050127
2045
2100
22.00
43.00
8.30
9.60
93.40
93.80
33.0
33.0
5.2
5.2
IMD
IMD
20050127
20050127
2147
2240
50.80
54.40
8.00
8.80
94.20
93.80
33.0
33.0
5.3
5.5
IMD
IMD
20050127
20050128
2327
0610
8.70
31.00
8.50
7.94
93.70
94.04
33.0
42.2
5.2
IMD
IRIS
20050128
20050128
0613
0331
27.70
34.00
8.11
7.20
93.96
92.00
30.0
33.0
20050128
20050128
20050128
0504
0538
0610
31.10
30.90
41.10
8.50
9.60
8.70
94.50
95.20
93.70
20050128
20050128
0749
1153
26.50
10.60
8.30
8.70
20050128
20050128
1237
1749
22.10
40.10
20050128
20050128
1919
2235
20050129
20050129
5.5
5.5
5.3
IRIS
IMD
33.0
15.0
33.0
5.1
5.2
5.6
IMD
IMD
IMD
93.30
93.80
12.2
33.0
5.3
5.4
IMD
IMD
8.70
8.30
93.70
94.50
16.0
23.0
5.2
5.3
IMD
IMD
1.70
35.60
8.90
8.60
93.80
93.60
15.0
15.0
5.4
5.2
IMD
IMD
0544
0610
12.70
43.60
13.10
3.30
93.03
93.68
20.0
27.3
5.6
5.5
20050129
20050129
2028
0113
25.80
43.50
7.85
8.20
94.30
93.20
52.8
15.0
5.6
20050129
20050129
0150
0338
14.20
13.30
9.20
9.20
95.50
94.10
20050129
20050129
20050129
0544
0610
1636
15.80
54.90
54.40
13.20
4.20
8.30
20050129
20050129
1821
1906
11.50
26.80
20050129
20050129
2002
2028
20050129
20050130
IRIS
IRIS
5.3
IRIS
IMD
14.1
33.0
5.3
5.4
IMD
IMD
92.70
93.40
94.30
18.2
48.5
14.6
5.4
5.4
5.1
IMD
IMD
IMD
6.60
7.80
93.80
92.90
20.0
25.0
5.3
5.3
IMD
IMD
5.40
34.80
8.70
9.90
93.80
94.90
25.0
15.0
5.4
5.7
IMD
IMD
2203
1533
32.20
13.60
8.50
8.13
95.40
94.09
33.0
15.9
5.2
IMD
IRIS
20050130
20050130
0007
0034
42.50
17.00
9.10
9.00
94.00
94.40
25.0
33.0
5.3
5.0
IMD
IMD
20050130
0225
42.50
9.30
94.20
15.0
5.1
IMD
5.6
______________________________________________________________________________________________
149
20050130
20050130
0235
0313
23.00
38.00
8.70
6.90
93.80
91.90
15.0
15.0
5.3
5.3
IMD
IMD
20050130
20050130
0626
0702
20.40
25.00
13.80
13.30
92.60
92.70
30.0
10.0
5.0
5.0
IMD
IMD
20050130
20050130
0849
1533
45.90
21.40
8.40
8.60
93.40
93.90
15.0
33.0
5.0
5.5
IMD
IMD
20050130
20050131
2139
1630
46.30
26.00
11.50
8.80
91.70
93.90
33.0
33.0
5.1
5.2
IMD
IMD
TABLE-7
Aftershock ( 4.5) Parameters

(December 26, 2005 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake sequence)
Multi -station method
LAT
LONG
DEPTH
MAG
YY
MMDD
Origin Time
HH MM
SS
( Deg. )
( Deg. )
( km )
( Ml )
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
0111
0111
0111
0111
0111
0111
0111
0111
0111
0112
0112
0112
0112
0112
0112
0112
0121
0121
0121
0121
0113
0113
0113
0113
0113
0113
0113
0113
0113
0113
0113
0113
0113
0113
0113
0816
1622
1647
1803
1828
1857
2027
2116
2218
0041
0059
1722
1856
1954
2007
2226
0326
0647
0712
0716
0806
1023
1319
1402
1512
1527
1540
1705
1743
1833
1918
1925
1951
2018
2116
44.5
1.5
50
60
17
4.4
23.9
12.6
33.8
50.3
18.9
54.9
42.5
17.1
0.1
21.2
43
28.9
54.7
27.2
31.2
19.6
43.9
21.5
17
14.7
10.7
4
25.3
34.2
21.7
39.9
22.4
48.9
11
10.942
10.140
11.039
11.398
10.917
10.337
9.419
10.778
10.780
11.055
8.209
9.253
11.225
9.193
10.673
10.319
13.262
10.953
10.519
11.657
9.230
11.606
11.954
11.751
11.377
10.367
9.387
10.888
10.578
10.214
11.107
8.849
12.430
9.993
10.694
93.375
93.623
93.775
93.804
92.617
94.026
93.184
93.173
92.948
94.145
93.487
92.801
94.259
92.954
94.019
92.457
92.958
92.610
94.030
92.730
92.761
92.802
92.995
93.143
93.711
93.563
92.305
93.877
92.013
92.426
91.859
92.801
93.619
92.459
94.239
25.0
158.3
26.4
25.7
13.5
25.0
16.3
25.1
25.2
30.0
41.6
11.0
25.1
1.9
25.1
7.8
18.6
30.0
25.0
1.7
105.1
10.1
86.2
111.8
128.2
26.3
3.0
148.8
22.0
15.7
48.8
4.9
8.6
30.0
26.2
5.4
5.3
5.5
4.7
4.6
4.9
4.7
4.9
4.6
4.9
5.4
4.8
5.3
5.6
5.1
5.2
4.6
4.6
4.5
4.7
5.3
4.7
4.7
4.9
5.1
4.7
5.5
4.5
5.0
5.0
4.9
5.1
4.7
4.6
4.5
______________________________________________________________________________________________
150
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
0113
0113
0113
0113
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0114
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
2158
2202
2245
2256
0150
0657
0705
0818
0836
0856
0908
0910
0916
0918
0921
0922
1010
1043
1102
1110
1137
1154
1215
1311
1436
1533
1607
1637
1813
1816
1832
1941
2129
2139
2153
2216
2308
2314
2358
0153
0204
0250
0446
0820
0938
1001
1010
1241
1312
1340
19.1
51.7
7.3
9.5
15.4
3.7
11.5
23.3
47.9
33.5
23.4
57.2
9.4
20.4
1.2
54
47
19.4
0.6
48.2
52.2
38.6
9.7
35.2
54.9
34.3
34.1
37.8
10.3
45.3
34.3
40.3
1.3
11.3
16.5
26.5
25.5
33.2
26.7
38.7
40.1
7.8
1.6
25.8
25.4
18.5
53.8
21.8
27.2
51.4
8.654
9.266
12.801
10.945
11.734
10.262
14.406
11.930
16.643
11.505
11.219
10.425
11.925
11.190
12.796
10.243
10.695
11.723
9.195
11.923
9.545
9.972
9.198
14.252
10.375
10.329
10.428
9.463
11.084
9.078
13.157
9.112
10.583
10.474
9.442
9.436
8.898
10.537
11.675
12.257
11.657
10.557
10.456
10.739
11.143
11.688
8.916
10.328
9.547
12.373
93.220
92.802
94.131
93.209
93.204
92.454
93.385
92.841
92.828
94.842
95.642
92.583
93.720
92.687
93.648
93.988
92.659
95.604
92.588
93.140
95.009
91.872
93.585
93.305
92.437
93.056
92.460
92.492
93.671
93.568
93.040
94.269
95.037
94.626
93.646
92.373
92.840
93.338
94.201
94.044
93.521
92.534
92.498
92.539
93.327
92.741
92.827
93.463
92.415
93.450
32.6
11.8
30.0
4.6
121.3
11.6
30.0
41.4
47.7
25.1
50.7
20.6
25.0
10.1
30.0
25.3
17.2
30.0
4.2
15.4
40.4
8.9
57.1
38.2
14.9
9.4
29.0
25.1
26.6
45.3
21.1
35.0
25.4
25.3
30.0
24.0
12.0
26.0
25.1
30.0
138.9
4.6
3.6
19.4
108.2
19.3
30.0
26.0
23.5
99.4
4.7
4.6
5.5
4.7
5.2
5.0
5.3
4.6
5.7
5.6
5.6
5.0
5.4
4.7
5.0
5.2
4.7
5.5
5.3
4.7
6.1
4.9
5.1
5.1
4.7
4.5
4.9
5.1
5.8
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.2
4.9
4.5
4.6
4.5
4.9
5.3
5.1
4.5
4.6
4.7
5.0
4.7
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.2
______________________________________________________________________________________________
151
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0115
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0116
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
1406
1424
1517
1536
1551
1603
1649
1738
1852
1912
1924
1957
2036
2126
2214
2256
0101
0103
0119
0136
0152
0713
0830
0918
1020
1041
1157
1214
1217
1248
1346
1418
1456
1605
1632
1723
1803
2110
2151
2229
2236
2327
0006
0009
0013
0034
0036
0043
0046
0154
58.7
5.6
4.6
34.8
19.7
54.2
40.9
48.7
21
18.5
26.4
0.9
8.9
25.1
0.7
11.6
26.1
34.2
20.7
36.4
44.8
12.3
21.2
27.6
28.6
46.4
10.1
6.3
13.2
39.5
41.4
9.9
50.1
46.3
2.9
20.7
45.5
39.2
28.6
40.7
56.2
50
15.5
1
9.5
15.2
38.5
52.7
41.2
43.9
10.888
12.425
12.484
11.634
12.411
10.217
10.059
11.665
9.221
11.647
9.160
12.139
12.401
13.596
10.822
10.826
10.582
10.367
10.368
13.863
10.970
11.985
10.595
12.542
10.749
12.311
12.679
12.878
11.386
11.592
12.510
12.551
10.573
10.370
11.204
13.488
12.905
12.327
10.748
12.667
12.846
8.613
12.370
11.433
10.060
14.099
9.662
10.315
10.866
12.499
92.633
92.890
92.906
94.745
92.864
93.564
92.685
92.619
92.746
95.080
92.824
93.767
93.414
93.109
93.097
94.925
93.146
92.439
92.460
92.281
93.570
93.338
91.789
92.333
92.549
94.161
92.950
92.910
93.498
94.033
92.912
93.991
91.778
92.488
93.788
93.162
92.960
94.172
92.567
92.948
93.380
93.144
93.694
93.666
92.451
93.227
95.571
94.046
92.324
94.669
25.1
9.7
5.9
25.1
24.3
86.5
25.4
22.4
10.1
51.8
1.0
127.6
10.1
14.1
57.4
165.1
46.7
8.5
8.6
30.0
139.9
116.0
30.0
30.0
19.6
30.0
25.1
2.6
139.9
30.0
14.3
30.0
30.0
5.5
150.5
12.9
13.7
30.0
20.6
8.7
30.0
33.1
30.0
144.5
30.0
18.2
31.5
25.5
19.6
51.3
4.5
4.8
4.6
5.3
4.5
5.3
4.8
4.9
4.9
5.6
4.8
4.8
4.5
5.0
4.6
5.2
5.2
4.8
4.9
5.7
5.0
4.9
5.4
4.8
4.5
5.1
4.7
4.9
5.2
4.9
4.7
5.2
5.7
4.5
5.1
4.8
4.7
4.9
4.7
4.6
4.9
4.6
4.7
4.9
4.9
5.0
5.3
5.0
4.7
5.4
______________________________________________________________________________________________
152
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0117
0118
0118
0118
0118
0118
0118
0118
0118
0118
0118
0118
0118
0118
0118
0118
0118
0118
0119
0119
0119
0119
0119
0201
0355
0511
0551
0623
0756
0938
1009
1116
1148
1203
1231
1312
1424
1525
1821
1834
1918
1920
2000
2006
2008
2118
2124
2126
2251
2259
2357
0029
0039
0104
0107
0111
0123
0758
1026
1724
1746
1823
1826
1828
1839
2100
2204
2226
0028
0120
0128
0200
0230
33.6
52.8
20.2
22.2
53.4
37.9
51.7
32.1
3.3
21.9
18.5
47.8
49.9
20.1
18
5.4
10.1
17.8
12.3
48.6
1.9
44.7
18.8
8.7
50.9
41.2
36.6
25.7
21.4
57.1
53.5
58.1
32.1
27.2
4.9
54.2
5.2
21.8
40.7
6.1
48
15.2
59.5
34.8
13.1
58.6
1.7
50.3
14.5
53.2
11.712
13.944
13.388
12.618
11.781
8.911
9.133
12.859
13.348
10.141
12.718
10.781
12.340
13.038
13.236
10.090
13.170
9.108
13.025
10.261
9.103
11.874
13.086
13.534
8.716
9.349
8.861
12.943
11.924
9.986
10.310
12.213
10.685
12.273
9.772
9.925
13.183
12.961
12.426
9.192
13.141
9.645
12.469
9.341
12.105
10.179
12.407
13.124
10.336
11.195
93.084
94.423
93.199
92.932
94.566
93.988
92.296
93.054
92.364
91.939
91.182
92.567
90.691
90.471
93.632
95.396
92.963
92.809
93.016
94.900
93.518
93.001
94.421
93.021
92.990
95.201
93.607
92.962
94.665
94.151
96.027
91.588
90.640
93.675
93.644
92.101
93.023
95.044
93.331
92.910
93.815
92.473
93.179
95.193
94.226
92.465
93.108
93.621
91.389
93.744
105.5
41.0
23.6
14.4
157.5
30.0
3.3
41.7
11.9
112.8
127.1
15.2
93.5
107.9
30.0
58.5
10.0
6.6
24.8
25.1
10.1
21.4
37.0
15.6
30.4
30.0
48.1
10.1
25.6
26.5
51.1
95.8
127.3
101.9
25.1
30.0
21.7
30.0
76.0
2.7
30.0
25.4
12.0
39.1
25.0
30.0
10.1
30.0
0.0
150.1
5.3
5.9
5.2
4.5
5.5
5.4
4.9
4.6
4.7
5.7
6.1
4.8
4.9
5.2
4.6
5.0
4.8
4.8
5.1
5.0
4.6
4.5
4.7
4.3
4.9
4.8
5.6
4.5
4.9
4.9
5.4
5.1
5.1
5.0
4.8
5.2
4.6
5.2
4.5
4.6
5.0
4.6
4.9
5.4
4.8
5.1
5.1
4.5
5.2
4.9
______________________________________________________________________________________________
153
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
0119
0119
0119
0119
0119
0119
0119
0119
0119
0119
0120
0120
0120
0120
0120
0120
0120
0120
0120
0120
0120
0120
0120
0120
0120
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0244
0314
0515
0623
0645
0823
0917
1027
1042
1623
0104
0321
0851
1255
1327
1352
1359
1440
1517
1541
1553
1732
1747
2050
2309
0013
0034
0037
0125
0208
0228
0313
0316
0405
0505
0531
0534
0554
0605
0612
0731
0742
0802
0901
0936
0942
1117
1130
1141
1154
11.7
52.8
2.1
32.4
59.3
23.9
27.2
23
50
12.3
14.5
0
18.9
13.5
26.5
39.3
47.9
20.6
34.2
0.3
33.3
8.1
46.4
24.2
48.7
8.9
20.1
49.6
33.8
36.3
28.6
54.3
45.6
25.5
8.7
0
48.9
20.1
27.3
15.4
38
29.5
33.8
32.6
46.4
42.4
35.4
23.7
20
9.2
12.092
11.953
12.617
12.849
10.896
11.655
10.474
10.439
13.514
11.203
10.373
10.696
12.778
11.888
11.724
10.365
9.767
10.844
13.844
13.214
10.884
13.539
10.707
12.061
13.164
9.403
12.997
14.224
9.831
12.985
13.179
10.559
9.689
9.899
14.084
13.378
10.914
14.552
10.685
11.796
11.295
11.438
10.778
11.696
13.642
12.709
10.428
10.253
11.372
8.826
94.684
93.479
93.369
94.123
92.570
93.553
93.232
93.365
93.110
93.836
94.065
93.172
92.894
90.754
89.634
92.481
92.363
91.814
93.174
93.014
91.563
93.654
92.620
93.216
90.036
92.460
90.651
91.165
92.604
90.069
93.031
95.721
92.338
93.936
93.129
93.695
92.459
93.150
94.184
91.982
93.282
90.413
95.311
94.716
93.041
92.268
95.224
93.141
91.388
94.642
129.1
122.4
10.1
30.0
23.1
128.8
10.0
27.2
16.2
149.8
129.9
110.5
10.0
26.4
62.3
8.0
17.0
30.0
11.0
18.7
25.2
21.3
30.0
14.7
62.8
31.9
50.1
37.9
30.0
26.7
27.7
51.0
19.2
46.1
20.4
49.9
30.0
22.2
25.0
25.3
26.4
55.9
30.0
25.0
30.0
25.2
54.9
25.5
81.5
30.0
5.4
4.8
4.9
5.0
4.9
5.3
5.1
4.6
5.9
5.0
4.7
5.1
4.8
5.2
5.0
4.5
4.8
4.8
6.6
4.6
4.5
4.9
4.5
5.0
5.5
4.9
4.6
5.0
4.6
5.3
5.0
5.4
5.1
5.0
5.8
5.1
5.1
5.3
5.3
4.7
5.2
5.3
5.8
4.9
4.7
5.0
5.0
4.6
4.6
5.1
______________________________________________________________________________________________
154
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0122
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
0123
1207
1211
1259
1302
1314
1345
1357
1428
1439
1533
1551
1656
1952
2043
2104
2135
2151
2154
2208
2304
2330
2358
0049
0156
0331
0504
0517
0537
0552
0833
0842
1002
1008
1229
1237
1317
1321
1336
1340
1353
1412
1454
1506
1736
1741
1744
1949
2033
2043
2121
0
47.6
29.8
5.1
13.4
18.6
12.4
31.7
14.3
52.4
15.3
45.4
56.5
19.6
50.9
41
15.8
32.7
6.4
53.4
49.7
42.6
28
1.7
51.8
12.2
38
34
57.5
32.5
5.9
4.5
21.9
28
17.2
37.7
30.1
22.4
0.5
49.6
43.8
27.6
18.8
14.4
23.5
40.7
2
48.1
54.4
2
6.107
11.111
5.917
15.241
10.539
10.262
9.653
8.468
9.991
10.907
10.797
11.294
13.895
7.381
8.806
11.963
10.922
9.265
8.021
10.429
7.365
10.740
9.185
10.757
11.972
13.927
12.890
9.245
11.443
13.466
11.467
12.505
10.610
11.126
12.591
8.649
8.457
12.980
9.156
9.424
9.355
10.800
13.352
10.610
10.540
13.674
10.629
14.828
9.207
9.368
90.398
90.798
92.445
92.980
94.150
92.323
89.210
95.266
92.472
95.505
92.136
94.894
93.060
93.299
89.506
90.508
89.115
92.859
92.794
92.597
92.723
94.756
94.918
95.588
94.385
93.587
93.315
94.638
91.285
93.045
94.057
91.534
92.530
95.5 58
93.396
93.364
94.882
91.607
92.807
92.533
93.411
94.192
92.590
92.550
93.172
92.213
94.496
93.414
92.824
94.375
46.1
25.1
26.7
30.0
109.6
30.0
17.3
30.0
4.7
53.5
48.4
25.6
22.8
48.7
29.7
27.1
16.1
1.0
30.0
19.3
18.6
25.3
39.4
96.1
25.0
14.6
138.7
40.2
25.2
22.5
124.3
30.0
22.3
25.2
45.2
30.0
35.0
87.9
2.0
22.3
36.2
25.0
15.1
28.3
10.1
25.1
25.0
21.5
16.4
45.2
5.9
5.3
6.1
5.5
4.6
4.7
5.7
5.4
4.5
4.8
5.1
5.0
4.5
5.0
5.2
4.8
5.4
4.5
4.7
4.8
5.0
5.0
5.6
5.3
5.0
4.5
4.8
5.7
4.6
4.7
4.7
4.6
4.7
4.7
5.2
4.6
4.8
5.0
4.6
4.5
4.9
5.1
4.6
5.0
4.7
5.3
4.5
4.5
4.4
5.0
______________________________________________________________________________________________
155
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
0123
0123
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0124
0125
0125
0125
0125
0125
0125
0125
0125
0125
0125
0125
0125
0125
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
2137
2142
0124
0152
0255
0400
0511
0643
0741
0818
0841
0910
0926
1003
1006
1009
1324
1404
1408
1415
1421
1617
1818
1859
2102
0030
0033
0102
0134
0143
0203
0217
0234
1723
1757
2019
2142
2224
0023
0034
0040
0115
0135
0204
0213
0308
0326
0331
0428
0432
31.8
19.1
1.6
43.2
26.3
57.1
5.3
1.2
16.4
10.7
47.9
27.4
15.2
35
22.1
35.5
28.1
39.9
2.3
13.6
51.2
24.1
39.4
1.3
52.9
56.2
57.9
24.8
18
4.2
17.3
4.1
41.6
52.5
11.5
57.1
23.1
29.9
2.9
50.3
53.1
52.2
14.8
46.5
31
58.1
35.7
13.8
26.4
48.2
13.656
10.377
11.668
11.125
14.216
10.864
11.047
11.223
11.694
12.540
9.221
9.214
9.510
11.670
12.907
9.116
12.757
9.679
10.167
11.820
12.418
11.971
9.157
11.545
9.379
11.994
9.483
11.805
10.059
9.397
9.571
14.152
14.659
13.697
13.029
10.019
9.790
9.253
9.590
10.258
8.753
16.137
8.844
12.325
13.808
10.147
9.888
9.908
12.577
9.817
93.027
91.354
91.225
91.587
93.074
92.868
92.644
92.666
94.103
89.701
92.642
92.838
94.754
93.722
93.644
92.837
93.906
94.475
94.746
94.272
92.371
94.138
93.420
94.570
93.500
90.535
93.285
93.354
91.316
92.781
94.658
93.174
92.942
96.412
92.982
93.665
93.591
92.290
92.020
94.545
92.209
93.703
92.227
93.706
93.195
91.877
92.423
92.436
93.663
93.751
30.0
114.0
25.1
175.6
13.1
83.9
17.7
25.1
25.5
50.2
10.8
7.0
42.7
25.3
42.4
3.8
46.2
44.9
25.1
25.3
79.2
144.5
41.1
25.1
43.5
25.3
50.0
7.9
1.1
21.9
43.8
18.2
45.3
9.3
24.7
87.6
25.1
174.5
6.1
140.5
15.7
30.0
24.4
109.4
8.2
25.9
5.4
21.6
116.9
77.4
4.5
5.3
4.7
5.0
4.8
5.3
4.6
4.7
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.9
5.0
4.9
4.9
4.7
4.8
5.1
4.9
4.8
4.5
4.7
4.5
5.1
5.4
4.5
4.5
4.8
5.1
4.8
5.6
4.5
4.6
6.6
5.7
5.0
4.6
5.9
5.3
4.9
5.3
5.8
5.2
4.9
5.1
4.8
5.1
5.0
5.1
5.3
______________________________________________________________________________________________
156
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0126
0127
0441
0452
0519
0531
0541
0601
0609
0655
0701
0708
0730
0916
0918
1001
1030
1040
1050
1223
1230
1244
1326
1330
1406
1423
1425
1431
1434
1449
1509
1547
1632
1641
1651
1805
1807
1850
2012
2045
2047
2051
2053
2107
2119
2201
2309
2316
2322
2339
2351
0004
10.2
21.3
46.8
47.7
32.6
56
49
16
36.8
15.5
11
25.2
23.6
55.2
45.4
10.9
36
38.9
46.8
2.7
24.3
44.9
43
12.7
25.4
53.4
55.8
4.2
50.5
27.8
46.3
14.8
57.6
10.7
26.5
57.6
36.2
41.5
51.8
24.4
24.5
31.2
39.2
16.4
39.4
31.5
27.2
49.5
16.4
53.5
13.718
13.785
13.876
13.766
16.605
9.375
9.230
7.531
13.636
14.509
11.294
9.988
10.198
13.074
13.703
9.181
9.788
8.044
9.501
5.286
12.760
10.433
7.393
9.140
12.568
7.578
9.205
11.767
4.489
11.836
14.900
9.424
9.449
8.996
11.284
13.339
9.102
14.386
13.779
10.254
4.532
4.679
11.784
5.888
13.663
9.917
9.837
7.573
11.536
16.210
93.250
93.117
93.186
93.147
93.801
92.315
95.328
92.002
93.178
94.906
94.037
94.177
95.332
92.942
93.168
92.326
95.198
94.556
92.420
96.124
94.881
95.370
93.155
94.622
93.544
93.339
92.157
93.478
83.250
93.504
92.999
92.375
92.487
94.153
94.176
95.163
92.378
93.326
95.206
95.250
93.008
92.669
95.070
87.509
93.169
95.617
94.921
93.867
95.945
93.695
22.1
18.7
6.6
22.0
30.0
5.8
30.4
4.4
20.8
30.0
157.5
51.4
30.0
23.0
30.0
8.2
30.0
17.6
22.5
30.0
34.9
26.7
21.0
25.0
10.0
35.5
14.5
10.0
30.0
131.7
4.4
20.7
25.5
44.4
160.3
25.0
36.0
36.5
11.4
25.8
30.0
30.0
86.3
30.0
3.1
30.0
124.4
30.0
154.7
30.0
4.7
5.0
5.1
4.7
5.2
5.2
5.0
5.6
4.8
5.2
5.4
5.2
5.1
4.8
4.8
4.9
5.1
5.0
5.0
5.8
5.3
5.2
5.3
5.0
4.6
5.2
5.1
4.8
7.0
4.5
6.2
4.6
4.7
5.0
4.6
5.3
4.8
4.9
5.1
4.9
5.6
5.6
4.7
6.0
4.8
4.7
4.8
5.1
4.9
5.2
______________________________________________________________________________________________
157
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
0127
0127
0127
0127
0127
0127
0127
0127
0127
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0019
0123
0808
0849
1647
1739
1757
2025
2050
0016
0021
0040
0045
0119
0134
0135
0143
0156
0220
0241
0247
0250
0308
0709
0716
0719
0725
0812
0844
1005
1041
1050
1125
1153
1303
1340
1344
1418
1426
1510
1555
1600
1623
1648
1723
1726
1747
1909
1911
1918
48.4
0.9
11.1
37
38
36.7
27.8
53.1
57.3
10.5
21.9
30
21.5
48.2
27.3
24.8
2.5
14.8
37.3
26
43.5
28.7
47.5
49.4
55.5
47.3
10.1
18.7
13.7
52.7
37.8
30.5
18.9
0.5
3.2
48.3
45.7
34.5
50
14.8
37.9
21.8
24
3.2
24.9
0.1
28.2
4.4
46.6
30.2
13.737
10.596
8.470
12.183
5.505
5.011
9.142
17.873
6.936
7.501
14.400
9.385
12.113
10.173
11.685
6.920
7.803
9.759
8.466
9.371
9.965
14.319
6.704
10.633
9.980
10.130
16.961
6.878
14.605
9.913
13.916
10.027
13.234
8.116
12.282
12.593
15.541
12.600
10.425
8.868
9.601
7.362
8.786
11.031
9.317
10.244
4.145
9.795
9.325
5.937
93.118
94.309
92.175
96.309
94.137
88.968
93.431
84.746
91.022
92.159
93.225
92.344
94.164
92.417
93.466
95.917
89.494
92.191
92.062
92.331
95.638
94.636
91.888
94.173
95.458
93.653
93.386
92.382
95.570
92.382
94.102
92.423
95.053
90.598
93.848
93.053
88.395
93.558
93.757
95.522
94.290
93.661
92.193
94.796
94.566
96.697
86.324
95.558
95.750
94.799
20.4
152.4
30.0
30.0
36.6
37.2
10.1
30.0
45.3
4.4
15.8
10.6
187.1
19.9
132.3
444.9
8.8
20.4
6.3
11.9
137.6
34.0
30.0
148.0
141.0
48.8
30.0
30.0
16.6
1.9
44.0
22.8
39.4
83.2
50.0
21.8
30.0
9.9
121.8
31.3
25.1
194.2
18.0
25.2
25.8
30.0
30.0
30.0
31.7
30.0
4.5
4.9
5.4
5.2
5.7
6.5
4.7
6.5
5.8
5.4
5.3
4.7
4.7
4.7
4.8
6.0
5.5
5.1
5.4
5.1
5.0
5.3
5.6
5.2
5.6
4.9
6.3
5.5
5.8
4.9
5.3
4.8
5.1
5.7
5.0
5.0
6.1
4.7
5.3
5.5
5.3
5.6
5.2
5.7
5.4
5.6
6.4
4.9
4.8
6.1
______________________________________________________________________________________________
158
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0128
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0129
0130
0130
0130
0130
0130
1934
2000
2034
2054
2104
2113
2130
2147
2212
2222
2302
2317
2323
2351
0037
0113
0131
0139
0212
0236
0408
0443
0625
0659
1055
1243
1247
1254
1306
1348
1413
1427
1613
1756
1837
1939
1948
2028
2054
2108
2126
2129
2221
2241
2258
0006
0039
0041
1254
1413
37.3
27.8
8.7
14.2
4.1
54.3
17.3
45.1
58.2
20.4
43.8
0.4
30.6
37
41.2
17.6
49.1
30.5
53.3
11.8
10.3
57.6
13.9
35.6
24.1
31.1
59.4
39.9
49.3
58.1
60
55.7
36.2
55.3
45.2
8.4
21.3
27.8
11.5
27.8
7.5
29.9
40.1
16.7
31.4
16.5
37.8
51.2
49.6
31.5
13.110
11.263
7.597
9.785
7.100
10.589
8.012
13.689
4.369
9.694
11.261
17.109
6.172
8.595
8.486
6.774
11.254
9.838
13.775
14.280
13.161
10.228
11.709
9.976
10.369
10.223
10.675
11.965
7.570
11.528
10.902
7.141
8.645
12.703
13.599
14.566
12.166
8.263
7.484
10.590
12.432
10.277
12.250
8.549
6.822
3.987
10.067
8.701
9.584
9.083
93.992
95.098
92.865
94.313
93.733
95.621
95.478
93.169
90.240
95.466
93.872
95.836
92.631
97.311
90.722
89.921
94.685
90.313
93.149
95.613
92.455
94.537
93.606
92.435
95.097
95.489
94.546
93.272
95.681
95.511
94.912
94.153
92.451
92.909
93.080
93.314
94.374
90.602
93.280
93.134
95.105
96.000
96.543
95.387
93.996
94.578
94.462
92.066
92.346
92.429
30.0
25.3
1.5
25.1
88.8
25.1
25.5
27.4
30.0
30.0
152.8
30.0
1.2
30.0
80.0
30.0
164.5
50.1
3.5
25.0
67.2
137.1
136.9
30.0
151.8
54.5
25.4
0.3
43.7
25.0
25.5
23.1
30.0
29.6
16.1
14.5
30.0
107.8
293.7
25.0
35.4
53.6
25.1
30.0
18.1
30.0
25.1
15.8
15.5
11.0
5.1
4.8
4.9
4.5
5.3
5.0
5.3
5.0
5.7
4.8
5.0
6.1
5.6
5.3
5.1
6.7
4.8
5.2
4.9
5.2
5.7
5.1
5.1
4.6
5.2
5.2
5.0
5.5
5.6
5.1
5.0
5.4
5.1
4.7
4.7
5.6
4.6
5.7
5.8
4.5
4.8
5.3
5.0
5.0
6.8
6.2
4.8
5.1
4.8
4.6
______________________________________________________________________________________________
159
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
0130
0130
0130
0130
0130
0130
0130
0130
0130
0130
0130
0130
0130
0130
0130
0130
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
0131
1444
1447
1450
1530
1532
1659
1748
1845
1901
2004
2010
2017
2149
2304
2307
2330
0010
0016
0114
0146
0220
0254
0343
0354
0401
0431
0518
0524
0543
1252
1314
1530
1533
1546
1752
1755
1802
1831
1909
2042
2052
2055
2121
2124
2131
2159
2234
2304
2308
11
25.8
11.6
21.4
43.1
4.3
57.1
10.8
29.1
58
26.7
8.3
12.2
2.6
25.8
26.7
29.1
36.5
12.2
0.2
37.4
11.7
1.9
37.9
14.5
40
29.5
38.3
2.1
7
26.2
42
47.9
55.4
30
56.8
52
15.9
22.7
19.5
28.3
57.1
5.6
48.6
20.5
57.8
11.3
3.1
26.8
12.367
10.114
11.325
10.185
9.330
11.967
9.122
8.005
8.829
8.911
12.756
8.533
9.329
12.533
11.5 38
9.527
10.108
9.709
7.866
14.119
11.494
11.290
10.030
12.813
8.913
12.957
12.265
9.781
12.760
11.457
10.799
10.727
10.450
10.091
12.849
15.351
9.990
9.032
13.908
6.951
16.513
11.875
13.772
9.855
9.657
10.041
8.419
12.994
11.045
94.364
94.208
95.941
94.514
96.988
95.922
93.500
93.109
94.586
95.287
93.079
93.521
94.343
96.120
94.886
93.507
95.026
92.365
90.813
93.215
94.807
94.196
95.247
92.965
94.252
92.470
93.982
92.520
93.624
96.041
95.507
92.531
94.742
92.446
92.569
94.344
92.418
92.505
93.199
94.359
93.844
92.295
93.210
94.547
95.224
95.147
96.321
93.801
96.493
25.0
26.7
64.7
25.1
30.0
30.0
25.0
38.4
25.3
50.1
34.8
0.2
43.9
30.0
160.0
29.5
26.8
24.5
42.5
14.2
25.7
26.4
27.1
9.4
34.2
21.4
73.9
25.1
49.6
50.9
26.2
28.9
25.1
13.3
40.8
18.2
30.0
30.0
27.5
15.4
30.0
9.1
30.0
25.1
25.9
51.2
23.3
30.0
50.5
5.0
5.3
5.5
5.0
6.2
5.6
5.9
5.4
5.1
5.1
5.0
5.1
4.7
4.7
4.7
4.8
5.1
4.6
5.7
5.0
5.4
5.1
5.8
4.9
5.3
5.4
5.2
5.3
5.3
5.2
6.1
4.8
5.1
4.9
4.9
5.5
4.6
5.2
5.0
5.7
5.9
4.6
5.1
4.6
4.8
5.1
5.3
5.1
4.9
______________________________________________________________________________________________
160
TABLE-8
TABLE-8(Contd.)
Aftershock Parameters
Y
2005
2005
LAT LONG DEPTH MAG 2005
SS ( Deg. ) (Deg. ) ( km ) Ml 2005
2005
5.4 11.673 92.738 0.1
4.4 2005
50.6 11.557 92.725 10.7 5.0 2005
19.9 11.165 91.780 25.2 5.1 2005
0.5 11.145 91.843 25.0 5.4 2005
2.4 10.288 91.916 25.1 5.2 2005
29.3 9.776 93.382 25.0 5.2 2005
26.3 9.529 92.761 30.0 5.3 2005
52.7 11.678 92.782 0.1
4.4 2005
29.8 9.022 92.626 0.3
4.8 2005
29.2 11.041 92.442 30.0 5.3 2005
41 11.038 92.009 30.0 5.2 2005
32.2 9.351 92.680 30.0 4.7 2005
25.9 9.931 91.826 25.0 5.2 2005
25.7 9.154 92.822 0.1
5.0 2005
1.8 11.538 92.430 30.0 4.4 2005
1.1 9.624 93.094 30.0 4.6 2005
52.6 10.635 91.647 30.0 5.0 2005
16.3 9.313 93.420 26.2 4.9 2005
13.3 11.410 92.293 25.1 4.9 2005
15.4 8.290 92.793 28.4 5.2 2005
11.1 8.337 91.675 0.2
5.0 2005
17.4 11.628 92.176 30.0 6.0 2005
52.2 11.242 92.907 30.0 4.3 2005
21.6 9.770 93.152 30.0 5.0 2005
35.2 9.444 93.521 30.0 5.2 2005
36.2 11.005 92.600 26.4 4.6 2005
34.4 9.154 92.931 30.0 4.4 2005
50.7 9.909 93.484 25.1 5.0 2005
7.3 11.685 92.552 30.0 4.5 2005
32 8.988 90.578 34.8 5.8 2005
9.8 10.613 91.807 25.1 4.8 2005
47.8 9.233 92.898 30.0 5.7 2005
22.1 9.602 92.892 30.0 5.2 2005
21.6 9.587 92.805 25.0 4.8 2005
36.1 10.568 94.103 30.0 5.1 2005
43.4 11.287 92.618 30.0 5.3 2005
Double-station Method
Origin Time
Y
M D HM
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
923
1010
1618
1639
1641
1715
1730
1733
1740
1741
1750
1813
1840
1848
1859
1904
1906
1919
1931
1937
1959
2002
2006
2110
2134
2140
2147
2153
2232
2325
2333
2344
2348
15
58
706
M
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
D
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
26
26
26
26
26
HM
855
1811
1822
1844
1915
1919
2016
2043
2050
2056
2102
2131
2141
2145
2152
2155
2210
2234
2320
26
101
103
220
950
1716
1750
1923
1927
1942
1958
2128
2139
2224
2240
2308
2344
9
59
112
121
159
SS ( Deg. )
47.1 11.190
55.4 10.286
53 11.026
9.5 11.555
14.7 10.742
29.6 11.002
39.2 9.294
22.9 10.127
14.4 11.659
52.7 8.534
53.1 11.337
23.4 11.651
30
9.127
40.4 10.306
28.5 11.659
3.1 11.363
22.9 20.739
49.6 11.590
45.2 11.098
0.4
9.039
45.6 11.817
55.5 9.399
34.3 11.718
22.2 11.658
25.8 10.430
17.5 11.460
2.8
8.997
44.6 8.973
26.4 11.100
59.2 9.907
44.2 13.474
31.3 9.147
43.6 10.653
11
8.934
44.5 9.147
53.7 11.073
18.6 11.261
51.2 12.103
12.6 11.851
45.6 11.273
49.1 16.228
(Deg. )
92.295
92.022
91.975
91.206
92.422
93.082
92.973
95.166
92.731
92.931
91.145
93.380
92.828
94.032
92.732
92.520
86.622
92.815
93.559
91.051
92.702
92.996
93.208
92.728
93.230
92.756
96.725
92.877
93.451
93.716
91.695
92.817
90.724
92.518
92.840
94.650
90.258
93.359
93.127
92.352
93.726
( km )
30.0
30.0
30.0
56.9
25.1
30.0
14.1
43.4
0.1
0.1
30.0
30.0
0.1
25.0
9.8
30.0
30.0
7.9
40.4
30.0
0.1
138.8
30.0
0.1
25.1
17.5
30.4
30.0
29.4
25.0
136.2
0.1
30.0
30.0
0.1
30.0
25.0
30.0
30.0
24.4
30.0
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Ml
5.3
4.9
4.6
5.5
4.7
4.8
4.2
5.2
4.6
5.0
4.9
4.6
4.0
4.7
4.6
4.8
7.4
4.0
6.6
5.5
5.2
6.3
6.4
5.8
4.8
4.5
5.8
5.0
4.8
4.7
6.0
4.1
5.1
4.6
5.1
6.1
5.2
4.9
4.4
4.6
5.8
161
TABLE-9
TABLE-9(Contd.)
Aftershock Parameters
Single-station Method
Y
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
Origin Time
M D H M SS
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
1155
1208
1235
1240
1256
1319
1333
1509
1520
1527
1536
1551
1630
1632
1640
1702
1753
1807
1819
1824
1831
1834
1836
1838
1844
1855
1900
1901
1908
1928
1943
1956
2001
2010
2024
2026
2031
2032
2035
2040
2044
2047
43.4
59.3
22.5
26.2
10.6
58.3
57.5
53.0
52.2
5.0
22.4
4.1
19.9
39.4
2.4
4.9
13.9
8.1
59.6
46.4
49.5
30.9
18.0
34.2
26.6
4.8
15.3
54.3
9.9
7.0
7.3
5.2
13.3
2.1
59.1
37.2
5.0
52.4
59.7
48.9
57.3
22.9
LAT LONG
( Deg. ) (Deg. )
10.150
11.246
10.277
13.108
10.271
10.282
12.869
12.659
11.303
12.794
11.801
12.684
12.321
12.956
12.954
12.204
11.683
10.173
11.840
12.561
11.016
10.380
12.074
11.926
10.592
11.844
11.999
11.035
12.850
13.342
12.205
10.294
12.101
10.272
11.466
12.303
11.609
12.226
12.042
12.678
14.875
11.940
92.410
92.570
92.220
93.280
92.340
93.320
91.920
91.620
93.660
93.700
92.360
92.890
93.540
91.990
91.960
91.350
93.860
92.830
93.150
92.660
93.260
92.160
93.180
93.210
91.820
91.380
92.680
94.030
93.600
91.870
92.540
92.980
91.340
93.840
93.200
92.980
93.780
92.290
93.130
93.030
93.730
93.070
DEPTH
( km )
MAG
Ml
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
7.2
5.3
5.9
5.7
6.5
5.6
5.6
5.9
5.6
5.5
5.0
5.3
5.0
5.3
5.2
4.9
5.4
5.7
5.4
4.8
4.9
5.1
4.6
4.5
5.4
4.1
4.0
5.1
4.7
5.5
5.4
5.0
5.5
5.7
5.2
4.6
5.5
4.7
4.5
4.9
5.4
4.4
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
2049
2053
2115
2118
2123
2126
2128
2130
2135
2143
2145
2148
2226
2240
2249
2311
2317
1316
1436
1441
1447
1520
1535
1619
1636
1703
1819
1850
1852
1856
1902
1910
1914
1932
1950
1952
2008
2027
2029
2035
2037
2047
2050
2118
2129
2136
2140
2147
2150
2216
2257
26.5
22.9
47.3
7.3
52.6
24.0
19.7
11.3
34.6
40.2
37.9
29.0
59.9
19.1
37.8
0.1
15.2
0.2
0.6
27.9
11.6
7.2
37.7
2.1
1.3
25.7
59.9
23.7
40.7
54.2
18.9
4.6
31.0
52.1
36.7
49.0
41.7
44.3
22.0
21.9
49.3
21.3
25.4
40.2
53.0
10.0
28.4
37.2
28.6
5.6
11.5
11.535
10.515
12.093
12.427
12.116
11.310
12.154
10.169
10.945
12.181
10.925
11.559
12.191
11.669
12.214
10.629
10.476
11.042
11.803
11.373
11.415
12.373
11.898
10.628
12.464
11.894
11.904
13.156
11.605
11.951
12.986
12.378
12.153
12.646
11.903
13.058
12.364
11.736
10.277
13.593
10.347
13.551
12.693
10.924
11.266
12.096
12.349
11.430
12.042
12.134
12.756
94.680
91.780
92.700
93.880
92.690
92.600
92.540
94.250
94.000
91.370
94.010
91.220
92.540
93.700
92.780
93.220
93.600
94.280
93.110
92.220
92.730
92.720
92.670
92.700
92.480
92.130
91.570
92.180
93.270
92.600
91.960
92.330
93.080
92.650
92.990
92.440
92.500
92.800
92.300
92.440
92.090
92.290
92.800
94.350
92.360
92.380
92.990
93.460
92.010
92.790
91.220
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
5.4
6.1
5.4
5.2
4.4
4.7
4.5
4.4
3.9
5.0
6.4
5.2
4.7
5.3
4.5
5.3
4.7
5.8
5.0
5.7
4.7
4.8
5.1
5.2
5.1
4.8
4.7
5.2
4.3
5.1
5.9
5.1
4.7
4.5
4.3
4.6
5.2
4.5
5.3
5.6
5.1
5.1
5.5
5.1
5.2
4.6
5.2
4.7
6.0
4.6
4.1
______________________________________________________________________________________________
162
TABLE-9(Contd.)
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
7 2336
7 2356
8
5
8 10
8 15
8 18
8 33
8 38
8 49
8 116
8 120
8 248
8 254
8 257
8 310
8 330
8 352
8 406
8 408
8 421
8 450
8 503
8 528
8 541
8 547
8 638
8 652
8 704
8 708
8 712
8 721
8 727
8 745
8 755
8 801
8 805
23.7
15.1
26.7
2.9
26.6
20.0
26.5
49.6
53.1
9.3
57.6
8.5
25.6
27.7
58.5
59.5
45.6
50.3
48.2
40.5
54.2
25.4
17.8
44.3
54.1
24.8
18.9
38.9
59.0
16.7
55.1
56.0
17.6
46.1
0.6
16.7
10.834
11.784
11.845
12.222
11.825
12.263
11.885
12.489
11.372
11.518
11.159
14.188
12.867
11.637
12.043
12.066
12.758
12.168
12.451
12.117
12.004
12.305
12.229
14.400
14.128
11.702
8.010
10.145
9.705
10.201
9.483
11.390
11.700
8.343
11.014
11.005
92.480
93.280
91.450
93.160
92.730
92.880
92.320
91.850
95.660
93.180
93.230
92.120
94.230
93.080
92.710
92.930
92.240
92.420
91.940
92.270
92.530
92.570
92.500
91.110
92.620
93.320
93.710
93.060
92.780
94.860
94.060
95.160
93.410
93.190
93.340
93.230
TABLE-9 (Contd.)
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
4.8
5.1
4.9
5.4
4.9
4.7
4.8
5.7
5.5
4.5
4.9
6.6
5.7
4.9
4.7
4.7
6.1
4.9
5.8
5.0
6.2
5.0
4.9
6.1
5.8
5.0
5.4
5.1
4.9
6.7
5.5
5.9
4.9
5.1
5.4
5.0
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
2005
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
9
808
812
815
820
839
852
856
859
902
906
921
929
931
940
949
956
958
1005
1008
1019
1023
1026
1037
1040
1050
1054
1106
1130
1159
1224
1231
1332
1403
1405
1723
2026
41.5
46.3
31.9
5.3
37.2
21.5
29.3
24.1
29.2
43.7
21.5
17.9
17.3
54.1
47.9
43.5
18.1
15.4
0.5
24.1
54.2
42.5
21.3
51.7
41.5
33.4
33.4
16.3
50.8
9.6
34.8
16.9
32.4
21.1
45.0
11.6
12.371
9.677
9.785
9.234
9.340
9.761
10.539
9.864
11.665
11.264
9.986
8.520
12.655
9.141
9.705
8.942
9.159
9.927
9.931
11.673
9.682
10.294
9.289
11.418
11.945
9.507
12.137
12.078
11.638
10.426
11.913
12.162
11.594
11.173
9.528
10.538
91.970
92.240
92.150
92.890
91.980
92.160
92.290
93.650
93.210
93.700
93.090
93.430
92.640
94.110
92.130
93.520
93.800
92.390
91.810
93.170
91.700
92.620
93.710
92.490
92.610
93.540
92.710
92.610
93.210
93.990
92.640
92.510
93.090
93.050
92.830
93.230
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
5.0
5.3
5.5
4.3
5.2
5.0
5.6
5.0
4.4
5.6
4.8
5.0
5.0
5.1
5.7
5.5
5.1
4.8
5.6
4.9
5.4
5.5
5.0
6.6
4.7
5.4
5.2
5.5
5.2
6.0
6.5
4.9
4.9
5.1
5.5
5.3
______________________________________________________________________________________________
163
Segment I: Srikakulam- Pulicat

Segment II: Chennai- Nagapattinam
Segment III: Nagapattinam- Kanyakumari
Segment IV: Kanyakumari- Cochin
TSUNAMI SURVEY IN ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR GROUP OF ISLANDS

T. Ghosh, P. Jana, T. S. Giritharan, S. Bardhan, S. R. Basir and A K Ghosh Roy.
Geological Survey of India, Eastern Region,
DK-6, Sector II, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700091
INTRODUCTION
A tsunami is an oceanic gravity wave generated by submarine earthquakes or other
geological processes such as volcanic eruptions, landslides or meteorite impact. Generally a
shallow, large, thrust earthquake (of Mw= 7.5 or above) has the potential of generating hazardous
tsunami. The earthquakes that generate tsunamis are known as tsunamigenic earthquakes.
In deep open sea tsunami travels at a speed of 700-800 km/hr; the distance between crests of
tsunami waves may exceed 100km and the crest height may be less than 1m. As the tsunami
approaches the coast (i.e. shallower water), its speed decreases sharply while the wave height
increases many times even up to 30m. As the successive trains of waves hit the coast, the sea water
penetrates the coast with high speed and causes extensive inundation which is called Run up.
Depending on the bathymetry and the coastline configuration the run up from the same tsunami can
vary from place to place. The power of a tsunami is a function of its wave speed and wave height.
The coasts of Pacific Ocean experience higher tsunami frequencies than the coasts of Indian
Ocean. The references of tsunamis in the Indian Ocean are found in several literatures
(Berninghausen, 1966; Murthy, 1999 and Oritz and Bilham, 2003). The tsunami generate d by the
Sumatra Earthquake is now considered to be the worst recorded history of tsunamis. According to
one estimate, the loss of lives from this event in the Indian Ocean has been higher by several orders
of magnitude in comparison to the most severe tsunamis occurred over the last 30 years in the
Pacific Ocean. In India, the Andaman and Nicobar Group of Islands, and coastal states of Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala were severely affected.
Historical records of Tsunami in Andaman and Nicobar Islands

The details of past tsunamis in Andaman & Nicobar group of islands are given in Table -1.
While details of the location of epicenter, death/damage caused etc. are not known, run up level up
to 4 m in Port Blair, 0.76 m in Car Nicobar islands were reported.
Table-1: Run up levels for tsunamis in A&N group of islands during the period 1700-2004.
Sl.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Name of the area

Port
Blair,
South
Andaman
Car Nicobar island
Port
Blair,
South
Andaman
A & N islands
Year/Date
19.08.1868
Earthquake
magnitude
Mw 7.5
Source
Bay of Bengal
Run up
level (m)
4.0
31.12.1881
31.12.1881
Ms 7.9
Ms 7.9
Bay of Bengal
Bay of Bengal
0.76
1.22
26.6.1941
Mw 7.7
Bay of Bengal
Data source: National Geophysical Data Centre, USA.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
165
TSUNAMI SURVEY
In the aftermath of the disastrous tsunamigenic earthquake of 26 th December 2004 a posttsunami field survey was taken up to study the effects of tsunami on different areas of Andaman &
Nicobar group of Islands. The tsunami survey consists of measurement of run up lengths and run
up heights along selected profiles, marking areas of inundation based on ground observation and
taking information from local people. The tsunami survey was carried out in Little Andaman
(mainly at Hut Bay), South Andaman (mainly in and around Port Blair), Car Nicobar (along
Kankana-Mus sector), Great Nicobar (mainly at Campbell Bay and Joginder Nagar area). The
surveyed localities in Andaman & Nicobar Group of Islands are shown in the key map (Plate-1).
Plate 1: Locations of study area in

Andaman - Nicobar Islands
SOUTH ANDAMAN
The eastern part of South Andaman is characterised by a coastline with high cliffs (broken
occasionally by deep bays with steep sides), but flat slopes running into valleys are also not rare.
The settlement areas are situated either on the low lands at the heads of bays or at higher slopes
bordering the bays and coastal flat lands. The western part of the island is having a more gentle and
gradually sloping topography facing the open sea.
According to the information provided by the local people the tsunami waves attacked
three times, the first of which arrived around 0715 hrs. Of the three, the third one was the most
devastating. The coastlines of the islands or low-lying areas inland, which are connected to open
sea through creeks, were flooded. These areas were still under water at the time of investigation
(March 2005). Inundation has been observed, along east coast of South Andaman Island and is
______________________________________________________________________________________________
166
Plate 2: Tsunami inundation map in South Andaman

found to be restricted at Chidiyatapu, Burmanallah, Kodiaghat, Beadnabad, Corbyns cove and
Marina Park/Aberdeen Jetty areas. Along west coast, the inundation has been observed around
Guptapara, Manjeri, Wandoor, Collinpur and Tirur regions. Other than these localities, several lowlying areas adjacent to Flat Bay have also been inundated. The seawater from open sea has entered
Flat Bay from east and inundated some areas viz. Phoenix Bay, Chatham, Bamboo Flat, Dundus
Point, Junglighat Jetty, Dollyganj, Garacharma and Chouldari (Fig.1). Vast stretches of cultivated
lands around Sipighat, Chouldari and southwest of Wimberlygunj were inundated by seawater
______________________________________________________________________________________________
167
entering through adjacent creeks causing extensive damages to the standing crops (Fig.2). Flooding
of these low-lying areas (Plate 2) have become a permanent feature and coseismic land subsidence
seems to be the most likely cause. Roads between Garacharma and Sipighat sector (that was
negotiable during high tides before the earthquake) are now getting submerged during high tides.
Jetties at Phoneix Bay, Chatham, Aberdeen (Marina Park), Junglighat were damaged (Fig.3)
affecting the sea traffic. During the course of investigation some of these jetties were found getting
submerged at the time of high tides (Fig.4). At several places seawalls were breached; sandy to
silty deposits with salt encrustations was found in a number of places invaded by seawater during
tsunami (Fig.5). Flooding of the 20 MW diesel generated power plant at Bamboo Flat had caused
extensive damages to the electrical and mechanical instruments disrupting the power supply to the
city of Port Blair. Near shore establishments suffered heavy damages at places (Fig.6). At several
places watermarks indicating standing water height were noted (Figs.7&8).
.
It has been observed that along coastline, it is either the topography or the existing land
cover has controlled the intensity of inundation. The areas with higher topography on either side
were unaffected. Similarly, the areas with dense mangrove cover have protected the immediate
inland regions from the inundation due to tsunami.
Tsunami survey was carried out along selected profiles in Chiriyatapu, Corbyns Cove and
Wandoor beaches (Plate-3). The results of the survey is given in Table-2
TABLE: 2 Summarized result of tsunami survey in South Andaman
AREA
Date of
Survey
Run
up
length
Maximum run
up level
measure from
land-sea water
contact
Maximum
Tsunami
height
Landward
Flow
Direction
Chiriyatapu
Beach
Corbyns
Cove Beach
Wandoor
Beach
17.03.2005
130m.
4.24m
5.0m
N15o W
20.03.2005
150m.
5.48m
5.48m
N55o W
16.03.2005
150m.
4.63m
6.64m
N450 E
Fig.-1: Aerial view of the inundation

(marked by solid line) at Garacharma
area, Port Blair, South Andaman.
Fig.-2: Crop damage due to inundation

near Chouldari, South Andaman.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
168
Fig.3: Wall Collapse at Junglighat jetty,

South Andaman.
Fig.-5: Salt deposition over cultivated

land inundated during tsunami at New
Manglutan, South Andaman.
Fig. -7: Tsunami watermark on tree

bark (shown by arrow) at Guptapara
jetty, South Andaman .
Fig.4: Inundated Jetty at Junglighat,

Port Blair, South Andaman.
Fig.-6: Damaged boundary wall near

Guest House at Chidiyatapu, South
Andaman.
Fig.-8: Watermark in a house near

Sipighat during high tide (on 10.01.2005),
South Andaman.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
169
Plate 3: Run up profiles across Corbyns cove, Chidiyatapu and Wandoor beach
LITTLE ANDAMAN
In Little Andaman, tsunami damage survey was carried out in and around Hut Bay only.
According to the eyewitnesses tsunami waves impinged on the eastern shore of this island 25 to 30
minutes after the earthquake. It was a four-wave cycle; out of which the fourth one was most
devastating with a tsunami wave height of about 10 m. The tsunami water had converted the
settlements at Hut Bay into rubbles within a range of 1 km inland from the seashore (Figs.9, 10 &
11). Everything was destroyed including the jetty and the breakwater. Run up level up to 3.3 m.
have been noted (Fig.12). Several stretches of the coastal road between 0 km up to 11 km along the
coastline got either damaged or washed away (Fig.13). At one place the mouth of a channel
debouching into the sea got blocked by huge tsunami sand deposits consequently changing the flow
direction of the channel (Fig.14).
______________________________________________________________________________________________
170
Fig.-9: Remains of a Hospital at Hut

Bay, Little Andaman.
Fig.-11: Bus overturned and drifted by tsunami

waves crushing the wall of the STS bus
terminus at Hut Bay, Little Andaman.
Fig.-13: Damaged road at 7 Km. with fallen

trees showing landward flow direction of
tsunami at Hut Bay 7 km, Little Andaman.
Fig.-10: Steeple of a church fell and

drifted by tsunami at Hut Bay, Little
Andaman.
Fig.-12: Objects lifted to the

branches of a tree indicating
tsunami height at that point,
Hut Bay, Little Andaman.
Fig. -14: Deposition of tsunami sand

obstructing a stream at Hut Bay, Little
Andaman.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
171
CAR NICOBAR
The tsunami survey was carried out along Kankana Air Base-Mus sector on the eastern
coast of the island. On the basis of the survey an inundation map of the study area has been
prepared (Plate -4). The area wise details of the survey is as follows:
Malacca
The Malacca is a residential area near seashore located to the east of the Administrative
Headquarters of Car Nicobar. The ground height is less than 10 m. above sea level. According to
local people, three pulses of tsunami waves attacked the area three times. The first wave that came
5 minutes after the earthquake was preceded by recession of the seawater up to 600-700 meters,
exposing the seabed. The second and third waves came with a 10 minutes interval after the first
and second waves respectively. The third wave was the strongest (maximum tsunami wave height
of 11m.) and was accompanied by a loud noise. The landward flow direction measured from bent
rods was towards S800 W (Fig.15) and the back flow was towards east direction. The inundation
limit is 1.125m from the sea water/land contact (on the date of measurement) towards west and
restricted up to 10 m. contour line of Survey of India toposheets. The main road runs on the axis of
sand spit. Most of the house constructed over this sand spit, was destroyed (Fig.16). Some of the
residential buildings were submerged and not destroyed. Traces of water level marks were visible
on the walls of residential houses (Fig.17). Fine to medium grained yellowish white coloured sand
deposition was recorded upto a height of 0.8 to 1.0 m above ground level. The advancement of sea
towards land by upto 60-70 m. as noticed at places (Fig.18), and is most likely to be related to the
coseismic land subsidence.
Air force colony, Kankana

Located just south of Malacca, the ground height is less than 10 m. above sea level. The
tsunami waves attacked the area three times with a maximum tsunami wave height of 11 m (Fig.
19). Inundation limit was found to be up to 1.25 km inland. The landward tsunami wave direction
was towards N750 W; the measurements were taken from bent rod, fallen lamppost, alignment of
grass etc. (Fig.20). Fine to medium grained yellowish sand deposition up to a maximum height of
0.8 to 1.0 m from ground level observed. Watermarks up to a height of 5 m were recorded at
residential building, Ramps etc.
The northern part of the area being situated at a lower elevation than that of the southern part was
much more devastated but the inundation limit did not crossed the 10 m contour line of Survey of
India toposheet. The residential buildings, hospital etc. were almost reduced to rubbles but some
round shaped structures like water tank, primary school, shopping complex etc. were either
relatively less damaged or remained intact (Fig.21).
The impact of the waves was so severe that four Oil tankers of IOC were thrown almost
800 m from the seashore near Malacca to Air force colony main gate (Fig.22). The Ramp, which
saved almost 250 people, has been broken in its southern and northern ends (Fig.23). Series of E-W
trending cracks were observed on the metalled main road of the Air Force Colony area.
Chuckchucha
This area is located north of Malacca. The maximum run up distance in the area has been
measured to be 1.25 km. from the seawater/land contact. Here also it was a three wave cycle; the
______________________________________________________________________________________________
172
Fig. -15: Bent rods by the force

of tsunami at Malacca, Car Nicobar,
indicate landward flow direction.
Fig.-17: Damaged houses during

high tide (24.03.2005) near Malacca
jetty, Car Nicobar. Watermarks
(shown by arrow) on the walls are
visible .
Fig. -19: Devastation around Air Force

Colony, Car Nicobar. (Tin roof damaged
by tsunami waves indicated by the arrow,
implying tsunami wave height).
Fig. -16: Nature of devastation at

Malacca, Car Nicobar.
Fig.-18:
Aerial view showing
advancement of sea at Malacca, Car
Nicobar. Inundated localities shown
within circle.
Fig. -20: Bent lamppost indicating

landward tsunami flow direction at
Air Force Colony, Car Nicobar.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
173
maximum tsunami wave height of about 12.0 m. was observed by the local people during the third
cycle.(Fig.24). At places, coconut trees were uprooted from the eastern side of the road and
dumped against structures and buildings on the other side of the road due to the impact of the
tsunami wave. The water level marks recorded in EHL Building = 5.25 m. The ceiling fan of the
EHL hall was twisted by the impact of the tsunami wave (Fig. 25). At places, uprooted coconut
trees are aligned in a westerly direction, provided an indirect evidence of landward flow direction
(Fig.26). Huge quantity of sand deposited all over the place from east to west (up to a max. height
of 1.0 m)
Lapati
Located to the north of Chuckchucha the area also experienced a three-wave cycle with
the maximum tsunami wave height of 12. m. Here, The frontal flow direction has been measured to
be S700 W (from bent bolt and rod) (Fig. 27). Seawater penetrated 1.125 Km. inland. Most of the
single storied buildings on the eastern and western side of the road were ripped away leaving only
the foundations intact (Fig.27). Some of two storied RC buildings were also damaged. The debris
materials from the eastern side has been dragged and thrown all over towards the western side of
the road. Fewer trees were found amongst the debris. The deposition of fine to medium grained
sand was found all over the places. At places scouring of sand has been noted.
Some mangled cars were also noticed among the debris. Still northward at Mus jetty
breakwater was damaged (Fig. 28). Also a hundred ton pontoon has been washed ashore by
tsunami wave near Mus jetty (Fig. 29). The result of the tsunami survey in Car Nicobar along
selected profiles is given in the Table -3.
Table 3: Summarised result of tsunami survey in Car Nicobar
Landward
Maximum
tsunami wave Flow
Direction
height
28.03.2005
up Maximum run up
level
measured
from
Land-sea
water contact
1.25 km.
5.0m
11.0m
N75o W
26.03.2005
27.03.2005
27.03.2005
1.125 km.
1.250 km.
1.125 km.
11.0m
12.0m
12.0m
S80oW
Westerly
S70oW
AREA
Date
Survey
Air force
colony
Malacca
Chuckchucha
Lapati
of Run
length
5.5m
5.25m
5.20m
It has been observed that the inundation limits from the Air Force colony area to Kinyuka
and the area around Mus are restricted below 10 m contour of the toposheet. On the other hand the
stretch between Chukchucha and Kinmai, the inundation limit has gone either up to 10 m or is
restricted between 10 m and 20 m contours.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
174
Plate 4: Tsunami inundation map, Eastern Coast, Car Nicobar

(Inset showing run-up elevation measurements along profiles)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
175
Fig.-22: Large oil tank ripped apart

from its foundation and carried 800
m towards Air Force Colony from
Malacca side, Car Nicobar.
Fig. -21: A lone water tank standing
amongst ruins opposite to hospital
at Air Force Colony, Car Nicobar.
Fig. -23: Broken southern part of the

ramp at Air Force Colony, Car
Nocobar.
Fig.-25: Twisted ceiling fan at about 5 m

height due to impact of tsunami at
Chuckchucha, Car Nicobar.
Fig.-24: Twigs of remaining

coconut trees ravaged by
tsunami indicating tsunami
height at Chukchucha, Car
Nicobar.
Fig. -26: Uprooted coconut trees

dumped against a damaged building
at Chukchucha, Car Nicobar.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
176
Fig. -27: Flattened rows of houses

at Lapati, Car Nicobar. The bent
rod (shown by arrow) indicates
landward tsunami flow direction.
Fig. -29: A hundred ton Pontoon

drifted on land by tsunami near Mus
jetty, Car Nicobar.
Fig.-31: Remains of a habitated area

opposite to school, Campbell Bay,
Great Nicobar.
Fig.-28: Damaged break water at Mus jetty,

Car Nicobar.
Fig.-30: Prostrated fence trees

indicating landward tsunami flow
direction at Campbell Bay, Great
Nicobar.
Fig.-32: Deposition of tsunami sand at

Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
177
GREAT NICOBAR
The tsunami survey was carried out in and around Campbell Bay and Joginder Nagar area.
On the basis of the survey an inundation map of the study area has been prepared (Plate-5).
Campbell Bay
Tsunami had caused extensive damages to this main locality of Great Nicobar Island.
According to the local information, the tsunami waves hit the area three times. The first wave came
within 5 minutes of the earthquake. The second and third waves came10 minutes after first and
second waves respectively. The second wave was the strongest with a loud noise. The landward
tsunami wave flow direction was towards N250W, as indicated by bent rods, fallen lamppost, aligned
trees etc. (Fig.30). The return flow direction was towards S100 E.
The inundation limit varies from 250-550 m. within the study area. The buildings (mostly
made up of wood and concrete) between the road and sea were highly damaged (Fig.31). The water
level marks recorded at Airport building (2.32 m) Joseph Nursery School (2.52 m) and stadium (0.90
m). Many fishing boats were found strewn around among the debris. Yellowish white, medium to
coarse-grained sand with variable thickness (upto a max. of 0.8 m) has been deposited parallel to
main road (Fig.32).
During the course of investigation, an advancement of sea towards land by 100-120m.have
been noticed. As a result a vast area along the coastal tract that has been developed over the years are
now remaining submerged during high tide (Fig. 33). At places, sea walls have been broken and
many dug wells found to be submerged. Nearly 80 m. of the approach jetty was highly damaged and
washed away.
Jogindar Nagar area

Deadly tsunami waves wreaked havoc in this densely populated area, situated 13 km.
south of Campbell Bay. According to local information, tsunami waves attacked the area
thrice. The first wave came 5 minutes after the main shock (0629 hrs.) with a marginal drop
in sea level. Second wave came 10 minutes after the first one with a maximum height of
4.84 m and caused the major destruction. The third wave came within 15 minutes after the
second one with a lower wave height. The coastal road was damaged heavily and at places
was totally washed away. Most of the houses were damaged beyond recognition with only
basement remaining intact (Fig. 34). The dense coconut plantation along the coast failed to
provide any protection whatsoever. The maximum inundation limit due to tsunami water
intrusion has been found to be about 500 m. The front flow direction measured from the bent
bolt, bent rod and lamp posts etc was. Found to be towards N500 W (Fig.35) while the return
flow direction is towards N350 E (Fig.36). The maximum run up level in the area measured
from traces of water level in house was 3.5 m. Yellowish white to white colour sand
deposits (up to 0.8-1.0m thick) were found on both sides of road and inside damaged
buildings. At some places along the shore, drifted logs from uprooted trees were found. A
number of vehicles were also found to be damaged. The Bihari basti on the beach was
completely wiped out. At places seawalls were breached. An advancement of seawater
during high tide up to 40-50m inland have been recorded. The result of the tsunami
survey along selected profiles in Great Nicobar is given in Table-4.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
178
TABLE: 4 Summarized result of tsunami survey in Great Nicobar

AREA
Date of
Survey
Run
up
length
Maximum run up
level measured
from Land-sea
water contact
Maximum
Tsunami
height
Landward
Flow
Direction
Air strip, C
Bay
Stadium, C
Bay
AHW
Colony, C
Bay
Opposite
power house,
C Bay
22.03.2005
500 m
2.32 m
3.0 m
N250 W
22.03.2005
400 m
2.52 m
3.0 m
N600 E
24.03.2005
250 m
1.50 m
2.2 m
North
Easterly
24.03.2005
550 m
3.00 m
3.5 m
North
Easterly
Jogindar
24.03.2005
500 m
Nagar*
*Near Gram Pradhan, Abtar Singhs house
3.00 m
4.84 m
N50o W
Fig.-33: Inundated area during high

tide (24.03.2005) near zero point,
Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar.
Fig.-35: Bent bolts indicating

landward flow direction, Joginder
Nagar, Great Nicobar.
Fig.-34: Devastations at Joginder Nagar,

Great Nicobar.
Fig.-36: Bent lamppost towards sea

indicating return flow direction,
Joginder Nagar, Great Nicobar.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
179
Plate 5: Tsunami inundation map, Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar

(Inset showing run-up elevation measurements along profiles)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
180
DISCUSSION
Because of their physiographic characters (surrounded by sea on all sides and narrow coast
line on which most of the developmental activities are concentrated) the islands are very vulnerable
to tsunami hazards. Our study has shown that there is a distinct spatial variability of tsunami damage
as one goes from north to south. Due to their proximity to the epicenter, the magnitude of tsunami
impact was more severe in the islands south of ten degree channel (Nicobar group of islands) than
those situated to the north of the channel (Andaman group of isla nds). As a result, the damage and
run up level in Nicobar group of islands are greater than those of Andaman group of islands. Also the
western coastline (where the impact was more due to the wrap-round effect) got less affected than
the eastern coastline (hit by large primary waves). It has also been observed that areas of low
elevation and having a wide and shallow estuary and/bay are affected greatly .On the other hand, the
shores protected by landmass, cliffs and promontories are least affected by the t sunami waves. Some
of the effects of tsunami on these islands are listed below
a) Coastal flooding: Vast areas along the coast have been found to be flooded during these
coastal low lands into marshy lands (e.g. areas around Garacharma, Sipighat etc. around Port
Blair, South Andaman).
b) Loss of standing crops: According to a source from Central Agriculture Research Institute
(CARI), the total cultivated areas affected by tsunami are in the range of 4500-5000 hectres
with loss of crops. Apart from damaging the standing crops, the silt and mud deposited along
with the saline water have made crop production impossible in near future.
c) Loss of lives: The Nicobar group of islands were badly damaged due to the tsunami of
26.12.2004 and 1861 people were died and more than 5000 people were missing (as on January
23, 2005). According to the sources from A & N administration, a total of 1925 people are dead
and 5555 are missing. The extent of loss of lives in Andaman & Nicobar group of islands is
given in Table-6.
d) Loss of drinking water resources: Inhabitants along the coasts in these islands are dependent
on dug wells that tap shallow aquifer (recharged mostly by rain water) over saline water front.
After 26th December, 2004 many of the coastal dug wells are flooded by sea water thereby
causing loss of precious sources of drinking water in these areas.
e) Increased salinity: Salinity level has increased in vast areas of agricultural land due to sea
water invasion. According to soil scientists of CARI the intruded seawater has high salinity of
about 35 ppt.
f) Coastal erosion: Elevated sea water levels may increase the coastal erosion and the
loss of trees along the coasts by the tsunami may not be adequate enough to protect
them from future storm surges and tsunamis.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
181
Table 6: Number of people died/missing in A&N Group of islands.

Sl. Name of island
Population (as No of people No of people Persons in
No.
per 2001 census)
died
missing
relief camp *
NICOBAR DISTRICT:
20292
348
790
15550
1.
Car Nicobar
2.
Teressa
2026
50
3296
3.
Katchal
5312
345
4310
1818
4.
Nancowry
927
934
5.
Camorta
3412
51
387
1476
6.
Great Nicobar
7566
336
219
4690
288
266
Other islands of
2533
Nicobar group
(evacuated)
ANDAMAN DISTRICTS
181949
1.
Andaman
(include Port
Blair)
7.
2.
Little Andaman
Other islands of
Andaman
3.
Total
2833
17528
56
14
6569
114607
356152
3
1925
5555
42166
Data source: Andaman and Nicobar Administration.

* indicating persons from the affected areas.
MITIGATION MEASURES
Tsunamis are perhaps the most catastrophic of all coastal hazards. Prediction of tsunamis is
always going to be problematic considering the fact that they are high magnitude but low frequency
events. Therefore, any tsunami defense system has to be a long- term measure taking into
consideration the political, socio-economic, cultural and engineering matters. The first priority is to
delineate the areas at risk on the basis of historical records and/or direct monitoring. Combining this
with detailed measurement of the shape of the sea floor and the coastal topography of the identified
sector will help in revealing the extent to which tsunami can invade inland and where there will be
flooding.
Management of tsunami hazards can be taken broadly by two ways: i) the mega engineering
approach i.e. by building concrete sea walls to hold back the waves or at least reduce their impacts
and ii) by adopting geomorphologically focused natural defense system. Considering that the
______________________________________________________________________________________________
182
Andaman & Nicobar group of islands is a tourist place with pristine natural beauty and have a low
population density, it is both aesthetic and cost effective to adopt the second option. At a number of
places within the study area presence of seawalls have failed to protect the onshore establishments.
This is particularly true where the wave height was more than 2 meters. The present experience also
reveals that the areas with a high density of mangroves are spared from much of the devastations. On
the other hand, the areas where forest/mangrove cover is lost due to developmental activities bore the
brunt of the damages caused by the tsunami waves. Also it was noted that the mangroves and the
trees with low branches with a high density of leaves withstood the wave attack better than the
coconut trees (see also Tsuji et al. 1995). Therefore, by conserving or replanting the coastal belts of
forest and mangroves can offer a degree of protection. Also regular monitoring of beach sectors
prone to erosion is required.
There should be no relocation of people in areas fronted by water and backed by estuaries,
creeks and bays. In case of North, Middle and South Andaman, areas with an elevation of 10 m and
above is recommended where as in case of Little Andaman as well as Nicobar group of islands, areas
having an elevation of 15 m and above may be a suitable proposition. Local administration should
ensure that all the critical facilities such as, hospitals, power plants, schools etc. are located outside
the tsunami hazard zones. Also, banning buildings, hotels right on the shore is a measure to be
strictly followed henceforth. Moving existing villages or settlements further back and upwards from
the coasts is going to be unpopular because of the fact that many people in these islands depend on
sea for their livelihood. In case of low lying areas in South Andaman like Sipighat, Bamboo Flat etc.
it is necessary to shift population periodically to the upper elevated areas nearby, since these areas
are vulnerable for flooding due to rain and tidal water invasion. For identifying areas for resettlement
large-scale maps with contour interval of 5m or less should be prepared. Those maps used in
conjunction along with the land use map on the same scale will help in selecting suitable areas for
resettlement. The data given in the inundation maps generated through this work would help in
planning for future tsunamis in these Islands by better defining inundation zones and what segments
of the coast were hardest hit by the tsunami.
It is also important to impart proper education to local people regarding the various aspects
of tsunami, which is a less frequent event as compared to the earthquake. This will be the least
expensive but most effective in mitigating the loss of human lives in case of a future tsunami. It has
been learnt that in Car Nicobar many people ran towards the sea to see sudden retreat of seawater
without knowing the consequences. The government official, schoolteachers etc. may be educated
first in this regard so that they can take appropriate measures in case of an emergency. Memorials
should be built at the worst hit sites like Car Nicobar, Katchal to remind future generations of this
disaster and thus discourage resettlement within the hazardous zones.
Finally, authority should device some warning system to alert people in case of an impending
tsunami. This involves planning and signposting evacuation routes, so that, people know which way
to go to get to a safer place. Evacuation drills should be conducted annually, preferably on 26th
December, the anniversary of the disaster.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
183
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Dr. M. K. Mukhopadhyay, Deputy Director General, Eastern
Region, GSI for his constant support, encouragement and overall guidance in the field and at
headquarters. Dr. M.M. Mukherjee, Deputy Director general, Operation: WB-Sik-A&N and the
Director, Project Andaman, ER took keen interest and provided necessary logistic support during the
second phase of the work. Cooperation received from the Chief Secretary and other officials of
Andaman Administration is gratefully acknowledged. In this regard, special thanks are due to the
Director and officials of Department of Science and technology (specially Mr. Hrishikesh, Senior
Scientist), officials of APWD, Assistant Commissioner of Campbell Bay and Deputy commissioner
and Assistant Commissioner of Car Nicobar. Sincere thanks are due to all the fellow scientists of
GSI who have helped in different stages. Last but not the least, the cooperation received from the
innumerable local people of all the islands visited by the authors at different stages of the work is
sincerely appreciated. A study of this nature could not have been made without their help.
REFERENCES
Berninghausen, W.H. (1966): Tsunamis and seismic seiches reported from regions adjacent to the
Indian Ocean. Bull. Seis. Soc. Am. V. 56 (1), p. 69-74.
Murthy, T.S. (1999): Tsunamis on the coastlines of India. Science of tsunami hazards. V. 17 (3), p.
167.
Ortiz, M. and Billham, R. (2003): Source area and rupture parameters of the 31st December 1881 Mw
7.9 Car Nicobar earthquake estimated from tsunami recorded in the Bay of Bengal. Jour.
Geophys. Res. V. 108 (B4) [2002 JB 001941 RR 2003].
Tsuji, Y., Matsutomo, H., Imamura, F., Takeo, M., Kawata, Y., Matsuyama, M.,Takahashi, T.,
Surarj and Harjadi, P. (1995). Damage to coastal villages due to the 1992 Flores island
earthquake tsunami. PAGEOPH. V.144 (3- 4). p. 481-523.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
184
TSUNAMI SURVEY IN THE SRIKAKULAM- PULICAT SEGMENT

ANDHRA PRADESH
M. Raju, B.K. Bhandaru, V. Singaraju and B.M. Shah

GSI complex, Bandlaguda, Hyderabad 500 068.
INTRODUCTION
Consequent to the tsunami that lashed the Indian coast on 26 th December 2004, field studies
have been carried out along the 974 km long Andhra Pradesh coast (Plate 1)during 30th December
2004 and 7th January 2005 to assess the impact of tsunami on coastal landforms and to make an
inventory of damages. Data on loss of life, damages to the dwellings and structures, extend of
inundation; wave height and run-up have been collected during fieldwork (see Tables 1- 7). In
general, minor erosion has been observed south of Nellore whereas in Prakasam, Guntur, Krishna,
West Godavari, East Godavari districts and Yanam, about 1 m thick sand was deposited at many
places. In the northern districts of Visakhapatnam, Vizianagaram and Srikakulam, no visible changes
in the coastline have been observed. Constructions in the beach near the waterfront have been
generally affected. The creeks and rivers joining the sea helped to dissipate the energy of tsunami
waves. As a result, water levels in those creeks and rivers rose to that extent. Plantations such as
casuarinas present along the coast and mangroves in the swamps helped in dissipating wave energy
and restricted inundation. As per available information, in Andhra Pradesh about 106 people died
and 7 reported missing due to tsunami. About 301 villages have been hit affecting 2.11 lakh people.
1,557 dwelling units have been damaged; 195 cattle have been lost; 790 ha cropped area affected.
The district-wise description of the impacts are given below:
NELLORE DISTRICT
The tsunami hit the Nellore coast around 0830 hrs and the wave action continued for about 3
to 4 hrs, mainly in three cycles. About 5m high water splashes have been reported during tsunami.
The average run-up is about 1km. The stretch between Tada and Kavali has been worst affected in
this district (Table-1). Vakadu, Tupilipalem, Ramudupalem, Mypadu, Gangapatnam, Pallepalem,
Krishnapuram, Vottur, Lakshmipuram, Pudikuppam, Monapalem, Balireddipalem, Whitekuppam
and Ramathirtham are some of the worst affected villages. Aquaculture ponds have been breached.
Seawater has reached the vicinity of Sriharikota Rocket Launching Station. However no damage to
the station is reported or observed. The first wave hit the Kottasatram coast at about 0900 hrs with
swirling action carrying lot of silt. The second wave which was more damaging hit the coast around
0930 hrs. The sea regressed for about 100m in between. The seawater entered through the existing
creek for about 1.5km. Few boats were pushed ashore for about 200m. At Mypadu Pallepalem (Fig.1
and 2), the first wave hit the coast around 0900 hrs with a splash of about 6m. The second one was
slightly less in height and hit the coast around 0930 hrs. The sea has regressed for about 500m in
between. Inundation was about 1km along the creek Damages to the thatched huts, fishing boats and
nets have been reported. Gangapatnam Pallepalem has been surrounded by water from the two arms
of the creek. The first wave hit the coast around 0830 hrs with 7-8m splash. The second one hit the
coast around 1000 hrs and the wave action continued for about 3 to 4 hrs. The seawater has gone up
to 2km along the creek. Few deaths have also been reported.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
185
PRAKASAM DISTRICT
The tsunami hit the Prakasam coast three times in a span of 3-4 hours (Table-2). The second
spell was the most furious. Water inundated the coastal belt that includes Mondivaripalem,
Karlapalem and Pallepalem in Guntur Mandal. Thatched houses near the seafront (Fig.3), fishing
boats and nets have been damaged. At Vadarevu, seawater inundated up to a maximum of 300m.
Splash height up to 7m has been reported. Fluctuation in the sea level continued for 16 hours. Before
the onset of tsunami, the sea retreated for about 300m exposing the seabed. At Pallepalem the
seawater inundated up to 500m with a splash of 5m. The damage has been minimised by the
presence of casuarinas plantation as bio-barrier. However, fishing boats and nets near the shore have
been damaged. Kottapatnam Pallepalem located about 200m away from the seafront has been saved
because of the coast parallel road. The first wave moved very slowly and hit the coast around 0900
hrs. The second wave with a splash of 5-6m hit the coast about 30 minutes latter. The sea has
regressed for about 100m between the waves. The beach has been eroded by about 0.5 to 1m. The
water went up to 1.5km along the creek. The waves hit the coast around 0900 hrs and continued for
about 3-4 hrs at Pakala. About 500m run up has been recorded here. Formation of 1m vertical cliff in
the shore has been noted. Few causalities and damage to boats have also been reported. At
Rmnayapatnam Pallepalem the tsunami hit the coast around 0900 hrs with 5 to 6 m high splash and
the activity continued till 1300 hrs. The waves reported to have come in 3 to 4 cycles and inundated
about 1 km along an existing drain.
GUNTUR DISTRICT
Nizampatnam, Suryalanka beach, Nakshatranagar, Lankeyanidibba, Lakshmipuram are some
of the prominent places affected in the district (Table -3). Minor sand deposition in tsunami struck
areas has been observed. Thatched houses present in the c oast have been damaged. Other prominent
losses were damage to the fishing boats and nets and loss of cattle. Waves to the height of 2 - 3 m
have been reported in Sllryaliualul beach near Bapatlll where the run up height was estimated
around 2 m and the inundation extended up to 0.5 km. Rise in the sea level started around 0900 hrs
and fluctuations in sea level continued till late evening. Thatched huts, compound wall of
guesthouses and other prominent constructions present right on the beach were damaged. Fishing
boats and nets near the shoreline have been damaged. Dry fish catch stored on the beach were also
lost. Minor causality has also been reported. The first tsunami wave hit the Nizampattnam coast
around 0900 hrs. The run up height was about 2m. There has been a rise in water level and the
inundation extended about 1.5 to 2 km in low-lying areas. The fluctuations continued for about 12
hours. The fishing harbor has not been affected. Huts in low-lying area have been damaged. Boats
have been pushed inland and damaged. Tsunami also affected the East Tungabhadra Drain, which is
joining the sea near Nizampatnam.
KRISHNA DISTRICT
This district includes part of Krishna Delta. Tsunami hit the coast around 0845 hrs and the
wave action continued up to 1900 hrs (Table-4). Wave with a maximum height of about 4 m has
been reported. Thatched houses present in the coast have been damaged (Fig.4-7). Other prominent
loss includes damage to the fishing boats and nets, total loss of dry fish stored in the beach and loss
of cattle. Water encroached up to Port Office in the Bandar Port (Fig.13) causing little damage. The
run up height was estimated to be 2 m and fluctuations continued for about 12 hours. Boats present
in the harbour were tossed by the waves and collided resulting in their damage. Slight deposition of
sand has been observed in the tsunami struck areas of the district. About 2m run up has been
observed in the Hamsala Divi (Divi Point). The inundation extended for about 2 km along the low______________________________________________________________________________________________
186
lying tidal flat present near Polakaitippa. The road along the tidal flat has been badly damaged
(Fig.8). Significant heavy mineral deposition has been observed associated with the fresh sand along
the tidal flat. The tsunami hit Manginapudi Beach, Machilipatnam around 0845 hrs and the fury
continued till 1900 hrs. Manginapudi beach is a low flat level beach adjacent to the creek, which
suffered heavily (Fig.9-12). Waves to a maximum height of 4 m swept the beach. About 30 tourists
who visited the beach for taking a holy dip in connection with Buddha Poornima were dragged away
by the seawater. As the water spread for about 1 km on to the land forcefully, many constructions in
the beach have been destroyed. Buildings have collapsed, electric poles twisted and RCC benches in
the beach were broken. The seawater entered deep into a creek for about 1 km. About 0.5 to 1m thick
heavy mineral layer has been deposited in the beach and the creek.
WEST GODAVARI DISTRICT

This district includes part of Godavari delta. During tsunami, the water level rose by 2 to 3 m
(Table-5) above normal inundating low-lying areas, especially along creeks at their confluence with
the sea. Many distributaries and creeks that joins the sea protected the coast by allowing seawater
enter through them and thereby dissipating the energy. Slight deposition of sand in tsunami struck
areas in the district has generally been observed. Thatched houses present in the coast have been
damaged (Fig.16). Other prominent losses were damage to the fishing boats and nets (Fig.14 and 15),
total loss of dry fish catch stored in the beach and loss of cattle.
EAST GODAVARI DISTRICT

This district includes part of Godavari delta. Bhairavapalem, Balusutippa, Edurlanka,
Guttenadivi, Guttenadivi and Mulapalem (Table-6) are some of the places affected by tsunami
(Table-6). The seawater has entered the distributaries of Godavari for a distance of 5 to 7 km. Water
level in those distributaries and creeks rose by about 2 m. The fluctuations continued till 1400 hrs.
The water level in the sea rose by 2 to 3 m above normal, inundating low-lying areas. Small culverts
and thatched huts in the coastal area have been damaged. Other prominent losses were damage to the
fishing boats and nets, total loss of dry fish stored in the beach and loss of cattle. Seiches reported in
an irrigation tank near Guttenadivi Mulapalem. Water receded by about 200 m and after a period of
30 minutes to 1 hour, the water level rose by about 3 to 5 m above normal and touched the road level
near Uppada beach. The embankment along the coast was slightly damaged due to water action.
Minor but significant deposition of sand is observed along the tsunami struck area near Biyyaputippa
in the district.
VISAKHAPATNAM DISTRICT
It is a rocky coast having a steep continental shelf. It was reported that the sea became very
rough during the tsunami. Fluctuations in sea level commenced from 0900 hrs (Table-7) and
continued till 1400 hrs. The sea was rough till late evening. Initially the water level has been reduced
by about 2.5 m, then rose by about 2.5 m above the normal. No structural damages occurred along
the coast. Boats present in the harbor and near to the coast were tossed up and collided with each
other resulting in minor damage. Fishing nets were damaged. Fishermen, who went into deep sea for
fishing much before the occurrence of tsunami, were unaware of the incident until their return.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
187
VIZIANAGARAM DISTRICT
It is mostly a rocky coast having steep continental shelf. Neither deposition nor erosion was
significant in this district. Fluctuations in sea level were reported from 0900 hrs to 1300 hrs. It was
reported that sea water receded for about 300 m from the normal level and returned back up to about
200 m inland. The fluctuations were reported to have repeatedly occurred in a span of every 15
minutes for a period of 2 to 3 hours. However, the sea was rough till evening. It was reported that the
water pipeline laid for about 100 m into the sea has been exposed during the recession. No structural
damages occurred along the coast. Fishing nets in the near shore area have been damaged. Fishing
boats collided with each other and got damaged.
SRIKAKULAM DISTRICT
This district has about 190 km long coastline, the longest in Andhra Pradesh. At
Bhavanapadu Fishing Harbour near Santabommali Mandal, seawater receded for about 300
m initially. The furious waves hit the coast in three spells from 0900 hrs to 1400 hrs. The
waves dragged several boats and fishing nets deep into the sea. Fluctuations in sea level
were reported from 0900 hrs to 1300 hrs. Sea was rough till evening. Seawater receded for
about 100 to 300 m from normal around 0900 hrs for about 30 minutes.
YANAM (PONDICHERRY)
It is a flat coast, mostly covered with thick sand. No rock outcrops are present nearby coast.
Part of the Godavari distributary system joins the Bay of Bengal in the area. The effects of tsunami
were felt in this stretch between 0800 hrs and 1500 hrs. Initially the water levels receded in the
distributary system for a couple of meters and latter rose by about 5 m above the normal. At
Dariyalatippa, a small place in Yanam, it has been reported that the sea initially receded back by
about 500 m and again transgressed for about 500 m.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Shri S.D. Pawar, Deputy Director General (Retd.), Southern Region,
Geological Survey of India, Hyderabad for his encouragement and suggestions while carrying out
the studies. The authors thank Dr.K.S.Misra, Dy.Director General, Shri P.F. Augustine, the then
Director, Engineering Geology Division, and Director, Technical Coordination Division, and Shri M.
Mahesh Babu, Director, Earthquake Geology Division, Geological Survey of India, Southern
Region, Hyderabad for extending their guidance and valuable suggestions.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
188
______________________________________________________________________________________________
189
Table - 1
CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPACT OF TSUNAMI IN NELLORE DISTRICT
Sl.
No
Location
Arrival
time
(hrs)
01
Sriharikota
(1342 30 : 80 14 )
Mypadu Pallepalem
(1430 35 : 8010 45)
Run -u p
Elevation
Distance
(m)
(m)
No.of pulses Height of

(strongest
wave
pulse)
splash (m)
Maximum
retreat of sea
(m)
0830
1.5- 2.0
100
3-4 (2)
0845
1.5- 2.0
1000*
2-3 (2)
4-5
03
Gangapatnam Pallepalem
0830
(1431 50 : 8010 50)
1.5- 2.0
1000*
2-3 (2)
7-8
Not reported
04
Kottasatram
(1456 30 : 8005 30)
1.5- 2.0
1000*
2-3 (2)
6-7
100
02
0900
Not reported
500
Remarks
No damage. Casuarina plantation

acted as a bio -barrier
Damage to the property, fishing boats
and nets reported
Few deaths reported. Village
completely inundated by the two
arms of a creek
The villa ge is located on a palaeodune. Damage to the fishing boats,
nets reported
Table - 2
CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPACT OF TSUNAMI IN PRAKASAM DISTRICT
Sl.No
Location
05
Ramayapatnam Pallepalem
(1502 45 : 80 03 )
06
Karedupalem
(1510 45 : 8004 )
Pakala
(1516 30 : 8005 )
07
08
Kottapatnam Pallepale m
(1516 15 : 8010 55 )
09
Peddaganjam Pallepalem
(1538 30 : 8015 )
* Run-up along the creek
Arrival
time
(hrs)
Run -u p
Elevation Distance
(m)
(m)
No. of
pulses
(strongest
pulse)
Height
of wave
splash
(m)
Maximum
re treat of
sea (m)
0900
1.5-2.0
1000*
3-4 (2)
5-6
Not
reported
0900
1.5-2.0
20003000*
2-3 (2)
3-4
Not
reported
0900
1.5-2.0
500
2-3 (2)
3-4
Not
reported
0900
1.5-2.0
1500*
2-3 (2)
5-6
100
0900
1.5-2.0
500
2-3 (2)
2-3
Not
reported
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Remarks
Village situated over barrier ridge.

Damage to the fishing boats and
nets
Saltpan and fishing boats damaged
Few deaths reported. 1m vertical
cliff formed in the beach.
Coast parallel road saved damage.
Beach eroded to the tune of 1m.
Casuarina plantation acted as a
b io -barrier
190
Table - 3
CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPACT OF TSUNAMI IN GUNTUR DISTRICT
Sl.No
10
11
12
13
Location
Vadarevu
(1547 30 : 8024 50 )
Suryalanka
(1550 25 : 8030 35 )
Nizampatnam
(1555 30 : 8041 30 )
Lankevanidibba
(1547 30 : 8015 45 )
Arrival
time
(hrs)
Run -u p
Elevation Distance
(m)
(m)
No. of
pulses
(strongest
pulse)
Height
of wave
splash
(m)
Maximum
retreat of
sea (m)
0900
300
2-3 (3)
3-4
300
0900
500
2-3 (3)
2-3
300
0900
1000*
2-3 (2)
2-3
0900
1000*
2-3 (2)
2-3
Not
reported
Not
reported
Remarks
Erosion and deposition recorded in

the beach
One person died. Thatched huts
compound wall of guestho uses and
other prominent constructions on the
beach damaged.
Harbor unaffected. Fishing boats and
nets damaged.
Damage to the property reported.
Table - 4
CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPACT OF TSUNAMI IN KRISHNA DISTRICT
Sl.No
14
15
16
Location
Arrival
time
(hrs)
Polakayalatippa Hamsaladivi
0900
(1558 30 : 81 07 30 )
Machilipatnam Port
0845
(1619 : 8119 30 )
Manginapudi Beach
(1613 30 : 8112 30 )
0845
Run -u p
Elevation Distance
(m)
(m)
No .of
pulses
(strongest
pulse)
Height
of wave
splash
(m)
2000*
2-3 (3)
3-4
1000*
2-3 (3)
3-4
2.5
1000*
2-3 (3)
3-4
Maximum
retreat of
sea (m)
Remarks
Not
reported
Not
reported
Road in the tidal flat badly damaged
Not
reported
Minor sand accretion noted in the

beach. Boats tossed up during
tsunami.
About 30 deaths reported. Many
tourist constructions in the beach
destroyed.
* Run-up a long the creek
Table - 5
CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPACT OF TSUNAMI IN WEST GODAVARI DISTRICT

Remarks
Not
reported
The distributaries and creeks dissipated

the wave energy. Thatched huts
damaged.
Thatched huts, fishing boats and nets
damaged. Road and culverts covered
with sand.
Damage to the property reported
17
Bolugunta
0900
(1623 15 : 8123 50 )
2.0
1000*
2-3 (2)
18
Mailavanilanka
0900
(1619 45 : 814045 )
2.0
2000*
2-3 (2)
Not
reported
19
Chinnalanka
0900
(1620 30 : 8138 45)
Biyyaputippa
0900
(1619 30 : 8142 30)
1.0
2000*
2-3 (2)
2.0
1500*
2-3 (2)
Not
reported
Not
reported
20
Location
Arrival
time
(hrs)
Run -u p
Elevation Distance
(m)
(m)
No. of pulses
(strongest
pulse)
Maximum
retreat of
sea (m)
Height
of wave
splash
(m)
2-3
Sl.No
The foot bridge over the creek and

thatched huts damaged
* R u n -u p a l o n g t h e c r e e k
Table - 6
CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPACT OF TSUNAMI IN EAST GODHAVARI DISTRICT
Sl.No
21
22
Location
Guttenadivimulapalem
(1642 30 : 8215)
Guttinadivi
(1641 : 8214 30 )
23
Gadimoga
(1645 : 8217 )
24
Dariyalatippa
(1642 30 : 8216 30 )
Uppada
(1704 40 : 8220 35 )
25
Arrival
time
(hrs)
Run -u p
Elevation Distance
(m)
(m)
No. of
pulses
(strongest
pulse)
Height
of wave
splash
(m)
Maximum
retreat of
sea (m)
Remarks
Not
reported
Not
reported
Effects of earthquake felt in the form

minor trembling. Wooden shop settled.
Effects of earthquake felt in the form
minor trembling. Seiches reported.
Fishing boats and nets damaged.
Effects of e arthquake felt in the form
minor trembling. Seiches reported.
Fishing boats and nets damaged
0900
2.0
500
2-3 (2)
0900
2.0
500
2-3 (2)
0900
1.0
200
3-4 (2)
Not
reported
0800
2.0
200
3-4 (2)
Not
reported
0900
2.0
200
3-4 (2)
200
Coastal embankment damaged

Fishing boats and nets damaged
Table - 7
______________________________________________________________________________________________
192
CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPACT OF TSUNAMI IN VISAKAPATTINAM DISTRICT

Sl.No
26
Location
Bhuminipatnam
(1853 15 : 8227 30 )
Arrival
time
(hrs)
0900
Run -u p
Elevation Distance
(m)
(m)
2.0
Fig. 1: Scouring of beach and scarp formation

Loc : Mypadu (Nellore district)
Fig. 3: Destructed thatched huts

Loc : Vodarevu near Chirala (Prakasam district)
200
No.of
pulses
(strongest
pulse)
Height
of wave
splash
(m)
Maximum
retreat of
sea (m)
Remarks
2-3 (2)
200
Fishing boats and nets damaged.
Fig. 2: A breach in the beach barrier

Loc : Mypadu (Nellore district)
Fig. 4: Damaged structure on the beach

Loc : Suryala nka (Krishna district)
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193
Fig. 5: Collapsed compound wall

Loc: Suryalanka (Krishna district)
Fig. 7: Erosion of barrier beach

Fig. 6: Destruction of thatched huts

Fig. 8: Damage to the road in the tidal flat

Loc: Hamsala Deevi (Krishna district)
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194
Fig. 9: Scouring in the beach

Loc: Manginapudi (Krishna district)
Fig. 11: Scouring of the beach

Loc : Manginapudi (Krishna district)
Fig. 10: A part of the damaged tourist center

Fig. 12: Scouring of the beach

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195
Fig. 13: Area about 1km away from the sea inundated
Loc: Bandar Port (Krishna district)
Fig. 15: Damaged fishing nets

Loc: Chinna Lanka (West Godavari district)
Fig. 14: Damaged nets entangled in palm trees

Loc: Chinna Lanka (West Godavari district)
Fig. 16: Inundation and damage to the hutments.

Loc: Biyyaputippa (West Godavari district)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
196
TSUNAMI SURVEY IN THE CHENNAI NAGAPATTINAM SEGMENT

TAMIL NADU COAST
R. Srinivasan and K. Nagarajan
A2-B wing, Rajaji Bhavan, Chennai 600 090.
INTRODUCTION
This chapter includes the results of post-tsunami studies carried out in the 305 km long
Chennai Nagapattinam segment spread between lat.1046 to 1325 and long.7951 to 8019.
The area is characterized by a broad bay, between Marakkanam and Parangipettai, connecting the
NNE trending Pulicat Marakkanam and NS trending Parangipettai Nagapattinam stretches. For
convenience of description this segment has been sub-divided into five sectors based primarily on
geomorphology of the coastal tract.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Pulicat Palar River (100 km)

Palar River Pondicherry (60 km)
Pondicherry Cuddalore (25 km)
Cuddalore Tirumullaivasal (60km)
Tirumullaivasal Nagapattinam (60 km)
1. Pulicat- Palar River Sector:

The 100 km long Pulicat Palar River sector is characterised by dune complex of
lesser height (1-3m) and larger width (0.75 1.5 km), very large tidal and palaeotidal flats, smaller
bays and strand line. Chennai, the capital of Tamil Nadu and Mahabalipuram, with the famous
World Heritage Centre is situated in this sector. The impact of tsunami has been moderate in this
sector (Table -1). Minor tremor (felt intensity III) was felt in Chennai city and surrounding areas (up
to Mahabalipuram) at 0645 hrs on 26.12.2004. Tsunami induced breaches in the beach ridges and
inundation of inter dune and tidal flat area is prominent in the coastal zone. Breaches, 3 to 15m wide,
are common between Nemeli (Fig.1) and Mahabalipuram. Sea water has inundated the world famous
Marina beach (Fig.2) for a short period triggering panicky among the tourists and morning walkers
and caused life and material loss (Plate-2). However, the shallow ground water (perched aqufer) in
the dune complex remained unaffected. The partially opened mouths of Korthalaiyar and Coovam
Rivers, Pulicat lagoon, Ennore and Kalpakkam (Fig.3) creeks have been forcefully opened further by
the tsunami wave that has flushed out some of the stagnated urban waste. The 1.5 km long Palar
river mouth has been opened at number of places (for widths ranging from 200 to 300 m) and sea
water has ingresses up to 1.75 km inland. The big channel bar deposits (tidal islands Vengad
islands) have been dissected and eroded. In the Pulicat, Ennore and Adyar creek / lagoon, water level
has increased nearly 1 to 2 m above the normal level and flooded the adjacent areas. In addition, the
estuaries and lagoons have also been silted due to the deposition of significant amount of littoral
sediment (Fig.4). The water level in the coast parallel Buckingham Canal rose about 1 m to 1.5 m
flooding the embankment areas.
All man made structures including fishing hamlets located near the shore have been
extensively damaged particularly the settlements (Foreshore Estate, Sadras and Oyyalikuppam) that
are located near the river mouths. Small coastal strip between Ennore and Pulicat juxtaposed
______________________________________________________________________________________________
197
between open sea and coast parallel aqua system have been overrun by the waves during tsunami
(Plate-1). The theme parks and beach resorts in the Chennai Mahabalipuram area have been
damaged partly in the form of inundation and collapse of compound wall. However, those located on
high dunes have been saved. The presence of fairly dense vegetation over a short stretch north of
Ennore and between Kalpakkam and Sadras (Plate-3) has visibly reduced the tsunami impact. The
damage to the Royapuram Fishing Harbour north of Chennai is less because of wave breakers (Plate2). The impact on the salt panes and aqua ponds located in the Ennore and Kovalam tidal flats are
also less because of lean season. The coast parallel wave breakers provided between Royapuram and
Ennore to control sea erosion have immensely minimized the damage due to tsunami (plate-2). At
places, a small height reduction (30 40 cm) and resettling of boulders in the wave breakers have
been noticed due to toe erosion. In addition, the existing groynes appeared to have deflected the
tsunami and reduced its force as per eyewitness accounts. The undisturbed nature of the small beach
under development in these areas also vouches this. In spite of wave breakers, the seawater has
entered the shore temple at Mahabalipuram, the World Heritage Centre, from the southern side
beyond the protected area (Fig.5). The removal of beach sand in the area south of shore temple has
exposed a few more archeological sites. The Dutch Cemetery at Pulicat and the Danish Fort at
Sadras have been least affected.
2. Palar River- Pondicherry Sector:

The 60km long Palar River Pondicherry sector is characterised by wide dunes (0.4 0.8
km) with heights ranging from 4 m to 20m in the northern part up to Marakkanam. The width and
height of the dunes falls rapidly afterwards. This is flanked in the west by pediplain formed over the
Archean and Tertiary rocks. The impact of tsunami has been moderate in this sector (Table -2).
Alteration in the beach zone, concentration of beach placers in the high tide line and leveling of inter
dune areas are prominent in the coastal zone. The concentration of heavies is marked in
Eggiyarkuppam (Fig.6). The partially opened mouths of Cheyyar, Yedanthittu Kaliveli and Kaliveli
lagoons have been wide opened by the tsunami waves. Water level in the lagoons has risen by 1m to
1.5 m above normal (Fig.7) during tsunami inundating the adjacent agricultural lands. Tsunami
deposits in the form of silt and sand bars are observed in Kaliveli channel as well as in parts of
lagoons which chocked the aqua system for the deformed / dwarfed mangrove plants. This has also
affected the internal navigation. Saltpans at Marakkanam and Cheyyur are not much affected
because of lean season and in fact, the incursion of additional seawater is likely to be useful during
the ensuing season. The prominent silica sand deposits in the Mugaiyur Marakkanam and
Anumandai-Kalapettai areas are located just beyond maximum run-up distance and left undisturbed.
Though no major township exist in this sector, a number of villages are situated close to the
sea. Houses that are very close to the sea front have been severely damaged. However bio-barrier
(casuarinas plantation and coconut trees) has effectively reduced the tsunami impact at a number of
places especially in the Tenpattinam Beach Resorts (Fig.9). The tsunami has aggravated the ongoing
erosion in the Chinnakuppam and Periyakuppam villages located just south of Palar River mouth.
Muthukadu and Alamparai located close to the lagoon openings have also been more affected. The
bund in the southern banks of Palar River has been breached at a number of places inundating the
surrounding areas. Though seawater has entered the dilapidated Moghul fort, the archaeological
monument situated at Alamparai has been spared.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
198
______________________________________________________________________________________________
199
3. Pondicherry-Cuddalore Sector:
The 25 km long Pondicherry - Cuddalore sector has a narrow strip (100 200 m) of
coastal dunes of lesser height flanked on the west by pediments of Tertiary age. Tidal flats and
lagoons are practically absent. However an intricate network of coast parallel aqua system
characterise this sector. Gully erosion and bad land topography are prominently exposed north of
Pondicherry. The alluvial deposits of Gingee, Malattar, Ponnaiyar and Gadilam Rivers occur over
the pediment between Cuddalore and Pondicherry. The entire coastline is thickly populated.
Pondicherry and Cuddalore are the major townships in this sector.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
200
______________________________________________________________________________________________
201
______________________________________________________________________________________________
202
The impact of the earthquake has been manifested in the form of strong seismic seicshe
reported in a number of water tanks located in the coastal area. The impact of tsunami has been
moderate to severe in this sector (Table -3). Minor alteration in the beach zone and flattening of dune
ridges and inter-dune flat area are observed in the coastal zone. The prograding beach at
Virampattinam has been leveled. The partially opened mouths of Gingee, Ponnaiyar, Gadilam Rivers
and Ariyankuppam Ar, a prominent creek were further wide opened. There was a marked increase in
water level in these water bodies and the seawater reached much more inland than normal. Stray
boats have been pushed in the estuaries as far as 2.5 Km from the sea. The creeks and estuaries are
visibly silted, affecting the navigation (Fig. 10).
In general, most of the coastal villages in this sector have been protected by bio barrier
(casuarinas and coconut) and hence escaped the fury of tsunami. However, unfavorable geomorphic
conditions (narrow strip of low-elevation land juxtaposed between open sea and coast parallel aqua
system) have made Thalanguda, Devanampattinam and Sonangkuppam villages around Cuddalore
more vulnerable and hence suffered heavy life and property loss (Plate-4). Pondicherry town located
in the northern part is relatively unaffected. Coast parallel wave breakers, heaped to a height of 2 to
2.5m have protected the entire township. The fishing harbour at Pondicherry situated in the
Ariyankuppam Ar estuary with its mouth protected by groynes and riprap has suffered minimum
damage. The fishing harbour at Cuddalore located in a coast parallel tidal creek (inland tidal jetty) is
worst affected. The waves surged through the creek and as well as from the open sea and pushed the
boats overland and above the bridges. In general, the damage to the jetty is minimal but the damage
to the boats has been extensive. This is mainly because of collision among the boats as well as
against the jetty (Fig.11).
4.Cuddalore Tirumullaivasal Sector:

The 60 km long Cuddalore Tirumullaivasal sector has a wide spread dune complex. About
100m wide recent dune complex has been followed by an older dune complex comprising a number
of strandlines up to 9km. This has been flanked on the west by river alluvium. Cuddalore, the HQ of
South Arcot district and Parangipettai are the major townships located in this sector.
The impact of the earthquake has been manifested in the form of strong seismic seiches
reported in a number of water tanks located near Tirumullaivasal. The impact of tsunami is moderate
in this sector (Table -4). Breaches of 3-15m in the beach ridges (Fig.12) and leveling of inter-dune
flats are prominently observed between Cuddalore and Parangipettai. The inter-dune flats were
prominently water logged for a brief period during tsunami (Fig.13) resulting in considerable
percolation and thus affecting the shallow ground water. The casurina plantations prevalent in this
area show signs of distress in the form of withering of leaves. The remarkable alignment of casuarina
trees in the inter dune flat has indicated a SSW propagation direction of the waterfront in the land.
The Parangipettai-Tirumullaivasal area is marked by a narrow strip of sandy flat juxtaposed
between open sea on the east and intricate network of coast parallel aqua system in the west (Plate 5). A near marshy condition with mangrove swamps exists in this stretch. This has effectively
minimised the wave energy. However, rapid movement of water along the canals has disturbed the
boats that used to ply in the canals. The forceful entry of seawater and rise in the water level is
likely to accelerate the luxuriant growth of mangroves in the near future. During Tsunami, the water
level in the canals has increased by 1 to 1.5 m above normal. The mouths of Vellar and Kollidam
rivers have been wide opened. The prominent spit developed at the Vellar river mouth and the
cuspate lobe at Kollidam river mouth has been severely eroded and sand deposited in the river
channel. Mudasalodai, Chinnavaikkal and Kodiyampalayam that have been located in narrow strip
______________________________________________________________________________________________
203
juxtaposed between open sea on the east and the coast parallel aqua system on the west have been
severely affected with heavy life and property loss (Plate-5). During tsunami the surging waves have
practically run over the narrow strip of sandy flat and joined the aqua system on the west. The
leeward elongation created by minor impediments preserved in the sandy flat beyond the high tide
level indicate a SSW propagation direction for the water front in the land, south of Mudasa lodai. The
coastal road from Cuddalore to Parangipettai has been damaged at places. Minor damage to road
bridges has also been noted.
5. Tirumullaivasal- Nagapattinam Sector:

The 60 km long Tirumullaivasal Nagapattinam sector trends N-S in an otherwise NNE
trending coastline. Narrow beaches followed by sandy flats characterise this low flat coast with
deltaic alluvial sediments on the western side. As per the historic records, this sector is under severe
sea erosion and submergence for the past 2000 years. Many ancient towns have been submerged.
Tirumullaivasal, Tarangambadi, Karaikkal, Nagore and Nagapattinam are the major towns located
along the coastline.
This sector, located in the tail end of Cauvery delta has been worst affected (Table-5).
Concentration of beach placers and breaching of barrier dunes are prominently observed in the
coastal zone. Black sand, 3 to 10 cm thick, occurs as thin layer over the normal greyish brown sand.
The leeward elongation created by minor impediments preserved in the sandy flat beyond the high
tide level in the near flat Karaikal beach indicate a SSW propagation direction of the water front on
the land (Fig.14). Tsunami induced breaches on the shoreline (well depicted on high resolution
satellite imageries) have weakened the natural frontline coastal defense system against the high tide
and cyclone storm surges. The mouths of all water bodies have been opened during tsunami and rise
in the water level up to 2m above normal has been reported. In contrast, areas far off from the sea,
along river channels have been choked due to siltation by the sediments brought by tsunami.
Villages situated close to the shore have invariably been affected. The impact was particularly more
at Tirumullaivasal, Tarangambadi, Pattanacheri (Nagore), Kichchankuppam and Akkaraipettai due to
their vulnerable geomorphic locations (low sandy flat area without any natural or artificial barrier
and close to river mouths) and high population density. The seawater has entered parts of Nagore
and Nagapattinam towns (Plate-6). Even though parts of the segment have been protected by lowlevel embankment, it was ineffective and battered severely. The coast parallel segment of Uppanar
River at Nagapattinam where the fishing harbour has been situ ated witnessed a steep raise in water
level during tsunami resulting upstream drifting and smashing of boats. A few places like
Kichchankuppam (Fig.15) and Akkaraipettai that are situated in low sand dunes in between open sea
on one side (east) and creeks on the west have been marooned resulting in the demise of hundreds of
people, besides loss of property. The inundation of the vast area in this sector due to flat terrain
condition has affected the agricultural lands. The plants show distress signs in the form of withering
and yellowing of leaves. The bridges across Arasalar (Karaikkal) and Uppanar (Akkaraipettai) have
been damaged. The meter gauge railway line between Nagapattinam and Nagore and a few roads
have also been damaged. Minor impacts have been inflicted in the recent constructions near the
shore at Poompuhar and already affected Masilamani temple at Tarangambadi. Surprisingly the
damage to the 16th Century Danish Fort was minimal (Fig.16).
______________________________________________________________________________________________
204
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to record their sincere gratitude to Shri S.D. Pawar, DDG (Retd.), SR,
Hyderabad, Dr. M.M. Nair, DDG (Retd.), Op:TNPK, Chennai, Dr. Sujit Dasgupta, Director
(Monitoring), CHQ, Kolkata, Shri A. Sundaramoorthy, Director, Op:TNPK, Chennai and Shri G.
Rajagopalan, Director, EG Division, Op:TNPK, Chennai in the execution of the project and
preparation of the manuscript.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
205
______________________________________________________________________________________________
206
______________________________________________________________________________________________
207
Table 1
CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPACT OF TSUNAMI IN PULICAT PALAR SECTOR
Sl.No.
A.
B.
Name of the village
Pulicat
(1325: 8019)
Chennai (Marina)
(1305: 801630)
1.
1 km S of Vada Nemeli
(1244: 80 1430)
2.
Sulerikuppam
(124230: 801330)
3.
New Nemeli Kuppam

(123930: 80 13)
4.
S h o r e T e mp l e
Mahabalipuram
(1237: 801145)
Kokilame d u
(1236: 801130)
5.
6.
Meyyur
(1232: 8010)
7.
Oyyalikuppam
(1229: 8930)
Tsunami
No. of Pulses
Arrival
(with
Time
relatively
(hrs)
strong pulse)
Run -u p
Elevation
(m)
Distance
(m)
Maximum
retreat
b e tween
waves (m)
8.45
3 (2n d )
1.5
250
150
8.45
9.20
0900
1200
1230
0845
0920
1230
0855
0915
0940
1030
3 (2n d )
1.5
300
3 (2n d )
1.5
120
45
3 (3r d )
2.5
300
20
4 (2n d )
1.7
350
30
0845
3 (2n d )
2.5
300
150
0845
3 (3r d )
1.5
300
400
0900
0920
0945
0845
1030
1100
3 (3r d )
2.0 - 2.5
300
425
2.0 - 2.5
350
300
Propagation
direction of
waterfront in
land
Remarks
Lagoon mouth opened; lagoon channel

shallowed due to siltation; shallow aquifer
unaffected.
Sudden inundation caused panic among

tourists. Parked vehicles destroyed.
Rattling of articles reported during the
earthquake; beach ridge breached; houses in
front row damaged,
The earthquake has been felt in the morning;
beach ridges breached; houses located close to
sea inundated; One death reported.
Earthquake feebly felt; breaches in frontal
beach ridges; about 10m transgression of sea
after Tsunami as reported by locals; 30 deaths
reported.
Flattening of foreshore area prominent; houses
and boats damaged; 4 m high wave breaker
has minimised damage.
Earthquake feeb ly felt; heavy mineral
deposition on beach prominent; houses
damaged.
-
Palar river mouth breached at many places;

houses and boats damaged; 10 deaths
reported.
________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
208
Table - 2
CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPACT OF TSUNAMI IN PALAR -PONDICHERRY SECTOR
Sl.
No.
Name of the village
8.
Chinnakuppam
(122645: 80 0830)
9.
Thenpattinam
(122445: 80 0645)
10.
P a ramankeni Bridge
(1221: 8004)
11.
Panaiyurkuppam
(1218: 8002)
12.
Eggiyarkuppam
(1211: 795745)
13.
Anumanthaikuppam
(120730 7955)
Nochchikuppam
(120515 : 7954)
Pudukuppam
(1203: 805230)
14.
15.
16.
Chinna Kalapet
(120130: 80 52)
Tsunami
No. of Pulses
Arrival
(with
Time
relatively
(hrs)
strong pulse)
0840
1230
-
5 (3r d )
Run -u p
Elevation
(m)
Distance
(m)
Maximum
retre at
between
waves (m)
500
500
300
Propagation
direction of
waterfront
in land
-
B e a c h r i d g e s breached; huts damaged;

invading waves reported to be slushy
Inundation of dune flat areas prominent; thin

silt deposition noted; beach resorts damaged;
casuarina plantation acted as a buffer
Water upsurge through the creek and tidal flat
reported during tsunami; Inundation of salt
pan reported; silting of lagoon by thick
tsunami deposit
Earthquake feebly felt; Houses damaged; 2
deaths reported.
Black sand deposition on beach observed
Beach ridges breach at number of p laces;

frontal huts / houses damaged
Development of new beach surface prominent

over the sandstone pediment; front line houses
affected.
The tsunami impact has been less; coconut

t r e e s a c t e d a s b i o -b a r r i e r
400
0845
0945
750
0855
1000
150
0810
400
3 (1s t )
150
0845
1230
300
0845
1000
3 (2n d )
100
Remarks
P r o p e r t y l o s s - few.
________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
209
Table - 3
CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPACT OF TSUNAMI IN PONDICHERRY CUDDALORE SECTOR
Sl.
No.
Name of the
village
17.
Pondicherry town
(125630:
7950)
18.
Viramp attinam
Tsunami
No. of
Pulses
Arrival
(with
Time
relatively
(hrs)
strong
pulse)
Run -u p
Elevation
(m)
Distance (m)
Maximum
retreat
between
waves (m)
Propagation
direction of
waterfront
in land
-
No earthquake impact; the tsunami impact was

less; 3 m high wave breaker has protected the
town.
Strong seismic seiches reportedin the water bodies

close to the shore in the morning; prograding coast
(broad beach); flattening of foreshore area
prominent; huts and boats damaged; 3 deaths
reported.
Leveling of dunes prominent; moderate damage to
property; coconut grove acted as bio-barrier.
0910 to
1200
3 (2n d )
1.5
300
150
0830
3 (2n d )
1.5 2.0
200
300
0845
1.75
200
0845
3 (3r d )
50
0900
3 (2n d )
2.0 2.5
350
(115330:
794930)
19.
20.
21.
Pannithittu
(114930:
7948)
Thalanguda
(114630:
794730)
Sonangkuppam
(114330: 7947)
Remarks
Already facing erosion; Ponnaiyar river mouth

opened; flat dunes / beach inundated; houses and
boats have been damaged; 36 deat hs reported.
Village surrounded by seawater through creek and
sea; submergence of low dune complex; heavy loss
of life and damage to boats and houses.
________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
210
Table - 4
CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPACT OF TSUNAMI IN CUDDALORE-TIRUMULLAIVASAL SECTOR
Sl.
No.
Name of the village
22.
Kumarapatti
Tsunami
No. of
Pulses (with
Arrival
Time (hrs) relatively
strong
pulse)
-
Run -u p
Maximum
retreat
between
waves (m)
Propagation
direction of
waterfront
in land
150
A prominent breach in the beach ridge

noted; moderate property loss.
1.0
450
Houses /boats damaged; 126 deaths

reported.
4.0
400
S20W
1.0 1.5
1000 m
through creek
300 m
through land
Elevation
(m)
Distance (m)
(1133 : 794530)
23.
Pudukuppam
0855
2 (2n d
(113130: 7946)
24.
MGR Thittu
(Mudosalodai)
(1129: 79 47)
25.
Thirumullaivasal
(1114: 795030)
0900
Remarks
This village is situated in the narrow strip

of land j uxtaposed between sea and coast
parallel aqua system; entire village
overrun by sea water; life loss reported;
severe damage to houses / boats; wave
propagation direction well preserved in
the sandy flat.
Oscillation of water in ponds (seismic
seiches) during the earthquake reported;
creek mouth widened; silting inside;
shallow ground water salinity reported;
150 deaths reported; houses and boats
d a ma g e d .
________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
211
Table - 5
CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPACT OF TSUNAMI IN TIRUMULLAIVASAL-NAGAPATTINAM SECTOR
Sl.
No.
Name of the
village
26.
Poompuhar
Tsunami
Arrival
No. of Pulses
Time
(with relatively
strong pulse)
(hrs)
Run -u p
Elevation
(m)
Distance (m)
Maximum
retreat
between
waves (m)
Propagation
direction of
waterfront
in land
0840
1000
5 (3r d )
1.5 2.0
350
150
0900
400
Karaikkal
(1055: 7950)
0910
1100
5 (3r d )
250
350
SSW
29.
Nagore
(1049: 7951)
0915
750
30.
Nagapattinam
(1046: 7951)
0920
6 (2 n d & 3 r d )
2.5 (3 m
near boat
jetty)
(110730:
795130)
27.
Tharangambadi
SSW
(1102:
795130)
28.
250
A f t e r 1 st
spell 1000
m, 100 m
later on
Remarks
Water reportedly poured on its own from hand
pumps during earthquake; deposition of heavy
sand promin ent in the beach; dunal flat area
inundated; damage to houses and boats; the
tsunami was mainly a water boar with lot of
slurry; limited wave breaker protection has
been effective.
Oscillation of water in ponds (Seismic seishes)
reported during earthquake; the coast is
already under erosion; huts, boats damaged the
16th Centuary Danish Fort has been breifly
inundated and silted; coast partially protected
by wave breakers.
Low flat coast; inundation of vast area;
buildings, boats destroyed; the bridge over
Ar a sa l a r R i v e r i n t h e E a st C o a st R o a d
damaged.
Low flat coast; Inundation of vast area; heavy
loss of life and property; Railway line and
roads damaged
Low flat coast and shallow off-shore areas; the
beach ridge has been breached at many places;
a sheet of sea water, bubbling and frothing, has
inundated vast coastal area; severe damage;
heavy loss of life (more than 4000 people).
Boats and houses washed away.
________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
212
Fig.1: A major breach in the frontal beach ridge

Loc: Nemili
Fig.2: A panoramic view of Marina Beach during tsunami

Loc : Chennai
Creek mouth
Fig.3: Creek mouth opening
Loc: Kalpakkam
Fig.4: Silting of the estuary Loc: Palar River (about

1.5km inland from open sea)
________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
213
Fig.5: Sea water entered the World Heritage Center

resulting in temporary inundation.
Loc: Mahabalipuram
Fig.6: Heavy minerals concentrated near the high

tide line. Loc: Eggiyarkuppam
Fig.7: Raised water level in the creek indicated by the

precariously perched boat in the bridge.
Loc : Paramankeni Bridge
Fig.8: Presence of bio- barrier reduces tsunami impact.

Loc: Tenpattinam
________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
214
Fig.9: Siltation in the Ariyankuppam Ar creek posing

problems for navigation. Loc: Pondicherry
Fig.10: Boats lifted over the jetty by the wave surge.

Loc: Cuddalore Harbour
Fig.11: A major breach in the frontal beach ridge

Loc: Kumarapatti
Fig.12: Withered plantation and drifted boat

indicating inundation in the inter- dune area
Loc: Pudukuppam
________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
215
SSW
Fig.13: Leeward elongation of sand ridges created by minor

impediments indicating propagation direction of water front
in the land. Loc : Karaikal
Fig.14: A panoramic view of the worst affected

Kichchankuppam Village a case of unfavorable
geomorphic location. Loc: South of Nagapattinam
Fig.15: A road damaged due to tsunami. Loc : Nagapattinam
Fig.16: Relatively unaffected 16t h Century Danish Fort

Loc : Tarangambadi
________________________________________ ______________________________________________________
216
TSUNAMI SURVEY IN THE NAGAPATTINAM-KANYAKUMARI SEGMENT

TAMILNADU COAST
B. Kanishkan and B. Lakshminarayanan
Geological Survey of India, Chennai 600 090.
INTRODUCTION
The December 26th 2004, Indian Ocean tsunami that struck the coasts of Indian sub-continent
had shell shocked everyone with a pall of gloom by its unimaginable devastation, causing huge loss
of life and livelihood besides damage to properties. The tsunami survey between the coastal stretch
of Nagapattinam and Kanyakumari, one of the severely damaged segments, has been dealt in this
section (Segment-3 of the Indian coast; see Index Map). The coastline between Nagapattinam and
Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu fringing the east coast extends for about 480 km (Plate I). Considering
the vast stretch, varied geomorphology/ bathymetry (Plate II) and variable impact of tsunami, the
area has been subdivided into the following five sectors (Plate-I) for the convenience of description
and better understanding.
i)
Nagapattinam Point Calimere (57 km)
ii)
Point Calimere Ramanathapuram (190 km)
iii)
Ramanathapuram Rameswaram Tuticorin (113 km)
iv)
Tuticorin Tiruchendur (35 Km)
v)
Tiruchendur Kanyakumari (85 km)
A succinct account of the Tsumami survey carried out during 05.01.2005- 14.01.2005 between
Nagapattinam Kanyakumari segment, Tamil Nadu is documented below. The data pertains to
location wise tsunami survey is summarized in Tables 1-5. Arrival times, number of pulses and the
strongest pulse given in the tables are from eyewitness accounts except for Tuticorin, where there is
tidal gauge record. Predominant tsunami wave directions are based both from ground indicators and
eyewitness observations.
1. Nagapattinam- Point Calimere Sector:
This is a 57 km N-S coastal stretch lying to the south of Pondicherry. The coastline consists of
10-30m wide sandy beach; 1.5 to 3.0 km wide recent dune complex seen well developed along the
Nagapattinam- Topputurai stretch; two to three dune ridges of 3-5 m height run along the coast and
coalesce to form compound dune complex (Krishnan and Srinivasan, 1999). A huge loss of life and
property has been reported in this sector particularly in the Pattanchcheri (Nagore)-Nagapattinam
Kitchankuppam-Akkaraipettai-Velanganni backshore/foreshore stretch wherein 8000+ people have
simply been washed away. Flattening of beach due to tsunami is common. Heavy siltation (tsunami
deposit) is noted in Vettar, Uppanar and Vellar rivers. The closely berthed boats in the fishing jetty
collided due to the tsunami waves and many lifted and perched over the bridge, some thrown inside
the adjoining fisherman colony. At the Velanganni pilgrimage center, post-Christmas Sunday
tourists in the beach mainly bore the attack of tsunami. Loss of life and damage to property was
comparatively less between Velanganni and Point Calimere due to the presence of linear/wide
___________________________________________________________________________________________
217
barrier sand dunes along the coast, wide beach and thick belt of plantations near Pattanavarnattam
and Point Calimere sanctuary. The cause behind the major tragedy in this sector is mainly due to the
dense population/inhabitations seen along coast especially between Nagore in the north and
Velanganni in the south (Fig.1 to 6) and geomorphic setup conducive to inundation. The tsunami
wave arrived by 09: 20 hrs and hit the coast at an acute angle (Table - 1& Plate-I). As reported by the
locals, the tsunami wave splash on hitting the coast rose up to 8-10m. Post- tsunami survey indicates
that run-up elevation varies from 2 to 3m while the run-up length varied within 0.2 to 1.25 km
depending on the coastal geomorphology. Maximum inundation by seawater of the order of 0.5 to
1.2 km was observed in the low-lying stretch between Pattanchcheri and Nagapattinam causing
damage to topsoil and ground water. The shoreline also appears to have transgressed a few meters
inland in this segment.
2. Point Calimere Ramanathapuram Sector:
The Point Calimere Ramanathapuram sector forms the southern extension of
Nagapattinam coast. It is a long (190km) and curvilinear coast encompassing the Palk Bay, the
bathymetric data of which indicates a shallow nature of sea with a maximum depth of 150m (PlateII). The coastal tract essentially consists of Quaternary sediments and the major landforms
encountered are 15 -20 m. wide beaches, recent dune complex, tidal inlets, lagoons, mangrove
swamp (mangrove swamps seen near Attirampattinam; Erippurakkarai lagoon near Agniar river
mouth and Talainayar), deltas of rivers Cauvery, Agniar, Vellar, Vaigai etc. The post-tsunami
impact on this coast is comparatively less as compared to the previous sector. The impact profile
broadly includes opening of river mouths along deltas and lagoons followed by seawater ingression
and siltation; less impact on recent dune complex. Tidal flat / agricultural lands fringing the coast of
Agniyar-Vellar rivers is damaged moderately due to saline water ingression; quality of ground water
also deteriorated by the influence of sea water. Geothermal springs in Vellar-Tondi stretch, Tanjore
district has not indicated any significant change. Th e wide spread aqua culture farms (Fig.7) seen
along the coastal tract of Tanjore district and saltpans is marginally affected. As reported by the
locals, the arrival time of strong tsunami waves was between 14.00 and 14:15 hrs and the wave
splash attained a height of 2 to 5 m. The survey has indicated a run -up elevation of waves varying
between 0.5 and 2 m and the inundation by seawater for a length of 25 to 100m (Table -2 & Plate-I).
The presence of a number of deltas, tidal inlets and two major lagoons with mangrove swamps/
Casuarinas (Fig.8) has protected against major devastation.
3. Ramanathapuram Rameswaram Tuticorin Sector:
This sector comprises the famous Rameswaram island and Dhanushkodi besides the coastal
stretch of Mandapam and Tuticorin stetching for about 85 Km. The cuspate foreland of Vaigai
between Uchipuli and Mandapam and the Rameswaram island lying further east, separated by the
sea over a distance of 2 Km, forms the divide between the Palk Bay in the north and Gulf of Mannar
in the south. The coastline exhibits discontinuously calcareous sandstone and shell limestone of
Quaternary period and occurs as abrasion platforms. The shoreline is covered mostly by beach sand
and oxidized teri sand. The major landforms include beach, recent dune complex (Fig.9), wave cut
platform (Fig.10), tidal inlets, bay, tombolo etc. The landform connecting the mainland of Tuticorin
with the Pandiyan Tivu (Hare island) is the only tombolo present in the entire coast of Tamil Nadu
(Krishnan and Srinivasan, 2000). The impact of tsunami waves within the long coast between
Ramnanathapuram and Rameswaram (Fig. 11) and Mandapam and Tuticorin, manifested in terms of
coastal erosion and destruction to the existing landforms. The significant impacts are the widening
of river mouths in Gundar, Vembar and Vaippar rivers resulted in backflow of seawater into the
river and tidal inlets, depositing sand and clay inside lagoon and lakes. No major effect to recent
sand dune complex is noticed. The tip of Dhanushkodi shows erosion along the coast, at the contact
of beach and berm crest (Fig.12). Impact to Vaigai cuspate foreland and Rameswaram island is
___________________________________________________________________________________________
218
___________________________________________________________________________________________
219
marginal.
No major enrichment of heavies (ilmenite and garnet) noticed in Vembar-Vaippar
sections. Presence of small islands and coral reefs along the coast partially diminished the energy
flux of the waves. The quality of ground water occurring within the coastal stretch is generally saline
and hence no major variation could be found. Saltpans located close to the coast of Tuticorin are
damaged by inundation (Fig. 13). Damage to the major Port Tuticorin is minimum. The posttsunami survey in this sector revealed that there were four major pulses of tsunami waves that struck
the coast at 10:00,13:00,16:20 and 17:40 hrs (Tide gauge data of Tuticorin Port) out of which the
pulse at 13:30 was most severe. The run-up elevation of waves varied between 0.5 and 2m with a
resultant run-up length inundation between 25 and 500m inland depending on coastal morphology.
The wave splash ranged between 2 and 6 m depending on the obstruction it encountered. The
withdrawal of sea (ebbing) exposing the sea bed hitherto uncommon in the sector was prominently
seen between the pulses of tsunami waves and it ranged from 20 to 500m ((Table -3 & Plate-I).
Natural speed breakers in the form of 21 islands and coral reefs present diminished the energy flux
of waves. Tsunami deposits with coral fragments is characteristic to this sector (Fig. 14).
4.Tuticorin Tiruchendur Sector:
This sector falls within the Gulf of Mannar and extends for about 35 km along NNE-SSW
and N-S directions. The major coastal landforms observed are the beach; recent dune complex,
Tambraparni estuary, etc. The beach is narrow with 10-15 m width except in Tambraparni estuarine
delta, where it is between 15 and 25 m. Tuticorin-Tiruchendur sector is essentially made up of
Tambraparni estuarine delta, which has three major tidal inlets. Dense Mangrove vegetations are
seen in all these channels. The general elevation of the coast ranges between 2 and 5 m above m.s.l.
The N-S coastal stretch extending between Virapandianpattinam and Kayalpattinam is devoid of any
distinct dune barriers resulted in seawater inundation. The impact on tidal inlets of Tambraparni
estuary is characterised by way of opening of its mouths and sea water ingress besides silting of sand
(tsunami deposit) far inside for about 2-3 km. No significant change in quality of ground water along
the coastal zone is observed. The impact on mangrove cultivations within Tambraparni estuary and
on saltpans is negligible. The post-tsunami survey in this sector documented the arrival time of the
most destructive waves between 13:00 and 13:30 hrs, with a run up elevation of 1.5 to 2 m and a
wave splash of 3 to 6 m. Further the inundation of sea water inland (run-up length) was between 25
and 500m and withdrawal of sea during the pulses of tsunami waves was 50 1000 m (Table- 4 &
Plate-I).
5. Tiruchendur Kanyakumari Sector:
The Tiruchendur Kanyakumari sector extends for about 85 km and lies in the lower segment
of Gulf of Mannar, protruding into Indian Ocean. The various land forms observed in the sector are
the beaches, recent dune complex, wave cut platforms, abrasion platforms, shore platforms by
quarrying, bay, etc. The lithounits present in the coastal sector are sand (younger coastal dunes and
the older red coloured teri sand), calcareous sandstone and limestone of Recent to Sub- Recent
period and the rocks of migmatite complex, charnockite and khondalite groups. Wide beach of 15 to
25 m width seen between Tiruchendur and Kulasekarapattinam and Periyatalai and Nambiyar river
mouth while it is narrow of less than 15 m width in the rest of the coast. In Tiruchendur Manappad
coast, the recent dune complex is about 1 km wide but is poorly developed between Manappad and
Kanyakumari. Wave cut shore platform occurs discontinuously near Tiruchendur, Manappad,
between Baradar Ovari and Maraikkattuvilai, Nambiyar river mouth, Kuttankuli, Vijayapati and
Idindakarai Kudankulam area. The post-tsunami survey recorded (Table - 5 & Plate-I) a run-up
elevation of waves between 1 m and 3 m, run-up length between 10 m and 250 m, wave splash rose
maximum up to10m at Vivekananda rock memorial, Kanyakumari and the withdrawal of sea
between the pulses of tsunami waves ranged from 250 to 1000m. The withdrawal of sea both at
Tiruchendur (Fig.15&16) and Kanyakumari was quite conspicuous. Heavy loss of property mainly
to the fishing boats, nets, and hutments etc, reported in this sector.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
220
___________________________________________________________________________________________
221
The significant observations made during the survey are the coastal erosion in Manappad
and Vattakottai bays. The villages of Kulasekarapattinam and Manappad (Fig. 17 & 18) were
protected against major devastation by the wave breakers (groynes) already erected; impact on
placer deposits between Kuttam and Ovari was not significant except for enrichment of Ilmenite
near Vattakkottai (Fig.19). The famous Tiruchendur temple located right on the shore was protected
by the barrier dune and by the shore platform (Valli cave) and the wave breakers erected along the
coast. The other impacts include opening of river mouth of Nambiar and seawater ingression and
silting. Further, the quality of potable water springs occurring along the slopes of shore platform of
Manappad and near the coast of Tiruchendur have not been affected by the tsunami waves. Damage
to Chinna Muttam Fishing Harbor near Kanyakumari was almost total. Boats berthed inside the
harbor were dragged out by currents and some were perched on the groynes (Fig.20) erected on the
bank. Tossing of loose boulders by wave splash was conspicuous at Kanyakumari (Fig. 21-24).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to Shri S.D. Pawar and Dr M.M. Niar Deputy Director General,
GSI, Southern Region for their guidance during the work and preparation of the report. The authors
also gratefully acknowledges the help and logistic support provided by the Directors of various
Divisions of GSI and other officials. Acknowledgement is also due to Port authorities and local
administration for the support provided during the course of study.
REFERENCE
Krishnan, V &
Srinivasan, R
1999
Krishnan, V &
Srinivasan, R
2000
Krishnan, V &
Srinivasan, R
2000
Geoenvironemntal Resources Appraisal and impact

assessment studies along Tamil Nadu coast between
Nagapattinam and Ramanathapuram (FS 1994-95)
Report on the Geoenvironemntal Resources Appraisal and
impact assessment studies along Tamil Nadu coast belt
between Ramanathapuram and Kollankod
(FS 1995-96)
Geoenvironemntal Resources Appraisal and impact
assessment studies in Uchpuli-Mandapam area and
Rameswaram island, Ramanathapuram district, Tamil Nadu
(FS 1995-96)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
222
TABLE-1
TSUNAMI SURVEY DATA IN NAGAPATTINAM POINT CALIMERE SECTOR
Sl No +
Location
(Toposheet no.)
Pattanchcheri
10 49'16''
7951'09''
(58 N/13)
Samandampettai
1047'48''
7951'08''
(58 N/13)
Nambiarkuppam
1046'45''
7951'08''
(58 N/13)
Nagapattinam
1045'53''
7951'07''
(58 N/13)
Arrival
time of
strongest
wave
Elevation
(m)
Run-up
Distance
(m)
No. of pulses
(Strong pulses)
Predominant wave
direction (Height
of wave splash due
to obstruction)
Maximum
seaward
retreat (m) of
shoreline
between wave
pulses
09:20
3.0
500
4 (2nd & 3rd)
WNW (10m)
09:20
3.0
1250
4 (2nd & 3rd)
WNW (10m)
09:20
09:20
2.0
3.0
750
750
rd
4 (2nd & 3 )
4 (2nd & 3rd)
WNW (8m)
WNW (10m)
Remarks
Casualty: 460+;
damage to property
within back/foreshore region; ingress
of tsunami water 3-4
km along Vettar
river.
Casualty: 140+;
damage to property
within back/foreshore region.
Casualty: 300+;
foreshore area
washed off.; dunes
restricted damage in
backshore.
Casualty 500+;
foreshore area
washed off.
Table1 continued
____________________________________________________________________________________________
223
TABLE-1
TSUNAMI SURVEY DATA IN NAGAPATTINAM POINT CALIMERE SECTOR
Sl No +
Location
(Toposheet no.)
Kichchankuppam
& Akkaraipettai
1044'32''
7951'09''
(58 N/13)
Velankanni
1040'43''
7951'17''
(58 N/14)
Pattavarnattam
1037'12''
7951'18''(58 N/14)
Vanavanmahadevi
1031'47''
7951'39''
(58 N/14)
Point Calimere
(Kodiyakarai)
1016'23''
7949'30''
(58 N/15)
Arrival
time of
strongest
wave
Run-up
Elevation
Distance
(m)
(m)
No. of pulses
(Strong pulses)
Predominant wave
direction (Height
of wave splash due
to obstruction)
Maximum
seaward
retreat (m) of
shoreline
between wave
pulses
09:20
3.0
750
4 (2nd & 3rd)
WNW (10m)
09:20
3.0
750
4 (2nd & 3rd)
WNW (10m)
09:20
2.0
300
4 (2nd & 3rd)
WNW (8m)
Remarks
Casualty 5000+;
maximum
devastation to life
and property in the
entire tsunami hit
Indian coastline
Heavy loss of life;
damage to
kiosks/hutments on
the back/foreshore
area;
Shelter bed
plantations restricted
damage.
Foreshore area
washed off.
09:20
09:20
2.0
3.0
500
200
4 (2nd & 3rd)
4 (2nd & 3rd)
WNW (8m)
WNW (10m)
Casualty: 27+
Foreshore area
washed off; bird
sanctuary saved due
to shelterbelt
plantations.
+ Refer Plate- 1 for locations

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224
TABLE-2
TSUNAMI SURVEY DATA IN POINT CALIMERE RAMANATHAPURAM SECTOR
Sl No +
Location
(Toposheet no.)
10
11
12
Arrival
time of
strongest
wave
Mallipattinam
1016'29''
7919'07''
(58 N/7)
Ammanichattram
1011'34''
7915'42''
(58 N/4 & 8)
Adipattiman
1000'33''
7913'50''
(58 N/4 & 8)
12(a)*
Kottaipattinam
(58 O/1 & 2)
12(b)*
Mimisal
(58 O/1 & 2)
14:15
Elevation
(m)
1.5
Run-up
Distance
(m)
100
No. of pulses
(Strong pulses)
3 (2nd)
Predominant
wave direction
(Height of wave
splash due to
obstruction)
Maximum
seaward retreat
(m) of shoreline
between
wave
pulses
NNW (5m)
50
14:15
25
3 (2nd)
NNW (2m)
30
14:15
50
3 (2nd)
NW (3m)
25
14:15
14:15
1.5
75
50
3 (2nd)
3 (2nd)
WNW (3m)
WNW (3m)
Remarks
Casualty: Nil
Damage to property
minimum.
Dune complex
protected the place;
no damage reported.
No damage to life
and property
reported.
No damage to life
and property
reported. Aqua farms
unaffected.
No damage to life
and property
reported.
Table 2 continued
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225
TABLE-2
TSUNAMI SURVEY DATA IN POINT CALIMERE RAMANATHAPURAM SECTOR
Sl No +
Location
(Toposheet no.)
13
14
15
16
Pasipattinam
0948'35''
7904'56''
(58 O/1 & 2)
Tondi
0944'28''
7901'24''
(58 O/1 & 2)
Devipattinam
0928'46''
7853'57''
(58 K/15)
Ariyaman
0917'48''
7904'14''
(58 O/3 & 4)
Arrival
time of
strongest
wave
14:15
14:00
14:00
Elevation
(m)
1.5
0.5
1.0
Run-up
Distance
(m)
50
50
50
No. of pulses
(Strong pulses)
3 (2nd)
3 (2nd)
3 (2nd)
Predominant
wave direction
(Height of wave
splash due to
obstruction)
WNW (3)
WNW (2m)
WNW (2m)
Maximum
seaward retreat
(m) of shoreline
between
wave
pulses
10
Elevated beach
protected the place.
No damage to life
and property
reported.
Elevated beach
No damage to life
and property
reported.
50
14:00
1.5
100
3 (2nd)
S (2m)
Remarks
Elevated beach
No damage to life
and property
reported.
Wide beach and thick
belt of plantations
(Casuarinas) along
the coast. No damage
reported.
*12( a & b) are locations between 12 and 13.

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226
TSUNAMI SURVEY DATA IN RAMANATHAPURAM-RAMESWARAM-TUTICORIN SECTOR

Sl No +
Location
(Toposheet no.)
17
18
19
20
21
Thonithurai
090 16'52''
790 11'05''
(58 O/3 & 4)
Rameswaram
090 17'14''
790 19'20''
(58 O/7 & 8)
Dhanushkodi
090 10'33''
790 25'01''
(58 O/7 & 8)
Mandapam camp
090 16'14''
790 08'19''
(58 O/3 & 4)
Kilakarai
090 13'35''
780 47'17''
(58 K/16)
Chinna Ervadi
090 11'47''
780 43'15''
22
(58 K/12)
Valinokkam
23
09 09'48''
780 39'01'' (58 K/12)
Arrival
time of
strongest
wave
Run-up
Elevation
Distance
(m)
(m)
No. of pulses
(Strong pulses)
Predominant
wave direction
(Height of wave
splash due to
obstruction)
Maximum
seaward retreat
(m) of shoreline
between
wave
pulses
TABLE-3
Remarks
Location protected by
wave cut platform.
14:00
50
3 (2nd)
N (2m)
20m
14:00
0.5
25
3 (2nd)
WNW (2m)
25
14:00
50
3 (2nd)
N (2m)
100
14:00
50
3 (2nd)
N (2m)
20
14:00
25
3 (2nd)
N (2m)
25
Elevated beach protected

the location.
14:00
200
3 (2nd)
N (2m)
500
Casualty: 2
Damage: marginal
14:00
100
3 (2nd)
N (3m)
100
Raised beach and wave

cut platform saved the
location and the temple
Erosion of berm crest
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Wave cut platform and 21

small islands fringing the
coast protected the zone
Wave cut shore platform

and elevated beach
minimized damage.
Table 3 continued
227
TABLE-3
Sl No +
Location
(Toposheet no.)
24
25
26
27
28
29
Melmundal
090 07'50''
780 34'28''
(58 K/12)
Terku Mukkaiyur
090 07'33''
780 28'48''
(58 K/8)
Terku Naripaiyur
090 06'46''
780 25'16''(58 K/8)
Vembar
090 04'29''
780 21'59''
(58 K/8)
Sippikulam
080 59'33''
780 15'14''
(58 L/1 & 5)
Pattanamarudur
080 55'15''
780 11'14''
(58 L/1 & 5)
Arrival
time of
strongest
wave
Elevation
(m)
Run-up
Distance
(m)
No. of pulses
(Strong pulses)
Predominant wave
direction (Height
of wave splash due
to obstruction)
Maximum
seaward retreat
(m) of shoreline
between
wave
pulses
14:00
100
3 (2nd)
N (3)
100
14:00
0.5
50
3 (2nd)
N (6m)
50
14:00
50
3 (2nd)
N (2m)
50
13:30
50
3 (2nd)
N (5m)
300
13:30
250
3 (2nd)
N (3m)
250
13:30
1.5
100
3 (2nd)
N (3m)
500
Remarks
Long and wide beach

minimized damage
Elevated beach
protected the
location. Silting
(tsunami deposit)
along Gundar river.
Elevated and wide
beach protected the
location
Casualty: 1 Elevated
beach minimized the
damage.
Elevated beach
protected the
location. Minimum
damage; heavy silting
(tsunami deposit)
along Vaippar river.
Elevated beach
protected the
location.
Table 3 continued

____________________________________________________________________________________________
228
TABLE-3
Sl No +
Location
(Toposheet no.)
30
31
32
33
Taruvaikulam
080 53'23''
780 10'35''
(58 L/1 & 5)
Vellaipatti
080 51'19''
780 10'04''
(58 L/1 & 5)
Tuticorin
080 48'34''
780 09'56''
(58 L/1 & 5)
Pandiyan Tivu
080 47'11''
780 11'56''
(58 L/1 & 5)
Arrival
time of
strongest
wave
Elevation
(m)
Run-up
Distance
(m)
No. of pulses
(Strong pulses)
Predominant
wave direction
(Height of wave
splash due to
obstruction)
Maximum
seaward retreat
(m) of shoreline
between
wave
pulses
Remarks
13:30
200
3 (2nd)
N (3m)
300
Elevated beach
protected the location
13:30
1.5
500
3 (2nd)
N (3m)
25
Elevated beach
13.30
100
3 (2nd)
N (5m)
250
Erosion along
Tuticorin north bay.
1.5
100
3 (2nd)
N (5m)
100
13.30
Tombolo protected
the damage. Tsunami
deposit viz. broken
corals are seen along
the shore.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
229
TABLE-4
TSUNAMI SURVEY DATA IN TUTICORIN-THIRUCHENDUR SECTOR
Sl No +
Location
(Toposheet no.)
Arrival
time of
stronges
t wave
Elevation
(m)
Run-up
Distance
(m)
No. of pulses
(Strong pulses)
Predominant
wave direction
(Height of wave
splash due to
obstruction)
Maximum
seaward retreat
(m) of shoreline
between
wave
pulses
13:30
200
3 (2nd)
N (3m)
1000
34
Tuticorin Harbour
080 44'58''
780 11'40'' (58 L/2)
13:30
200
3 (2nd)
N (5M)
50
35
Muthaiyapuram
080 44'18''
780 10'02'' (58 L/2)
13:15
1.5
100
3 (2nd)
N (5M)
500
36
Punnaikayal
080 38'08''
780 07'20'' (58 L/2)
13:00
500
3 (2nd)
N (3m)
50
37
Kayalpattinam
080 33'39''
780 08'03'' (58 L/2)
150
3 (2nd)
N (6m)
25
25
3 (2nd)
N (5m)
500
38
39
Veerapandiya
pattinam
080 30'58''
780 07'26'' (58 L/2)
Thiruchendur
080 29'31''
780 07'47'' (58 L/3)
13:00
13:00
Remarks
South bay-- lowlying

area, plantation
destroyed
Low lying industrial
zone flooded
Damage to fishing
harbour, heavy silting
along Tambraparni
river delta.
Channels aided
ingression of tsunami
water.
Flattening of beach;
low lying area
inundated
Barrier dune and
wave cut platforms
and Temple;
withdrawal of sea
conspicuous.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
230
TABLE-5
TSUNAMI SURVEY DATA IN THIRUCHENDUR - KANYAKUMARI SECTOR
Sl No +
Location
(Toposheet no.)
40
41
42
43
44
45
Alantalai
080 27'49''
780 06'09''
(58 L/3)
Kallarmozhi
080 26'24''
780 04'57''
(58 L/3)
Kulasekara
pattinam
080 23'36''
780 03'35'' (58 L/3)
Manapad
080 22'20''
780 03'48''
(58 L/3)
Periyathalai
080 20'05''
770 58'42''
(58 H/15)
Kuduthalai
080 17'51''
770 55'48''
(58 H/15)
Arrival
time of
strongest
wave
Elevation
(m)
Run-up
Distance
(m)
No. of pulses
(Strong pulses)
Predominant
wave direction
(Height of wave
splash due to
obstruction)
Maximum
seaward retreat
(m) of shoreline
between
wave
pulses
12:45
100
3 (2nd)
N (10m)
250
12:45
250
3 (2nd)
N (10m)
250
12:45
1.5
60
3 (2nd)
N (6m)
250
12:45
1.5
60
3 (2nd)
WNW (10m)
250
12:45
1.5
80
3 (2nd)
N (5m)
250
12:45
15
3 (2nd)
N (5m)

____________________________________________________________________________________________
Remarks
Ingression along
inter-dune
depressions
Barrier dune
Groynes protected
the erosional coast.
Sand bar, shore
platform and groynes
protected location.
Quality of potable
water springs along
the ridge unaffected
Casualty: 1; damage
to property reported.
Elevated beach.
Placer garnet
concentrate washed
off
Table 5 continued
231
TABLE-5
Sl No +
Location
(Toposheet no.)
46
47
48
49
Nadar Ovari
080 16'59''
770 54'06''
(58 H/15)
Bardar Ovari
080 16'38''
770 53'44''
(58 H/15)
Karikovil
080 15'28''
770 51'37''
(58 H/15)
Kuttankuli
080 12'53''
770 47'01''
(58 H/16)
Avudayalpuram
080 11'35''
770 18'16''
49(a)#
(58 H/16)
Arrival
time of
stronges
t wave
Elevation
(m)
Run-up
Distance
(m)
No. of pulses
(Strong pulses)
Predominant
wave direction
(Height of wave
splash due to
obstruction)
Maximum
seaward retreat
(m) of shoreline
between
wave
pulses
Remarks
Elevated beach.
12:45
60
3 (2nd)
N (5m)
12:45
10
3 (2nd)
N (6m)
500
12:45
1.5
100
3 (2nd)
750
12:45
1.5
100
3 (2nd)
N (10m)
750
12:30
10
3 (2nd)
N (10)
500
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Groyne erected
across coast
facilitated formation
of beach with garnet
deposition.
Barrier dunes. Placer
garnet concentrate
washed off
Casualty: 1;
damage to property
marginally high;
placer garnet
concentrate washed
off.
Wave cut platform
and barrier dunes
Table5 continued
232
TABLE-5
Sl No +
Location
(Toposheet no.)
50
51
52
Idindakarai
080 10'28''
770 44'39''
(58 H/12)
Chinna Muttam
080 05'40''
770 33'58''
(58 H/12)
Kanyakumari
080 05'16''
770 33'31''
(58 H/12)
Arrival
time of
stronges
t wave
Elevation
(m)
Run-up
Distance
(m)
No. of pulses
(Strong pulses)
Predominant
wave direction
(Height of wave
splash due to
obstruction)
Maximum
seaward retreat
(m) of shoreline
between
wave
pulses
12:30
1.5
50
3 (2nd)
N (10m)
12:30
100
3 (2nd)
N (10m)
12:30
100
3 (2nd)
N (10m)
1000
Remarks
Casualty: 3; damage
to property
marginally high;
flattening of beach
observed.
Damage to fishing
harbor severe.
Damage to property
and jetty severe;
rocky coast;
enrichment of
ilmenite deposits.
Vivekananda
memorial and
Valluvar statue
withstood the
onslaught.
Withdrawal of sea
from coast was
conspicuous.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
233
Boat hit mark
Fig 1. Backshore with coconut grooves

showing boat hit marks at Pattancheri
Fig 3. Damaged jetty at Nagapattinam ; boats

damaged due to collision
Fig 2. Back/foreshore with ruins of

Pattancheri where about 400+ casualty
reported; damaged oil jetty at the
background
Fig 4. Opening of the river mouth of Vettar

near Nagapattinam causing ingression of
sea water
Run up length
Fig 5. Run up length of Tsunami waves

at Velanganni wherein heavy casualty Fig 6. Post Tsunami reclaimed backshore /
reported on post Christmas day
foreshore area of Velanganni beach
____________________________________________________________________________________________
234
Fig 7. Aqua culture farm near Kottaipattinam

showing no impact
Fig 9. Barrier Dune with vegetation near

Pudumadam, protected the coast
Fig 8. Elevated beach with bio-shield

Plantation (Casurina) near Ariyaman,
Ramanathapuram coast
Fig 10. Wave cut Platform near

Mandapam acted as natural barrier
Fig 11. Post Tsunami Scene between the coasts Fig 12. Dhanushkodi coast unaffected by
Tsunami waves
of Ramanathapuram and
Rameswaram
____________________________________________________________________________________________
235
Fig 13. Saltpan near Tuticorin less damaged by Fig 14. Tsunami deposits consisting
Tsunami ingression
mainly corals strewn near Hare Island
(Tuticorin)
Shoreline
Fig15. Unprecedented withdrawal of the sea Fig16. Post Tsunami scene at Tiruchendur
between the pulses of Tsunami waves at coast unaffected by Tsunami
Tiruchendur showing temple at background
Groynes
Fig-17 A view from Manapad shore platform Fig 18 Rubble mounted seawall (RMS)/
showing the erosional front and Groynes Groynes erected near Kulasekarapattinam
protected the inhabitants in the
protecting the village
background
____________________________________________________________________________________________
236
Fig 19. Tsunami deposits of ilmenite placers Fig 20. A scene at Chinnamuttam harbour,
near Vattakottai, Kanyakumari coast
Kanyakumari showing perched boats on the
Tetrapods
Fig 21. Tossed boulders by the surge of Fig.22. Live photograph showing the bore
Tsunami waves near Kanyakumari
of Tsunami waves at Kanyakumari
Fig 23. Live photograph showing wave splash at

Kanyakumari
Fig24. Post Tsunami scene at Vivekananda

rock memorial, Kanyakumari
____________________________________________________________________________________________
237
TSUNAMI SURVEY IN THE KANYAKUMARI - COCHIN SEGMENT

IN PARTS OF TAMIL NADU AND KERALA
K. Jayabalan and U. Durairaj
Geological Survey of India, Chennai
INTRODUCTION
The tsunami generated due to the great Sumatra earthquake of 26th December 2004 hit the
Indian main land with devastating effects. This document deals with the results of studies carried out
between 5th and 13th January 2005, in Kanyakumari - Cochin segment in parts of Tamil Nadu and
Kerala covering about 300 km. Considering the vast stretch, varied geomorphology, bathymetry and
variable impact of tsunami, the entire study area (Plate I) has been subdivided into the following four
sectors for the convenience of description:
1. Kanyakumari - Thiruvananthapuram
2. Thiruvananthapuram - Quilon
3. Quilon - Alleppy
4. Alleppy - Cochin
(100 km)
(60 km)
(75 km)
(80 km)
Distribution of run up elevation and run up distance in all the above sectors are shown in
Plate II.
Kanyakumari - Thiruvananthapuram Sector

This sector, located in the southern part of the Indian sub-continent covers a stretch of about
100 km. Thiruvananthapuram, the capital of Kerala and Kanyakumari, the famous tourist center are
located in this sector. The coastal stretch between Kanyakumari and Kolachal is oriented in WNWESE direction, after which it swerves to NNW-SSE. Khondalite and Charnockite Group of rocks are
exposed intermittently as rocky knobs in this coastal stretch with cover rocks of Tertiary and
Quaternary sediments. In this Sector, 1.5 to 2m sand ridges/ dune complexes usually protect the
coast. Beaches, sand dunes/ ridges, wave cut platforms and shore platforms characterize this
segment. Intensity of tsunami including causalities decreases from south to north (Table 1). At
Kanyakumari, sea level fluctuations have been reported from 0930 hrs with rough sea, though the
first wave hit the coast around 1030 hrs followed by a series of waves at 10-15 minutes intervals.
Around 1200 hrs, seawater receded for a distance of 300 - 500m from the shoreline exposing the
seabed. A huge wall like water column (water bore) with tremendous speed and terrific noise hit the
coast at 1215hrs with the flash rising up to 10m. At Manakkudi, sea level fluctuated from 0940 hrs;
the first wave hit the coast at 1025 hrs followed by a series of waves with 10 - 15 minutes interval;
seawater receded in between the pulses exposing the seabed up to 300 - 500 m around 1215 hrs. The
killer wave rushed towards the land with an approximate height of 7 - 9 m devastating coastal
villages and newly constructed concrete bridge (Fig. 1) across the Pazhayar River. Breaches in the
coastal ridges/ dune complexes (Fig.2 and 3) are also noticed in the area from Melmanakudi to
Pillaithoppu. Around Melmanakudi and Pallom, houses built parallel to the beachfront were
completely destroyed (Fig.4) with heavy loss to life and property. At Kadiappattanam, the first wave
hit the land at 1030 hrs with devastating effect. The approximate run up elevation of 4m has caused
____________________________________________________________________________________________
239
inundation of vast area along the coast. The Valliyar river mouth has been widened (Fig. 5) with
heavy deposition of black sand. The entire Kottilpad village located just east of Kolachel has been
swept away causing severe damage to life and property. A thick blanket of placer deposits covers the
beach after tsunami. At Kolachel, around 0945 hrs, seawater gradually increased and suddenly hit the
land with the maximum speed and energy, submerging the low-lying areas all along the coast. The
seawater later vigorously receded for about 200 - 300m. These fluctuations in the sea level have been
reported for 5 - 6 times. When the tsunami hit the land, it breached the coastal ridges and canal
banks. A thick column of seawater entered through the canal and surrounded the villages located
near by. From Kolachal to Thiruvananthapuram the destructions are comparatively less due to higher
elevation of the beaches and the steep gradient of the continental shelf. At Villinjam, initial surge
was reported around 0930 hrs while the main wave hit the coast around 1250 hrs causing severe
damage to the fishing boats and settlements located in the nearby areas. At Kovalam, sea level
fluctuated around 0930 hrs creating panic among the tourists. The first wave hit the coast around
1245 hrs; then the sea progressively receded for a distance of 100 to 150 m exposing the seabed and
again hit the coast around 1300 hrs with run-up elevation of 1.5 to 2m.
Thiruvananthapuram - Quilon Sector

This 60km long coastal stretch is almost a NW-SE trending plain country. Vertical cliffs can
be seen at places along the coast. These cliffs vary in height from 3m to 20m, capped by laterite.
This sector is less affected by tsunami (Table 2). The initial surge in this sector has been reported
between 0930 hrs and 10.20 hrs. Recessions during the repeated pulses have also been reported. The
run-up elevation in this sector ranges from 0.75 to 1m and the run-up distance from 50 to 200m.
Quilon - Alleppy Sector

This 75km long NNW trending sector is characterized by the presence of prominent coast
parallel water bodies. A narrow stretch of land separates the open sea and the kaya1 (backwaters).
Post -tsunami data (Table 3) indicated a maximum run-up distance up to 1.5 km, along the creek, TS
canal being primarily responsible for the inundation. At Azhikkal, the first wave hit the coast at
around 1145 hrs, followed by series of waves with 10-15 minute intervals. The sea receded in
between successive waves exp osing the seabed up to l km around 1300 hrs. The largest wave with an
approximate height of 7m hit the coast at 1310 hrs with devastating effect. This has caused
inundation of vast area along the coast. Higher run up distance of 2.5km has been observed along a
10km stretch. The maximum damage has occurred between open sea and TS canal. Most of the
concrete houses, property, fishing vessels and automobiles on the coast parallel road have been
uprooted and thrown to a distance of 100 to 200m (Fig.6, 7, 8, 9 and 10). The width of the barrier
beach is between 100 - 500 m and in general the land slopes towards the kayal. Wave breakers
protect most part of the kayal. The rubbles/ blocks from the wave breakers have been lifted and
thrown ashore up to a distance of 100m by tsunami waves. At places, these blocks, fishing vessels
and trucks got struck in the coconut groves, while some were washed over into the neighboring TS
canal. The waves have destroyed the roads and scoured the basement of the houses. A thick pile of
beach placers (ilmenite and rutile) have been deposited in the area between the sea and TS canal
(Fig.11, 12, 13, 14 and 15). About 60cm thick heavy mineral layer has been noticed for a stretch of
2km in the Azhikkal and Taraikaduvtura area. A thick blanket of (70-90 cm) heavy mineral has been
deposited over the coastal road at Valliya Azhikkal area. An acute shortage of drinking water is
reported in the area around Alappad, where the inundation of wells has resulted salinity. Heavy loss
of men and material has been reported from Alappad Panchayat. At Valliyattukaltura, sea level
fluctuation started around 1000 hrs. Just before the major wave, seawater receded for a distance of
500m exposing the seabed. During the retreat, people who entered the sea to collect the fishes lying
____________________________________________________________________________________________
240
on the seabed have been engulfed by the tsunami in no time along with the rescuers. The causality
figures were higher in this area because of dense population. At places, the concrete houses have also
damaged due to under scouring. Low foundation depth and poor construction were responsible for
damages to the con structions. At Anthakaranahalli, the tsunami hit the coast around ll00 hrs. The
seawater receded up to a distance 500m. Around 1115 hrs a giant wave (bore type) hit the coast with
devastating fury. The beach is very gentle with an elevation of less than a meter. The river mouth is
breached at Manakkodam (Fig.16). The bore about 1.5m high, had rushed through the estuaries,
spilling over the existing sand bar causing severe damage to the light house.
Alleppey - Cochin Sector

This 80km long sector comprises two distinct geomorphic units viz. Kadapuram and Viyam
formations (tidal flats). In this sector, 8 km stretch between Cherai - Edavanakkad has been badly
damaged. Cherai resorts and fishermen colonies located in the narrow strip of barrier beach have
been fully damaged. Heavy causalities have also been reported from this stretch. The first wave hit
the coast at 1110 hrs followed by a series of waves with 10 - 15 minutes interval. After devastating
the coastal villages, the sea receded for about 500- 1000m exposing the seabed around 1315 hrs. At
1430 hrs, all of a sudden, a big wave rushed towards the land with tremendous force along with
unusual noise and hit the coast inundating vast area. The run up of largest wave is more than a
kilometer along this stretch. Most of the well-built concrete houses, valuable property, mechanised
fishing boats and the automobiles on the coast parallel road have been thrown to a distance of 50100m. Wave breakers (made up of granite blocks) without gabions provided along the shoreline were
fully damaged. The haphazardly placed granite blocks were lifted by the waves and thrown ashore
up to a distance of 100m. These granite boulders acted like canon balls and caused severe damages
to the life and property. At places, fishing vessels and catamarans got struck into the coconut groves,
while some were washed into the kayals (backwater). Tsunami brought huge volume of beach placer
(ilmenite and rutile) and blanketed the roads and other nearby areas (Table 4).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors express their sincere thanks to Shri S.D. Pawar and Dr. M.M. Nair, DDG,
GSI. The authors are also thankful to Shri G. Rajagopalan, Director, for his guidance in the
preparation of this report. We sincerely thank Shri R.S.Nair, Dr. P.K. Muralidharan, Directors and
S/Shri. Koshy John, C. Muraleedharan, B. Nageswaran, Dr. Mathew Joseph, Geologists and other
colleagues for active support. The authors are grateful to the Port Trust officials, Cochin, for
providing tidal gauge data.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
241
____________________________________________________________________________________________
242
____________________________________________________________________________________________
243
Manakkudi
Muttom
Kadiyapattnam
South
of
Manavalakurichi
Kottilpadu
E of Kolachel
Kolachel
Vizhinjam Port
Kovalam beach
10
--
08 2231
76 592 0
08 1022
77 1449
08 1022
77 1511
08 1018
77 1559
08 081 0
77 1809
08 0830
77 1817
08 0720
77 1925
08 0524
77 2902
08 0441
77 3256
Lat/Long
09.40 hrs.
10.20 hrs.
12.30 hrs.
09.15hrs.
10.20 hrs.
12.30 hrs.
09.30 hrs.
10.20 hrs.
11.10 hrs.
12.00 hrs.
09.30hrs.
10.30hrs.
11.10hrs.
12.15hrs.
09.30hrs.
10.30hrs.
11.10hrs.
12.20hrs.
10.30hrs.
11.10hrs.
12.15hrs.
10.30 hrs.
11.15 hrs.
12.50 hrs.
09.30hrs.
10.30hrs.
12.45hrs.
09.40 hrs
10.25hrs.
12.30hrs.
09.30 hrs
10.00 hrs.
12.15hrs.
Tsunami
arrival time
> 300m
>150m
>300m
>600m
>600m
>600m
>600m
500m
> 500m
> 100 m
Sea water
recession
2m
2-2.5m
3.5m
3-4m
3m
2m
2m
2.5m
3m
4m
Run -u p
elevation
> 100m
> 200m
>500m
>500m
400m
>300m
>250m
75m
>2.5km
(along creek)
100 m.
Run up distance
Remarks
244
A few mechanized fishing boats damaged.
Heavy casualties.
and surrounded the nearby villages.
Seawater entered through the AVM canal
away.
Heavy casualties. Entire village was swept
Heavy casualties. Roads and houses

damaged. Newly constructed bridge across
the Palayar river broken into pieces.
Seawater encroached the beac hes. Well
water became salty. Wave direction due
N60 0 E.
Wave front moved due north
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Kanyakumari
Location
Sl.
No.
TSUNAMI SURVEY DATA IN KANYAKUMARI THIRUVANANTHAPURAM SECTOR
TABLE-1
Sankumugam
Veli
Thangaseri
(Dutch Fort)
Quilon (light
house)
11
12
13
14
--
085256
763359
082844
765433
083005
765030
Lat / Long
11.50 hrs.
13.10 hrs.
14.10 hrs.
10.30 hrs.
11.10 hrs.
13.00 hrs.
0930 hrs.
10.20 hrs.
12.10 hrs.
10.20hrs.
12.10hrs.
Tsunami arrival
time
> 150m
> 200m
50m
<100 m
Sea water
recession
1.5m
2.5m
0.5m
1m
Run -u p
elevation
175m
250m
50m
250m
Run up distance
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Location
Sl.
No.
Remarks
High land
topography.
Wave direction
SSW-NNE
TSUNAMI SURVEY DATA IN THIRUVANANTHAPURAM QUILON SECTOR
245
TABLE-2
Alappattutura
S of Azhikkal
Azhikkal
Valliyatukkal
Tura
Relief camp
South of
Taraikadavu Tura
Taraikadavu Tura
Perumpalli (22km
from Thottapalli)
Thottapalli
P u n n ap r a
Anthakaranazhi
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
094453
761702
092555
761954
091840
762255
--
090940
762700
090900
762710
090956
762701
090823
762735
090725
762802
090701
762812
090400
762930
Lat / Long
10.30 hrs.
11.45 hrs.
13.10 hrs.
10.30 hrs.
11.45 hrs.
12.15 hrs.
13.10 hrs.
10.30 hrs.
11.45 hrs.
13.10 hrs.
10.30 hrs.
11.30 hrs.
13.00 hrs.
10.30 hrs.
11.30 hrs.
13.00 hrs
10.30 hrs.
11.30 hrs.
13.00 hrs
10.30 hrs.
11.30 hrs.
13.10 hrs.
10.30 hrs.
11.30 hrs.
13.00 hrs.
10.55 hrs.
12.25 hrs.
12.55 hrs.
11.10 hrs.
12.30 hrs.
13.00 hrs.
11.10 hrs.
12.25 hrs.
13.00 hrs.
Tsunami
arrival time
>500 m
2m
1.5m
1.5m
0.5 km
0.5-1km
2.5 m
2.5 m
2.5 m
2.5 m
3m
--
> 1km
> 1km
> 1km
> 1km
3m
1.75m
>500m
0.5-1km
1.7m
Run -u p
elevation
500m
Sea water
recession
>500m
400m
> 1km
> 0.5 km
>1km
>1.5km
> 1.5 km
> 1.5 km
2.5km
>500 m
450 m
Run up
distance
Remarks
TABLE-3
W a v e d i r e c t i o n S S W -NNE.
Heavy casualties reported
As above
246
H e a v y c a s u a l t i e s . H e a v y m i n e r a l s d ep o s i t i o n ( 3 -4m)
As above
Heavy casualties. High speed with unusual sound of waves.

H e a v y m i n e r a l s d e p o s i t i o n ( 3 -4m)
Heavy casualties. Granite blocks (size 0.5 c um) physically

lifted and thrown for 50-100m from the shoreline. Heavy
minerals deposition (3-4m). Wave direction SSW -NNE.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Location
Sl.
No.
TSUNAMI SURVEY DATA IN QUILON ALLEPPEY SECTOR
Cherai beac h
resort
Kadapuram
Munambam
harbour
(fishing yard)
29
30
31
101040
761025
101030
761010
11.00
13.00
15.00
11.10
13.00
14.30
11.10
13.00
14.30
--
hrs.
hrs.
hrs.
hrs.
hrs.
hrs.
hrs.
hrs.
hrs.
hrs.
hrs.
hrs.
hrs.
hrs.
0.5 - 1km
(12.30 hrs.)
0.5 1km
(11.30 hrs.)
--
Sea water
recession
500m
(11.15 hrs.)
1.5 - 2m
2m
1.5 m
2.5m
1.5m
Run -u p
elevation
2m
100m
>500m
>500m
Crossed the
barrier
island
(>1km)
200m
Run u p
distance
>500m
Remarks
15-20 fishing boats damaged
Heavy casualties. Wave breakers without

gabions granite blocks (size 0.25 cum)
physically lifted and thrown ashore a distance
of 50-100m from the shoreline, road and
houses damaged and impact on aqua culture.
247
TABLE-4
Heavy casualties.
Widening of the river mouth, heavy siltation
and formation of spit.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Edavanakkad
28
11.10
12.55
11.10
13.00
14.50
Tsunami
arrival time
11.00 hrs.
12.25 hrs.
095982
761334
100509
761130
094453
761702
Manakkodam
(light house)
Vypin
Lat / Long
Location
27
Sl.
No.
26
TSUNAMI SUR VEY DATA IN ALLEPPEY NORTH OF COCHIN SECTOR
Fig.4 - Destruction of front row of houses

Loc: Kolachel
Fig.3 - Breach in the frontal dune

Loc: Kovakulam
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Fig.2 - Breach in the coastal ridge

Loc: Kottilpad
Fig.1 - Damaged road bridge over Pazhayar River

Loc: Manakkudi
248
Fig.8 Remains of a ravaged house

Loc: Taraikadavutura
Fig.7 Blown away roof top

Loc: Edavankkad
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Fig.6 Collapsed house

Loc: Azhikkal
Fig.5 Widening of Valliyar River mouth

Loc: Manavalakurichi
249
Fig.12 Heavy mineral deposition

Loc: Azhikal

Loc: Valliazhikal
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Fig.10 Remnants of ravaged house

Loc: Edavankkadu
Fig.9 Truck trapped between the destroyed houses

Loc: Azhikkal
250
Fig.16 Breach in the river mouth

Loc: Manakkodam

Loc: Azikal
____________________________________________________________________________________________

Loc: Valliazikal

Loc: Kayamkulam
251

Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake and Tsunami 26 December 2004

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Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake and Tsunami 26 December 2004

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A REPORT ON

THE SUMATRA- ANDAMAN EARTHQUAKE

Geological Survey of India Special Publication

A REPORT ON THE SUMATRA- ANDAMAN

G EOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA SPECIAL P UBLICATION

A preliminary Report on investigation of K.N. Mathur, S.K. Ray, S.

Macroseismic Survey in Andaman and A.K. Ghosh Roy, S. Bardhan,

Analysis of satellite data for changes in D.P. Das, S.S. Ghosh,

26 December 2004 earthquake: coseismic Sumit K. Ray and

Bathymetry and magnetic observations along R. Sengupta and 12 others

Seismotectonics of the Andaman- Nicobar Sujit Dasgupta, Basab

Aftershock investigation of the December 26, O.P. Mishra,

Tsunami survey in the Andaman- Nicobar T.Ghosh, P..Jana,

Tsunami survey in the Srikakulam-Pulicat M. Raju, B.K. Bhandaru, V.

Chennai- R. Srinivasan and

Nagapattinam- B. Kanishkan and

12. Tsunami survey in the Kanyakumari- Cochin K. Jayabalan and U. Durairaj

As already mentioned the Andaman-Nicobar arc-trench region is a highly seismic tectonic

A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON INVESTIGATION OF EFFECTS OF THE

* Director General, GSI

Seismicity Pattern of the Region between 01.01.2004 and 25.12.2004

Water Supply Schemes for Port Blair

Ground Fissures and Liquefaction

Mud Volcano Eruptions and Surface Rupture at Baratang

Effect of Tsunami in Andaman Islands

Log (Cumm. N) = -1.2021M+ 8.5405

Photo 1: GSI team led by the Director General at Port Blair

Photo 2: Shearing of load bearing base columns leading to caving in

Photo 4: Complete crushing of ground floor due to failure of base

REPORT ON SUMATRA- ANDAMAN EARTHQUAKE & TSUNAMI, 26 DEC 04

Photo 5: Complete caving in of stilt and heavy damage of first floor

Photo 6: Failure of walls and roof of Malabar Society godown,

Photo 8: Fine cracks and

Photo 7: Inundation of the structure in photo 6 and surrounding

Photo 9: Buckling by 8cm of concrete apron at the interface of

Photo 10: a ground fissure cutting across the road through

Photo 12: An active crater within the recent mud volcano

Photo 14: A tree trunk

Photo 13: Fissure developed on the road at Baratang

Photo 15: Structure flattened by the tsunami in Wandoor

Photo 16: Breach in a section of the shore protection wall at Nazar,

Photo 17: Washing away of a bridge by the Tsunami at Corbyn,s

Photo 18: Tsunami water mark (brown- green interface) about 2m

Photo 19: Inundation of paddy field through the backwaters in Ograbraj

MACROSEISMIC SURVEY IN ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLAND IN THE

A K Ghosh Roy, S Bardhan, P Jana and S R Basir

EARTHQUAKES IN THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLAND

No recording stations were

Little Andaman Island,

Largest earthquake in this

Off the east coast of

Andaman Sea, ENE of

This earthquake caused

Figure 1: Nabagram Panchayet Bhavan

Figure 3: Detachment of building from

Figure 2: Sandsprout along enechelon

Figure 4: Collapse of walls of a single

Figure 5: Retreat of shoreline in Aerial Bay, North

Figure 6: Recent mud eruption showing

Figure 7: Large ground crack near mud volcano

Figure 9: Damage in Austeen Bridge connecting

Figure 8: Step like ground subsidence in

MAYABUNDER, KARMATANG, TUGAPUR,

Figure 10: Pounding damage near