Pressure

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about pressure in the physical sciences. For other uses, see Pressure (disambiguation).
Pressure
Common symbols
p, P
SI unit
Pascal (Pa)
In SI base units
1 N/m
2
or 1 kg/(m s
2
)
Derivations from
other quantities
p = F / A


Pressure as exerted by particle collisions inside a closed container.
Thermodynamics

The classical Carnot heat engine
Branches[show]
Laws[show]
Systems[show]
System properties[show]
Material properties[show]
Equations[show]
Potentials[show]
History / Culture[show]
Scientists[show]
Book:Thermodynamics
V
T
E
Pressure (symbol: p or P) is the ratio of force to the area over which that force is distributed.
Pressure is force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the surface of an object. Gauge
pressure (also spelled gagepressure)
[a]
is the pressure relative to the local atmospheric or ambient pressure.
Pressure is measured in any unit of force divided by any unit of area. The SI unit of pressure is
the newton per square metre, which is called the pascal (Pa) after the seventeenth-century philosopher and
scientist Blaise Pascal. The lbf/square inch (PSI) is the traditional unit of pressure in US/UK customary units. A
pressure of 1 Pa approximately equals the pressure exerted by a dollar bill resting flat on a table. Everyday
pressures are often stated in kilopascals (1 kPa = 1000 Pa) - 1 kPa is approximately one-seventh of a lbf/in
2
.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
o 1.1 Formula
o 1.2 Units
o 1.3 Examples
o 1.4 Scalar nature
2 Types
o 2.1 Fluid pressure
2.1.1 Applications
o 2.2 Explosion or deflagration pressures
o 2.3 Negative pressures
o 2.4 Stagnation pressure
o 2.5 Surface pressure
o 2.6 Pressure of an ideal gas
o 2.7 Vapor pressure
o 2.8 Liquid pressure
o 2.9 Direction of liquid pressure
o 2.10 Kinematic pressure
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 External links
Definition[edit]
Pressure is the amount of force acting per unit area. The symbol of pressure is p or P.
[b][1]

Formula[edit]
Conjugate variables
of thermodynamics
Pressure Volume
(Stress) (Strain)
Temperature Entropy
Chemical potential Particle number

Mathematically:

where:
is the pressure,
is the normal force,
is the area of the surface on contact.
Pressure is a scalar quantity. It relates the vector surface
element (a vector normal to the surface) with the normal
force acting on it. The pressure is the scalar proportionality
constant that relates the two normal vectors:

The minus sign comes from the fact that the force is
considered towards the surface element, while the
normal vector points outward.
It is incorrect (although rather usual) to say "the pressure
is directed in such or such direction". The pressure, as a
scalar, has no direction. The force given by the previous
relationship to the quantity has a direction, but the
pressure does not. If we change the orientation of the
surface element, the direction of the normal force
changes accordingly, but the pressure remains the
same.
Pressure is transmitted to solid boundaries or across
arbitrary sections of fluid normal to these boundaries or
sections at every point. It is a fundamental parameter
in thermodynamics, and it is conjugate to volume.
Units[edit]


Mercury column
The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to
one newton per square metre (N/m
2
or kgm
1
s
2
). This
special name for the unit was added in 1971;
[2]
before
that, pressure in SI was expressed simply in newtons per
square metre.
Other units of pressure, such as pounds per square
inch and bar, are also in common use. The CGS unit of
pressure is the barye (ba), equal to 1 dyncm
2
or 0.1 Pa.
Pressure is sometimes expressed in grams-force or
kilograms-force per square centimetre (g/cm
2
or kg/cm
2
)
and the like without properly identifying the force units.
But using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or
gram-force (or their symbols) as units of force is
expressly forbidden in SI. The technical
atmosphere (symbol: at) is 1 kgf/cm
2
(98.0665 kPa or
14.223 psi).
Since a system under pressure has potential to perform
work on its surroundings, pressure is a measure of
potential energy stored per unit volume. It is therefore
related to energy density and may be measured in units
such as joules per cubic metre.
Some meteorologists prefer the hectopascal (hPa) for
atmospheric air pressure, which is equivalent to the older
unit millibar (mbar). Similar pressures are given in
kilopascals (kPa) in most other fields, where the hecto-
prefix is rarely used. The inch of mercury is still used in
the United States. Oceanographers usually measure
underwater pressure in decibars (dbar) because
pressure in the ocean increases by approximately one
decibar per metre depth.
The standard atmosphere (atm) is an established
constant. It is approximately equal to typical air pressure
at earth mean sea level and is defined as 101325 Pa.
Because pressure is commonly measured by its ability to
displace a column of liquid in a manometer, pressures
are often expressed as a depth of a particular fluid
(e.g., centimetres of water, millimetres of
mercury or inches of mercury). The most common
choices are mercury(Hg) and water; water is nontoxic
and readily available, while mercury's high density allows
a shorter column (and so a smaller manometer) to be
used to measure a given pressure. The pressure exerted
by a column of liquid of height h and density is given
by the hydrostatic pressure equation p = gh. Fluid
density and local gravity can vary from one reading to
another depending on local factors, so the height of a
fluid column does not define pressure precisely. When
millimetres of mercury or inches of mercury are quoted
today, these units are not based on a physical column of
mercury; rather, they have been given precise definitions
that can be expressed in terms of SI units.
[citation
needed]
One millimetre of mercury is approximately equal
to one torr. The water-based units still depend on the
density of water, a measured, rather than defined,
quantity. These manometric units are still encountered in
many fields. Blood pressure is measured in millimetres
of mercury in most of the world, and lung pressures in
centimetres of water are still common.
Underwater divers use the metre sea water (msw or
MSW) and foot sea water (fsw or FSW) units of
pressure, and these are the standard units for pressure
gauges used to measure pressure exposure in diving
chambers and personal decompression computers. A
msw is defined as 0.1 bar, and is not the same as a
linear metre of depth, and 33.066 fsw = 1 atm.
[3]
Note
that the pressure conversion from msw to fsw is different
from the length conversion: 10 msw = 32.6336 fsw, while
10 m = 32.8083 ft
Gauge pressure is often given in units with 'g' appended,
e.g. 'kPag' or 'psig', and units for measurements of
absolute pressure are sometimes given a suffix of 'a', to
avoid confusion, for example 'kPaa', 'psia'. However, the
US National Institute of Standards and
Technology recommends that, to avoid confusion, any
modifiers be instead applied to the quantity being
measured rather than the unit of measure
[4]
For
example, "p
g
= 100 psi" rather than "p = 100 psig".
Differential pressure is expressed in units with 'd'
appended; this type of measurement is useful when
considering sealing performance or whether a valve will
open or close.
Presently or formerly popular pressure units include the
following:
atmosphere (atm)
manometric units:
centimetre, inch, and millimetre of mercury
(torr)
Height of equivalent column of water,
including millimetre (mm H
2O), centimetre (cm H
2O), metre, inch, and foot of water
imperial and customary units:
kip, short ton-force, long ton-force, pound-
force, ounce-force, and poundal per square
inch
short ton-force and long ton-force per square
inch
fsw (feet sea water) used in underwater diving,
particularly in connection with diving pressure
exposure and decompression
non-SI metric units:
bar, decibar, millibar
msw (metres sea water), used in
underwater diving, particularly in
connection with diving pressure exposure
and decompression
kilogram-force, or kilopond, per square
centimetre (technical atmosphere)
gram-force and tonne-force (metric ton-force)
per square centimetre
barye (dyne per square centimetre)
kilogram-force and tonne-force per square
metre
sthene per square metre (pieze)
Pressure units
V
T
E
Pascal Bar
Technical
atmosphere
Standard
atmosphere
Torr
Pounds per
square inch
(Pa) (bar) (at) (atm) (Torr) (psi)
1 Pa 1 N/m
2
10
5
1.019710
5
9.869210
6
7.500610

1.45037710

3

4

1 bar 10
5
10
6
dyn/cm
2
1.0197 0.98692 750.06 14.50377
1 at
0.98066510
5

0.980665 1 kp/cm
2
0.9678411 735.5592 14.22334
1
atm
1.0132510
5
1.01325 1.0332 p
0
760 14.69595
1
Torr
133.3224
1.33322410

3

1.35955110

3

1.31578910

3

1 mm
Hg

1.93367810

2

1 psi 6.894810
3
6.894810
2
7.0306910
2
6.804610
2
51.71493 1 lb
F
/in
2


Examples[edit]
As an example of varying pressures, a finger can be
pressed against a wall without making any lasting
impression; however, the same finger pushing
a thumbtack can easily damage the wall. Although the
force applied to the surface is the same, the thumbtack
applies more pressure because the point concentrates
that force into a smaller area. Pressure is transmitted to
solid boundaries or across arbitrary sections of
fluid normal to these boundaries or sections at every
point. Unlike stress, pressure is defined as a scalar
quantity. The negative gradient of pressure is called
the force density.
Another example is of a common knife. If we try to cut a
fruit with the flat side it obviously will not cut. But if we
take the thin side, it will cut smoothly. The reason is that
the flat side has a greater surface area (less pressure)
and so it does not cut the fruit. When we take the thin
side, the surface area is reduced and so it cuts the fruit
easily and quickly. This is one example of a practical
application of pressure.
For gases, pressure is sometimes measured not as
an absolute pressure, but relative to atmospheric
pressure; such measurements are called gauge
pressure. An example of this is the air pressure in
an automobile tire, which might be said to be
"220 kPa (32 psi)", but is actually 220 kPa (32 psi) above
atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric pressure at
sea level is about 100 kPa (14.7 psi), the absolute
pressure in the tire is therefore about 320 kPa (46.7 psi).
In technical work, this is written "a gauge pressure of
220 kPa (32 psi)". Where space is limited, such as
on pressure gauges, name plates, graph labels, and
table headings, the use of a modifier in parentheses,
such as "kPa (gauge)" or "kPa (absolute)", is permitted.
In non-SI technical work, a gauge pressure of 32 psi is
sometimes written as "32 psig" and an absolute pressure
as "32 psia", though the other methods explained above
that avoid attaching characters to the unit of pressure
are preferred.
[5]

Gauge pressure is the relevant measure of pressure
wherever one is interested in the stress on storage
vessels and the plumbing components of fluidics
systems. However, whenever equation-of-state
properties, such as densities or changes in densities,
must be calculated, pressures must be expressed in
terms of their absolute values. For instance, if the
atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, a gas (such as helium)
at 200 kPa (gauge) (300 kPa [absolute]) is 50% denser
than the same gas at 100 kPa (gauge) (200 kPa
[absolute]). Focusing on gauge values, one might
erroneously conclude the first sample had twice the
density of the second one.
Scalar nature[edit]
In a static gas, the gas as a whole does not appear to
move. The individual molecules of the gas, however, are
in constant random motion. Because we are dealing with
an extremely large number of molecules and because
the motion of the individual molecules is random in every
direction, we do not detect any motion. If we enclose the
gas within a container, we detect a pressure in the gas
from the molecules colliding with the walls of our
container. We can put the walls of our container
anywhere inside the gas, and the force per unit area (the
pressure) is the same. We can shrink the size of our
"container" down to a very small point (becoming less
true as we approach the atomic scale), and the pressure
will still have a single value at that point. Therefore,
pressure is a scalar quantity, not a vector quantity. It has
magnitude but no direction sense associated with it.
Pressure acts in all directions at a point inside a gas. At
the surface of a gas, the pressure force acts
perpendicular (at right angle) to the surface.
A closely related quantity is the stress tensor , which
relates the vector force to the vector area via

This tensor may be expressed as the sum of
the viscous stress tensor minus the hydrostatic
pressure. The negative of the stress tensor is
sometimes called the pressure tensor, but in the
following, the term "pressure" will refer only to the
scalar pressure.
According to the theory of general relativity,
pressure increases the strength of a gravitational
field (see stressenergy tensor) and so adds to the
mass-energy cause of gravity. This effect is
unnoticeable at everyday pressures but is significant
in neutron stars, although it has not been
experimentally tested.
[6]

Types[edit]
Fluid pressure[edit]
Fluid pressure is the pressure at some point within
a fluid, such as water or air (for more information
specifically about liquid pressure, see section
below).
Fluid pressure occurs in one of two situations:
1. an open condition, called "open channel
flow"
a. the ocean, or
b. swimming pool, or
c. the atmosphere.
2. a closed condition, called closed conduits
a. water line, or
b. gas line.
Pressure in open conditions usually can be
approximated as the pressure in "static" or non-
moving conditions (even in the ocean where there
are waves and currents), because the motions
create only negligible changes in the pressure. Such
conditions conform with principles of fluid statics.
The pressure at any given point of a non-moving
(static) fluid is called the hydrostatic pressure.
Closed bodies of fluid are either "static", when the
fluid is not moving, or "dynamic", when the fluid can
move as in either a pipe or by compressing an air
gap in a closed container. The pressure in closed
conditions conforms with the principles of fluid
dynamics.
The concepts of fluid pressure are predominantly
attributed to the discoveries of Blaise
Pascal and Daniel Bernoulli. Bernoulli's
equation can be used in almost any situation to
determine the pressure at any point in a fluid. The
equation makes some assumptions about the fluid,
such as the fluid being ideal
[7]
and
incompressible.
[7]
An ideal fluid is a fluid in which
there is no friction, it
is inviscid,
[7]
zero viscosity.
[7]
The equation is written
between any two points a and b in a system that
contain the same fluid.
[8]

where:
p = pressure of the fluid
= g = densityacceleration of gravity = specific weight of the fluid.
[7]

v = velocity of the fluid
g = acceleration of gravity
z = elevation
= pressure head
= velocity head
Applications[e
dit]
Hydraulic
brakes
Artesian
well
Blood
pressure
Hydraulic
head
Plant cell
turgidity
Pythagore
an cup
Explosion or
deflagration
pressures[e
dit]
Explosion or de
flagration press
ures are the
result of the
ignition of
explosive gase
s, mists,
dust/air
suspensions, in
unconfined and
confined
spaces.
Negative
pressures[e
dit]


low pressure
chamber
inBundesleist
ungszentrum
Kienbaum,
Germany
While pressure
s are, in
general,
positive, there
are several
situations in
which negative
pressures may
be
encountered:
When
dealing in
relative
(gauge)
pressures.
For
instance,
an
absolute
pressure of
80 kPa
may be
described
as a gauge
pressure of
21 kPa
(i.e.,
21 kPa
below an
atmospheri
c pressure
of
101 kPa).
When
attractive i
ntermolecu
lar
forces (e.g.
, van der
Waals
forces or h
ydrogen
bonds)
between
the
particles of
a fluid
exceed
repulsive
forces due
to thermal
motion.
These
forces
explain asc
ent of
sap in tall
plants. An
apparent
negative
pressure
must act
on water
molecules
at the top
of any tree
taller than
10 m,
which is
the pressur
e head of
water that
balances
the
atmospheri
c pressure.
Intermolec
ular forces
maintain
cohesion
of columns
of sap that
run
continuous
ly
in xylem fr
om the
roots to the
top leaves.
The Casim
ir
effect can
create a
small
attractive
force due
to
interaction
s
with vacuu
m energy;
this force
is
sometimes
termed
"vacuum
pressure"
(not to be
confused
with the
negative g
auge
pressure of
a vacuum).
Depending
on how the
orientation
of a
surface is
chosen,
the same
distribution
of forces
may be
described
either as a
positive
pressure
along
one surfac
e normal,
or as a
negative
pressure
acting
along the
opposite
surface
normal.
In
the cosmol
ogical
constant.
Stagnation
pressure[edi
t]
Stagnation
pressure is the
pressure a fluid
exerts when it
is forced to stop
moving.
Consequently,
although a fluid
moving at
higher speed
will have a
lower static
pressure, it
may have a
higher
stagnation
pressure when
forced to a
standstill. Static
pressure and
stagnation
pressure are
related by:

where
is the stagnation pressure
is the flow velocity
is the static pressure.
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Continuum mechanics

Laws[show]
Solid mechanics[show]
Fluid mechanics[show]
Rheology[show]
Scientists[show]
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h is height of liquid column or depth within a substance
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[show]
V
T
E
Diving medicine, physiology, physics and environment
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