CE200 Study Guide

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CE 200 - Surveying










Student Study Guide








Prepared by

Dr. Laramie Potts










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Introduction to Surveying


History of Surveys ( 1.3)

o Egyptians - procurement for taxation inventory
o Greeks - develop science of Surveying (through geometry)
o Romans - enhance art of Surveying by developing instrumentation & field
procedures
o Middle Ages - little progress - Arabs kept the art of mapping alive
o 18 & 19
cy
- England and France enhance art due to demands on:
Boundaries of ownership
Location of resources (to exploit & preserve)
o 60-70s - major development in analogue survey equipment (e.g., Theodolite,
Dumpy level, Steel tape)
o 80s present: Space exploration impact Surveying
Instrumentation (e.g., Total Station, etc.,)
Calculation
Solutions to Environmental Issues





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Classification of Surveys

o Plane Surveying
Assume Earth is flat over a limited range
Requires projection to representing surveyed points
Survey is of high resolution
o Geodetic Survey
Approximate Earth by Ellipsoid (mathematically defined shape)
Cartesian Coordinates in Earth Centered Fixed (ECF) frame
Survey is of medium to low resolution
o Spatial Data
Traditional Survey Measurement
Distances (horizontal, vertical, slope)
Angles (vertical & horizontal), Azimuth w.r.t.. True North
Analogue data collection field books etc.,
Geodetic Surveys (Satellite based Observations)
Ranging - from transmitter to receiver (3-d Geometry)
Digital data collection data collector, on-board memory


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Math Review and Field Notes

o Basic formulas in Plane Surveying
Law of Sines:
C
c
B
b
A
a
sin sin sin
= =
Law of Cosines:
C ab b a c cos 2
2 2 2
+ =
Distance S:
cos =
SLOPE HOR
S S , where is the slope angle
Angle: anti-clockwise differencing two directions

i i
r r A
r v
=
+1
, where subscript i refers to the i
th
direction
o Field Notes
Analogue Surveys (traditional)
Hand written in field book
No Erasures, Carbon Copy, Legible, Meteorology
Digital Surveys
Original data in digital form
Requires I/O formatting to optimize Survey output
More information about Surveying, check out http://www.geomatics.net/
a
b
c
C
A
B
r
i+1
r
i
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2.0 Theory of Measurements and Errors
All aspects of surveying computation require thorough understanding of measurement quality,
characteristics, and measurement reductions and corrections.

2.1 Surveying Measurements
Measurements are made (using electronic device or a scale) in specified units
(length = km, m, mm, ft, in, etc)
(angles = deg., gon., min., etc)
to estimate x, the observed quantity of X, where X is the unknown true value.
Measurements are characterized as follows:
all observation have errors
No observation is exact
Errors present are unknown
Therefore we compute the estimate x of the true value X

2.2 Theory of Errors
Definition: Error (e) =: x - X
e.g., observation with scale divided to
10
1
th
facilitates interpolation to
100
1
th

2.2.1 Source of Errors in a measuring system
1. Natural (environment)
2. Instrumental (limitation in manufacturing and/or electronics)
3. personal (limitation in human senses)

2.2.2 Types of Errors
1. Systematic error (biase)
a. Errors introduce from factors comprising the measuring system (i.e.,
environmental, instrumental, personal). For example;
1). a 100-ft tape measures 0.02ft too long - reflects a constant biase
2). Variable temperature differences during tape usage introduce a variable
biase
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2. Random Error
a. Obeys laws of probability. Random errors cannot be eliminated absolutely,
but can be estimated by estimation procedures


2.2.3 Probability and Most Probable Value

Events that happen randomly are governed by mathematical principles referred to as probability
(e.g., flipping a coin, rolling dice, Russian roulette etc.,)

Most Probable Value requires redundancy for estimating its true value X. The most probable
value is defined mathematically as

=
n
i
i
x
n
1

where n is the total number of observations, x is the measurement and i is the measurement
index.

Residual of the observation is defined as
i i
x = , with i=1,,n
Histogram shows the distribution pattern of the measurement

Elements of distribution include the following

Frequency - number of occurrences
Range - [minimum value; maximum value]
Dispersion - D =
min
+
max

Class interval - D/M where M denotes the number of classes (see example in
Table 3.1 and Figure 3.2 given below)



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2.2.4 Precision and Accuracy

a) Discrepancy: The difference () between two observations of the same quantity X
example:
1 2 12
x x x = where x
1
and x
2
are two measurements of X
b) Precision: A small discrepancy between observations of the same quantity X indicates
high precision
c) Accuracy: denotes nearness of observations to their true value X


Example: A 100-ft tape measures 0.05 ft too long. Two measurements of a distance
give results of x
1
=453.270, x
2
=453.272 ft, respectively. We obtain the following
statistics and information:

i. Mean value:
2
2 1
x x +
= = 453.271


ii. Systematic error: 4.53* 0.05 = 0.23 ft



iii. Precision:

12
x
=
000 , 220
1



iv. Accuracy:

biase
=
271 . 453
23 . 0
=
000 , 2
1





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2.3 Review of Statistical Concepts

The Figure below shows a histogram and the distribution curve of the residuals for
measurements given in table 3.1 (Wolf & Ghilani, 06)







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2.3.1 Occurrence of random errors

Standard deviation
1
1
2

=

=
n
n
i
i

where n is the
number of observations.





E
50
= 0.6745
E
90
= 1.6449
E
95
= 1.9599
The Figure below shows the relation between error and percentage of area under the normal
distribution curve














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In-class exercise:
observation x
1
x
2
Residual v
1
Residual v
2
1 205 160
2 255 165
3 195 160
4 220 155
5 235 148
6 222 157
7 198 155
8 215 150
9 230 165
10 240 156

=
1
x

=
2
x

=
1
x
=
2
x

Range = [ ; ] Range = [ ; ]

Dispersion =
1
x
D =
2
x
D
Dispersion =
1
x
=
2
x


C. Int. (for M=11) = C. Int. (for M=11)

E
90
= E
90
=

Plot a histogram, and distribution curve for the observations given in the table above


Size of residuals
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2.3.2 Gaussian (Normal) Distribution of observations (errors)

1-Dimensional normal distribution is the most frequently used distribution in statistical theory
and application. Its density function is give by:

2
2
1
2
1
) (
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
x
x
x
x
e x f

The two parameters that specify the distribution are;

x
= expectation or mean value of X, and
x
= standard deviation of X, ie., the variance
or dispersion of X =
2
x

The cumulative normal distribution function of the standardized random variable
x
x
x
z

= where
x
=0,
x
=1 so that the distribution function is given by

) , 0 ( :
2
1
) (
2
2
D N e dx e x f
x
= =

2-Dimensional normal distribution of a random variable vector (X,Y) is defined by the density
function:

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
] 2 [
2
2
2
2 1
2 1
12
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
) , (
z
z z
z
e y x f

,
where
12
2
2
2
1
= , (
y x
, ) are the means, and (
2 2
,
y x
) are the variances (dispersions) of
(X,Y), respectively.




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3.0 Leveling: Theory and Methods


Basic terms in leveling
Vertical line: A line that follows the local direction of gravity vector
Horizontal line: A line perpendicular to the local direction of the gravity vector
Level Surface: A curved surface that local plumb line. A still body of water is best
example of a level surface. Level surfaces are known as equipotential surfaces.
Globally, a level surface approximates a spheroid. Locally, two level surfaces at
different elevation are considered concentric.
Elevation: The distance measured along a vertical line from a refrerence (datum) to a
point
Vertical Datum: Any level surface to which elevation is referred. North American
Vertical Datum 1929 (NAVD29), North American Vertical Datum 1988 (NAVD88).
Established by network of benchmarks tied to tide gauges. NAVD29 tied to 26 tide
gauges -> described MSL. NAVD88 tied to 1 TG (not describe MSL)
Mean Sea Level (MSL): The average height of the seas surface for all stages of the
tide over a 19-year period. It was derived from hourly readings at 26 TG along the
Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf of Mexico coaist of USA.
Z

B
AB
H
Local horizon
through B
Level Surface
MSL
A
Reference Ellipsoid
Surface
A
H
Geoid
Figure 3.1: Leveling
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Geoid: An equipotential surfacec that gobally approximates mean sea level
Leveling: The process of finding elevation of points or the process of finding elevation
differences between points.
Vertical Control: A series of points of known elevation established throughout an area.
Control networks are ranked according to pre-determined accuracy standards. [Zero
Order, First Order, Second Order, Third Order., etc]

3.1 Differential leveling

Notation: BS: Back sight, FS = Foresight (station ahead in the direction of the forward leveling
loop)


In general, the elevation difference between points A and B is given as
FS BS AB
h h H = , where h is the stadia reading on the level rod.
=3.24-0.54 = 2.80 m
Then the elevation of point B is given as follows;
AB A B
H H H + = = 820.00 +2.80 = 822.80 m above the reference (mean sea level)
B
0.54
Datum Elevation = 0
Reference Level Surface
F
S
B
S

A
Level surface thru A
3.24
Level surface thru A
820.00m
Figure 3.2: Differential leveling and procedures
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3.1.1. Leveling Loop
A general procedure is to start at a point of known elevation, called a bench mark (BM).
The first reading is a back-sight (BS), taken on the established BM. The next reading taken is
the foresight (FS), in the forward moving direction of the leveling route. Fore-sight readings
taken at intermediate points are called turning points, also labeled TP. At every setup along the
leveling route, alternating BS and FS readings are taken until the final reading is taken on
another BM. The final reading is a FS.
Height differences between points are:
FS BS
AB
=

Height of Instrument (HI):
HI = ELEV
BM
+ BS,
or at intermediate points
HI
TP
= ELEV
TP
+ BS
TP


In any leveling loop (circuit), accumulated errors (systematic errors) will result in a small
difference in the computed elevation of the closing bench mark. This difference is called

3.1.2 Leveling Loop Misclosure

The misclosure C
e
is defined as
COMP
BM
GIVEN
BM e
H H C =

Any level loop will have a misclosure. The magnitude of the misclosure provides a basis to
compute a correction to each observation. By applying corrections to the observation, the
computed elevations of all intermediate points are adjusted. These adjusted elevations are
considered final elevations. Below is an example of a level circuit from the benchmark Mill to
Oak and back to Mill. The back leveling loop follows a different route than the forward loop.



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The following example is given in Figure 5.5 of Worlf and Ghilani (2006)


Station BS (+) H.I. FS(-) Elevation Adj. Elev.

BM Mill 1.33 2053.18 2053.18
2054.51
TP1 0.22 8.37 2046.14 (-.004) 2046.14
2046.36
TP2 0.96 7.91 2038.45 (-.008) 2038.44
2039.41
TP3 0.46 11.72 2027.69 (-.012) 2027.68
2028.15
BM OAK 11.95 8.71 2019.44 (-.016) 2019.42
2031.39
TP4 12.55 2.61 2028.78 (-.020) 2028.76
2041.33
TP5 12.77 0.68 2040.65 (-.024) 2040.62
2053.42
BM Mill 0.21 2053.21 (-.028) 2053.18
= +40.24 =-40.21
Page Check: 2053.18 + 40.24 = 2093.42
2093.42 - 40.21 = 2053.21 check
Misclosure C
e
: 2053.18 - 2053.21 = -0.03
Adjustment: =
setups no
misclosure
.
=
7
03 . 0
= -0.0043
Correction per setup = c = * setup
i
; For example at setup # 2 c= -0.0043*2 = -0.0086




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3.1.3 Leveling Computation

In-class example (Exercise 5.15 Wolf & Ghilani)
A differential leveling loop started and closed on BM Juno, elevation 2485.19 ft. The
backsight(-) and foresight (+) distances were kept approximately equal. Readings (in feet)
listed in order taken are 5.49 (BS), 3.46 (FS), 8.48 (BS), 5.34 (FS), 6.51 (BS), 8.27 (FS) 4.03
(BS), 9.46 (FS), 7.89 (BS) and 5.92 (FS). Prepare, check and adjust the notes.

Station BS (+) H.I. FS(-) Elevation Adj. Elev.

BM Juno 5.49 2485.19

TP1 8.48 3.46

TP2 6.51 5.34

TP3 4.03 8.27

TP4 7.89 9.46

BM Juno 5.92

= =
Page Check:

Misclosure C
e
:
Adjustment: =
setups no
misclosure
.
=



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3.2 Source of errors (Also see section 5.12)

1. Instrumental Errors (Systematic): Collimation error, Alignment, Rod Graduations,
Tripod maladjustments.
2. Natural Errors (Systematic & Random): Earth curvature, Refraction, Thermal effects
and wind, Instrument settling
3. Personal Errors (Systematic & Blunders): Bubble not centered, Parallax, Faulty rod
readings


3.2.1 Reductions and Corrections to Survey Measurements

Q. What observation procedure reduce/eliminate the collimation error?

Curvature of Earth, C
m
,in meters, is given by
C
m
= 0.0785 K
2
, where K is distance in km
Refraction, R
m
, is given by
R
m
=
H
T

3
10 22 . 1 ( tests at msl shows 1 . 0 =

H
T
)
Combined curvature and refraction effect:
(C
m+
R
m)
= 0.0675 K
2

3.2.2 Precision

Precision is the allowable discrepancy between the computed elevation and the fixed elevation.
Formula by FGCS is
C = K m C
mm
= where K is the total length of the leveling route in kilometers and m is
a constant.



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Table: Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee (FGCS) recommendation)
m Order Class
4 O1 I
5 O1 II
6 O2 I
8 O2 II
12 O3


3.3 Three-Wire Leveling and Adjustments (See Figure 5.9 W/G)
3-wire leveling has several advantages over
1. check against rod blunders
2. greater accuracy by averaging three observations
3. furnish sight lengths

3.4 Profile (See W/G section 5.9)
Purpose of profile plots:
1. Determine depth of cut-fill for Engineering projects
2. Studying grade-crossing problems
3. Investigate & select most economical route for pipelines, tunnels etc.,
4. Estimating gradients
Definition: Gradient is the rise (fall) in feet per 100-ft.
2.5% gradient means 2.5 ft elevation difference per 100 ft
horizontal separation


3.5 Barometric Leveling: Using an instrument that measured pressure (air, water, etc.,) to find
relative elevations.



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3.6 Trigonometric leveling:
This approach is best suited for long lines over undulating topography.



Using basic trigonometric relationships, the slope distance S
S
and height of the reflector, h
r
,
observations obtain various elevation differences;
r H AB
S S IR
h HI S H
Z S S V H
+ =
= = =

tan
cos sin







Z

B
AB
H
V
h
r

Horizontal
S
S

S
H

HI
A
Figure 3.3: Trigonometric leveling
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4.0 Survey Measurements


Basic surveying measurements include measuring distances and angles between points

4.1. Distance Measurements

Measured lines are horizontal distances between two points. Several distance measuring
include the following methods

1. pacing : counting steps (calibrated) to detect blunders

2. Odometer: converts number of revolutions of a wheel of known radius
200
S
S
where
S is the measured length along the ground and is given by Rn S 2 = where n is the
number of revolutions


Q: What is the horizontal distance measured by 20 odometer revolutions up a slope of
12
o
for an odometer with radius of 6 inches?





3. Taping: Six steps mentioned in W/G p130


4. Optical rangefinder:
governing equations:
2 1
1 1 1
f f f
+ =
The instrument solves for the object distance f
2
given the focal length f and the image
distance f
1

150
S
S
for S up to 150 ft


Disadvantage:

1. Requires adequate lighting
2. Time required to measure is long
3. Subjectivity associated with focusing optics



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5. Tacheometer (stadia)


Stadia measures the horizontal distance and the elevation of a point
C I K S + = where I is the stadia interval
constant K = 100 (manufacturer specified)
biase C0
500
S
S


6. Subtense Bar:


An indirect distance measuring procedure obtain S by measuring the angle



D is the fixed distance between
targets on the bar (typically 4-m
long)




S is the deduced
horizontal distance from the
center of the bar to the transit






Measurements involves conversion of horizontal angles between target precisely spaced and at
a fixed distance apart on a subtense bar


Q. a) What is the horizontal distance measured by a 4-ft subtense bar with an
angle subtended of 1
o





b) Same as before but with the subtense bar 15ft higher in elevation then the
theodolite (transit)?

S
D
transit
target
Figure 4.1: Subtense bar measurement systems
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7. Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) Device

Distance measurements are based on the rate and manner by which electromagnetic energy
propogates through the atmosphere. The basic equation for the rate of propagation is
n
c
V =
where c is the velocity of electromagnetic energy in a vacuum (=299,792,458 m.s
-1
), n is
the atmospheric refraction index

The temperature, atmospheric pressure, and relative humidity all have an effect on n

The group index of refraction (for standard air):
4 2
06800 . 0 88660 . 4
6155 . 287

+ + =
g
N

Where is the wavelength in m

Actual group refractive index for atmosphere :
6
10
27 . 11
25 . 1013
1

(

+
+ =
b t
e
b t
P N
b
n
g
a
,
where

b = 273.15 ( a constant)
e = partial water vapor pressure (hPa)
100
h
E =

7858 . 0
5 . 7
10
+
+
=
=
b t
t
E

h = relative humidity (%)
P = pressure in hPa
t = try-bulb temperature in
o
C

7.1. Principle of EDM
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Distance is given by the following relation:
( )
2
+
=
n
S , where is the phase shift and given as;
m
RAD
m

+
|
.
|

\
|
=
2




S
Reflector
EDM
Figure 4.2: Electronic Distance measurement

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From Statistics & Data Analysis in Geology by John C. Davis (1985)





Reduction of Short lines


Elevation difference:

( ) ( )
r B i A
h H h H H + + =


2 2
H S S
S H
=


Zenith (or vertical) angle

Z S S
S H
sin =
Z

B
H
h
r

Horizontal
S
S

S
H

h
i

A
Figure 4.3 EDM leveling
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r i H
h h S H + = tan

Errors in EDM measurements:
= const + proportionality factor ( 10 ppm =
000 , 000 , 1
10
)
the 1
st
part is ( mm) and the 2
nd
part is in (ppm)
2
1
2 2 2 2
] ) ( [
L c r i S
S ppm E E E E + + + =
Where E
i
is mis-centering of instrument
E
r
is mis-centering of rod
E
c
is slope offset error
S
L
is slope distance
ppm is specified scalar error for EDM

Further reading: See section 6.24 in W/G

4.2 Angles, Azimuth and Bearings

Directions are given by azimuth or bearing. Angles measured in Surveying are either horizontal
or vertical angles. Angles are direct measurements using a transit or total station.

4.2.1 Angles: are directly measured in the field using as transit or theodolite
Units degrees ( ) minutes (') and seconds (")
Example 5.5

= 5 30' 00"
Angles to the right measure clockwise from the back (rear) station to the forward
station.
Sum of all interior angles of closed polygon = (n-2)*180 where n is the number of
angles
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Ex. Boundary surveys are examples of closed polygons.



4.2.2 Direction of a line is defined as the horizontal angle between the meridian and the line to
a point object
Geodetic meridian: N-S line passing through the average position of Earths
geographic poles.
Astronomic meridian: N-S line passing through the instantaneous position of the
Earths geographic poles.
Magnetic Meridian: is defined by a freely suspended magnetic needle that is
only influenced by the Earths magnetic field

4.2.3 Azimuth (A
Z
) of a line is the horizontal angle measured clockwise from any reference
meridian (RM). A
z
can be read directly from a graduated circle in a total station that is oriented
w.r.t. true north


A
ZB
= 125






4.2.4 Bearing (B
Z
) of a line is the acute
horizontal angle between a reference meridian
and the line
B
ZA
= N50E



T N
120
215
A
B
Figure 4.4: Azimuth of line
T N
50
45
A
B
Figure 4.5 : Showing bearing of lines
C
35
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B
ZB
= S35E



B
ZC
= S45W


Q. What is the bearing of A
Z
= 12813'46"



(NB: Its always a good idea to draw a sketch)


Computing Azimuth and angles:

A
Z
(A-B)
= 81

A
Z
(B-A)
= 81+180 = 261

Angle ABC=350 261 = 89










Computing Bearing and angles:



A
Z
(B-A)
= 81+180 = 261

A
Z
(B-C)
= 261+89 = 350

B
Z
(B-C)
= N10W

(also from the sketch)



T N
81
A
Figure 4.6: Showing Azimuth and direction
C
261
B
350
T N
T N
81
A
Figure 4.7: Showing bearing and direction
C
10
B
81
89
T N
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5.0 Traverse and Traverse Computation

5.1. Instrumentation and Observations ( 8.4)


5.1.1 Parts of the total station instrumentation (TSI) ( 8.4)

Tribrach with optical plummet (laser) enable centering accurately over station


Micrometer facilitates the following operations:
Instantaneous horizontal circle zeroing
Repetitive measurements done easily
Increase overall speed of survey operations

Servo-driven & remote operation
Useful in construction stake out (i.e., computer retrieves coordinates from
database)
Remote Positioning Unit (RPU) uses built-in telemetry link for communication

Observations with a TSI include electronic distance measuring (EDM) and angle measurement

5.1.2 EDM observations

As discussed previously, the Distance measured by the EDM is given by
( )
2
+
=
n
S , where is the phase shift
Important meteorological observations must be made for later processing and reduction of
distances.

5.1.3 Angle observations

A mathematical relationship for angles and distances are:




R S =



R
S

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Where S is the arc length subtended at a distance R by an arc of (in radians)
Radian = 8 . 4 20626 2958 . 57
180
2
360
= = =
o
o o



5.1.3.1 Horizontal measurement and adjustment


Assume the TSI is oriented where the Refering Object
(RO) is located due north of the station setup. With the
circle in the direct position, the observations proceed in the
clockwise direction from RO, T1, T2 and close on RO
again.

Flip the telescope and sight on RO. This operation sets the
circle readings in the reverse position. Read the circle
readings for sighting on the RO, T2, T1, and close on the
RO. A sample field book is shown below


Table 1: Sample field book entries for horizontal observations and adjustment
Station Direct Reverse Average Adjusted

RO 0 00' 25" 180 00' 15" 20" 0 00' 20"
T1 30 15' 36" 210 15' 30" 33"
(+1")
30 15' 34"
T2 227 45' 37" 47 45' 43" 40"
(+3")
227 45' 43"
RO 0 00' 20" 180 00' 10" 15"
(+5")


The adjustments, as shown above, are made to remove the collimation error in the horizontal
observations

5.1.3.2 Vertical (Zenith) angle observations and adjustments

Table 2: Sample field book entries for vertical (zenith angle) observations adjustment
Station Direct Reverse Sum Adjusted

RO
T1 92 37' 14" 267 12' 50" 64"
(-4/2)"
92 37' 12"
T2 89 59' 45" 270 00' 13" 58"
(+2/2)"
89 59' 46"
RO

A vertical angle is the angle above or below the horizontal plane through the observation point.
Direct face (face Left): Z =
o
90
Reverse face (face right):
o
270 = Z
R.O.
TSI
T1
T2
Figure 5.1: Horizontal direction
(angle) measurements
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An index error exists when the TSI 0 circle setting in the direct face position does not
coincide with the true zenith. In general we write a relation for the index error (
index
):
n
Z Z n
REV DIR
index
2
) ( 360 +
=
o
, where n is the number of Z
DIR
and Z
REV
pairs
5.2 Trigonometric Leveling with TSI ( 8.18)

Limitations in accuracy, compared to
differential leveling, are due to
instrumental error and effect of
refraction


Advantage of trigonometric leveling
with TSI over differential leveling is
the speed of operation over rough
terrain


5.3 Sources of error in TSI fieldwork ( 8.20)

Instrumental: -Vertical axis not to plate level vial
-Horizontal axis not to vertical axis
-Axis of line of sight not to horizontal axis

Environmental: -Wind causes instrument vibrations
-Unequal refraction keep sights well above ground
-Tripod uneven settling

Personal: -Mis-centering over a survey point
-Poor and improper focusing
-Careless plumbing and rod placement on survey points

5.4 Traversing

Field procedures consist of a series of consecutive direction and distances measurements.
Closed: i) polygon configuration where lines return to the starting point
ii) link configuration where the endpoint is a known station

Open: traverse terminates on an unchecked point or a point of lesser order
accuracy than the starting point (Q: Why avoid open traverses?)

5.4.1 Methods to obtain traverse line directions:

1. interior angles (used in boundary surveys)
2 3 4 5 6
1
Angular accuracy (")
M
a
x
i
m
u
m

S
i
g
h
t

(
m
)


100
200
300
CE200 Study Guide
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2. angles to the right (used by data collections)
3. deflection angles (used in route surveys)
4. azimuths (used in TSI when properly oriented w.r.t true north)

To perform traverse computations it is generally a good idea to convert the above type of
field observations to directions.
5.4.2 Methods to obtain traverse line distance:

1. steel tape (apply appropriate reductions and field precautions)
2. subtense bar (limited accuracy over long distances)
3. EDM (apply appropriate meteorological corrections)
4. Other methods as discussed before

5.4.3 Selection of traverse stations (9.4)

Important criteria used to select traverse stations include the following
1. ensure accuracy of measurements
2. ensure optimal sighting lengths
3. ensure optimal utility (GPSABLE???)

5.4.4 Source of error in Traversing (9.10)

1. poor station selection
2. errors in measurements
3. errors in field operations and procedures

5.4.5 Mistakes in Traversing (9.11)

1. occupy the wrong stations
2. incorrect orientation
3.

5.5 Traverse Computation

Departures and Latitude (a.k.a.
Forward problem) is used to
compute the consecutive position
of surveyed point along the
traverse route.

Departure of a line (point) of its
orthographic projection onto the
E-W axis.

TN
A
B
C
Figure 5.2: Traverse measurement for departures and latitudes

AB

X
Departure

Y

L
a
t
i
t
u
d
e

E (X)
N(Y)
S
AB
S
BC

BC

O
CE200 Study Guide
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Latitude of a line (point) is its orthographic projection onto the N-S axis.

is the measured azimuth (A) of the line AB (A
AZ
)

cos
sin
S Y
S X
=
=


5.5.1 Closure condition for traverses

Linear misclosure
2 2
dy dx
L
+ = where dx is the misclosure in departure and dy is the
latitude misclosure
Relative precision = linear misclosure /traverse length S
=

=
+
n
i
i
S
dy dx
1
2 2
where n is the number if traverse legs
5.5.2 Traverse Adjustments

The Compass (Bowditch) rule adjusts the Xs and Ys of the traverse legs appropriately.

Adjustment for the departure (or X) components:
AB n
i
i
n
i
i
AB
S
S
dx
dx =

=
=
1
1


Adjustment for the latitude (or Y) components:
AB n
i
i
n
i
i
AB
S
S
dy
dy =

=
=
1
1



Example
:











1551'54"
720.35
28435'20"
610.24
12655'17"
647.25
17818'58"
203.03
20609'42"
285.13
5,000.00 N(Y)
10,000.00 E(X)
23417'18"
E
C
D
B
A
W
N(Y)
Figure 5.4: Polygon traverse points with directions and distances measured
CE200 Study Guide
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Unadjusted Balanced Coordinates

Station A
z
S
i
X Y X Y E(X) N(Y)


A (-.007) (-.020) 10,000.00 5,000.00
126 55' 17" 647.25 517.451 -388.815 517.440 -388.835

B (-.002) (-.006) 10,517.44 4611.16
178 18' 58" 203.03 5.966 -202.942 5.964 -202.948

C (-.008) (-.023) 10,523.41 4408.22
15 31' 54" 720.35 192.889 694.045 192.881 694.022

D (-.006) (-.019) 10,716.29 5102.24
284 35' 20" 610.24 -590.565 153.708 -590.571 153.689

E (-.003) (-.009) 10,125.72 5255.93
206 09' 42" 285.13 -125.715 -255.919 -125.718 -255.928

A 10,000.00 5,000.00

=2466.00 =0.026 =0.077 = 0 = 0

Corrections in departures and latitudes are as follows;

003 . 0 13 . 285
2466
026 . 0
= =
EA
dx , and 009 . 0 13 . 285
2466
077 . 0
= =
EA
dy
Linear misclosure: ft dy dx
L
081 . 0 077 . 0 026 . 0
2 2 2 2
= + = + =
Relative precision:
000 , 30
1
2466
081 . 0
1
2 2
= =
+

=
n
i
i
S
dy dx


5.5.3 Rectangular Coordinates (10.8)

In surveying, the to the X-Y axis is oriented such that the Y-axis point N-S with North in the
+ve Y-direction. The X-axis runs E-W with East in the +ve direction


Coordinates are useful for the following reasons:

1. Determine lengths and directions (inverse problem)
2. Calculate areas of the land parcel
3. Curve computations
4. Locating inaccessible points
5. plotting map features

CE200 Study Guide
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Hence, given X
A
,Y
A
, S
AB
and A
AB
we can compute departures and latitude to obtain X
B
,Y
B
.
Specifically,
AB AB A B
AB AB A B
A S Y Y
A S X X
cos
sin
+ =
+ =


5.6 The inverse Problem

Given X
A
,Y
A
and X
B
,Y
B
find S
AB
and A
AB
:

For Figure 5.3, we write the following

|
|
.
|

\
|

A B
A B
AB
A B
A B
AB
Y Y
X X
A
Y Y
X X
A
1
tan
tan

and the distance AB is given by

( ) ( )
2 2
A B A B AB
Y Y X X S + =

5.7 Mistakes in Traverse adjustments (see 10.17)









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6.0 Coordinate Geometry

Review the basic trigonometric formulae


6.1 Equation of Line ( 11.2)

( ) ( ) | |
| |
2
1
2 2
2
1
2 2
AB AB
A B A B
P
y x AB
y y x x AB
C mx y
+ =
+ =
+ =


Azimuth from point to point B is given by

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

AB
AB
AB
y
x
A
1
tan where

=
0 ; 0 360
0 180
0 ; 0
f p a
p a
f a
o
o
AB AB
AB
AB AB
y x
y
y x


Slope m of the line is given by


AB
AB
x
y
m

=
NB: m A
AB
in general. [prove +
|
.
|

\
|
=

m
A
AB
1
tan
1
]


Q. Given (x
A
, y
A
) = (1130.52, 930.71) and (x
B
, y
B
) =(1432.92, 501.55), compute A
AB
and the
slope m










A
Figure 6.1: Point on a line
B
P
X
Y
A
AB
(x
A
,y
A
)
(x
B
,y
B
)

y
A
B


x
AB

C
CE200 Study Guide
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6.2 Perpendicular distance from a point to a line ( 11.3)

Application:
A. Check alignment - e.g., of survey markers
on a block
B. Subdivision design
C. Position in-accessible point
D. other

Given (x
A
, y
A
), (x
B
, y
B
) and (x
C
, y
C
), find the
length of PC
Steps:
1. Compute A
AP

2. Compute A
AB

3. Compute offset angle
4. Compute length AP
5. Compute PC = AP sin

Example: Using Figure 6.2, the following coordinates pairs of P (1123.82, 509.41), A (865.49,
416.73), and B (1557.41, 669.09). What is the perpendicular distance from P to the line AB?

Answer:
4 . 49 5 1 70
68 . 92
33 . 258
tan
73 . 416 41 . 509
49 . 865 82 . 1123
tan tan
1 1 1
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
o
AB
AB
AP
y
x
A
2 4 7 5 69
73 . 416 09 . 669
49 . 865 41 . 1557
tan
1
=
|
.
|

\
|

=
o
AB
A
4 . 07 8 1 0 2 4 7 5 69 4 . 49 5 1 70 = =
o o o

| |
( ) ( ) | | ft AP
y x AP
AP AP
45 . 274 73 . 416 41 . 509 40 . 865 82 . 1123
2
1
2 2
2
1
2 2
= + =
+ =


ft PC 866 . 0 ) 4 . 07 8 1 0 sin( 45 . 274 = =
o










A
Figure 6.2: Offset distance
C
X
Y
A
B (x
B
,y
B
)
P (x
B
,y
B
)

T.N
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6.3 Intersection ( 11.4)

Intersection is for determining the location of an
unknown point P by using direction (Azimuth) from
two or more fixed (known) stations

Ex., Given directions AP (A
AP
) and BP observed
from fixed station A and B respectively. Determine
the position (x
P
, y
P
) of point P.

Steps:
1. Compute AB and A
AB

2. Compute angle P A

B and P B

A
3. Use law of sines to compute AP and BP
4. use length AP and A
AP
to compute P(x, y)
from A
5. use length BPand A
BP
to compute P(x, y) from B

Example: Given the following coordinates for points A and B, compute the intersection point P

(x
A
, y
A
) = (1425.07, 1971.28) and azimuth from A to P
A
AP
= 76 04' 24"
(x
B
, y
B
) = (7484.80, 5209.64) and azimuth from A to P
A
BP
= 141 30' 16"

| | ( ) ( ) | | 757 . 6870 28 . 1971 64 . 5209 07 . 1425 80 . 7484
2
1
2 2
2
1
2 2
= + = + =
AB AB
y x AB
8 . 46 2 5 61
36 . 3238
73 . 6059
tan tan
1 1
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
o
AB
AB
AB
y
x
A
2 . 37 1 1 14 8 . 46 2 5 61 4 2 4 0 76

= =
o o o
B A P
8 . 46 2 5 241 8 . 46 2 5 61 180 = + =
o o o
BA
A
8 . 30 2 2 100 6 1 0 3 141 8 . 46 2 5 241

= =
o o o
A B P
( ) 2 5 5 2 65 8 . 30 2 2 100 2 . 37 1 1 14 180

= + =
o o o o
B P A

ft AP 224 . 7431
2 5 5 2 65 sin
8 . 30 2 2 100 sin
757 . 6870 =
|
|
.
|

\
|


=
o
o

83 . 3759 4 2 4 0 76 cos 7431 28 . 1971 cos
85 . 8637 4 2 4 0 76 sin 7431 07 . 1425 sin
= + = + =
= + = + =
o
o
AP A P
AP A P
A AP y y
A AP x x


T.N
A
Figure 6.3: Intersection (Forward Problem)
B
P
X
Y
A
AP
CE200 Study Guide
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Check
=
|
|
.
|

\
|


=
2 5 5 2 65 sin
2 . 37 1 1 14 sin
757 . 6870
o
o
BP
= + =
= + =
BP B P
BP B P
A BP y y
A BP x x
cos
sin

6.4 Resection ( 11.7)

Resection establishes the position (x, y) of the unknown occupied point P by measuring
horizontal angles to three or more fixed and visible stations

Example: Given (x
A
, y
A
), (x
B
, y
B
) and (x
C
, y
C
), and the measured angles
1
and
2
at station P,
find the intersection point P (x
P
, y
P
)

The main problem is to solve first for
the orientation (azimuth) correction.
Then apply the orientation correction
to the angles to obtain the directions
w.r.t. true north






Steps:
1.
( ) )

( 360

360

180 ) 2 ( '
2 1
2 1


+ + = +
= + + + +
=

B C A
C B A
n s
o
o
o

2.
(

+ +
+
=

)

cos( sin sin
)

sin( sin
tan

1 2
1 1
C A BC AB
C A BC
A


(eq. 11.27 W/G)

(
(

+ +
+
=

)

cos( sin sin
)

sin( sin
tan

2 1
2 1
C A AB BC
C A AB
C


(eq. 11.28 W/G)
3. In triangle 1:
A A A
ABP A A
A ABP
AB AP
BA BP

( 180
1
+ =
=
+ =
o

Use law of sine to compute AP and BP
Compute latitude and departures of P from A
Compute latitude and departures of P from B ( check)
4. repeat step 3 for triangle 2


T.N
A
Figure 6.4: Resection (Inverse Problem)
C
P
X
Y

B

1

2

1 2
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6.5 Two-Dimensional Coordinate Transformation ( 11.8)

Coordinate transformations are used to convert
point positions from one survey coordinate
system to another. A conformal transformation
preserves angles.
Minimal requirements for transformation is
two points (a.k.a. control points) in both
coordinate systems

Steps
1. Rotate the coordinate axis by amount
2. determine the scale factor between the
two systems
3. determine the amount of shift
(translation) between the two systems
origins

= where the azimuth
AB
A = is in the
x'y' system and
AB
A = is the azimuth in the XY system.
Scale factor
| |
| |
AB
AB
AB AB
AB AB
s
S
y x
Y X
s

=
+
+
=
2
1
2 2
2
1
2 2

Translation (shift) is given as
A A y
A A x
y Y T
x X T
=
=


Rotation is given by


cos sin
sin cos
A A A
A A A
y s x s Y
y s x s X
=
=
=
(

A
A
R
y
x
s
4 4 3 4 4 2 1


cos sin
sin cos

Hence we write the following;
y A
x A
T Y N
T X E
+ =
+ =
;
(

+
(

=
(

y
x
A
A
T
T
y
x
R s
N
E


6.7 Computing Area by Coordinates ( 12.5)

For cosed polygons, such as obtained by traversing around a property or digitizing parcels from
a map.
Procedures involves projecting nodes perpendicular to the Y-axis to form a series of trapezoids
and triangles (See Figure 12.4 in W/G)

A
Figure 6.5: Coordinate Transformation
B
X
Y

x'
A
x'
B

y'
A
y'
B
X
A
X
B

Y
B
Y
A
x'
y'
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Useful formula to compute the area of a closed polygon given the coordinate pairs (x, y) of all
the corner points of the polygon:


2 Area = X
A
Y
B
+ X
B
Y
C
+ X
C
Y
D
+ X
D
Y
A

-(X
B
Y
A
+ X
C
Y
B
+ X
D
Y
C
+ X
A
Y
D
)

Visual arrangement














Area of the shaded trapezoid:


( )
( )
D D E D D E E E
D E
D E
y x y x y x y x
y y
x x
c
b a
+ =

+
=

|
.
|

\
| +
=
2
1
2
2







Total area = 0.5[ x
A
y
B
+ x
B
y
C
+ x
C
y
D
+ x
D
y
A

-(x
B
y
A
+ x
C
y
B
+ x
D
y
C
+ x
A
y
D
)]






X
A
Y
A


X
B
Y
B


X
C
Y
C


X
D
Y
D


X
A
Y
A

A
Figure 6.6: Area Computation using coordinates
D
E
X
Y
C
B
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Example (12.3 W/G)

Given (x, y) coordinate pairs of a closed polygon as shown in Figure 7.6, compute the area of
the polygon.















Shift all coordinates by T
x
=10,000.00 and T
y
=4408.22 so that coordinate axes are defined by
x'y'

(-ve) x*y Station x y (+ve) x*y

A 0.0 591.78

306,211 B 517.44 202.94 0.0

106,221 C 523.41 0.0 0.0

0 D 716.29 694.02 363,257

87,252 E 125.75 847.71 607,206

0 A 0 591.78 74,398

=499,684 =1,044,861


Area = 0.5(1,044,861-499,684) = 272,588 ft
2
and Area
C AREA
= 2 , where
C
is the uncertainty in the coordinates
Station X Y

A 10,000.00 5,000.00

B 10,517.44 4611.16

C 10,523.41 4408.22

D 10,716.29 5102.24

E 10,125.75 5255.93

Figure 6.7: Area Computation using coordinates
X
Y
T
X
T
Y

y'
x'
D
B
A
C
E
CE200 Study Guide
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7.0 Topographic Surveys

To determine natural and cultural features on the Earths surface and to define the relief on that
surface
Natural features: Vegetation, rivers, lakes etc., (shown by map symbols, lines)
Artificial features: Roads, railroads, buildings etc., (shown by symbols)
Relief: Hills, valleys etc., (shown by contours, digital elevation model, etc.)


7.01 Map scale ( 16.3)
Is the ratio of length of mapped object (features) to its true length on the ground.
3 ways that map scale can be shown;
1. Ratio (1:2000) Note: same units apply
2. Equivalence i.e., 1in 200 ft
3. Bar Scale (graphic on the map)
Choice of scale depends on the following
Purpose of the finished map
Size of the finished map
Precision of the map


7.02 Classification of Map scale

Large scale (required high accuracy) e.g., subdivision
Medium scale (moderate accuracy) for preliminary planning
Small scale (lower accuracy suffice) for large areas

Map scale dictates the accuracy with which features must be surveyed.
Ex: For 1in = 20ft (1/20) and scaling distance x within 1/50 th inch gives a scaling error of
0.4 ft
ft 4 . 0
50
1
20 =


7.03 Survey Control for Topographical Surveys ( 16.4)

Horizontal control (by traversing, triangulation, GPS) is provided by two or more (semi)
permanent monuments and precisely fixed/referenced to the state plane coordinates (SPC)

Vertical control (fixed by differential or trigonometric leveling) is provided by benchmarks that
are required to reference a survey to a vertical datum.

Note: Any errors in the control points will propagate to the details on the map. Therefore, first
adjust the control points/network position before locating map details on the map.


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7.04 Depicting Relief ( 16.5-16.8)

Contours are defined as a line connecting points of equal elevation.

Some characteristics of contours:
Must close
Perpendicular to slope
Distance between contours indicate steepness of slope
Irregular contours signify rough/rugged terrain

Spot elevation (represented by a cross mark) indicates elevation of critical points such as peaks,
highway crossing etc.

7.05 Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

3-D arrays of x, y, z-triplet provides digital representation of continuous variation of relief in
the form of a grid.
Advantage: facilitates computer generated contouring
Disadvantage: critical high/low points may not coincide with grid points.

7.0.6 Triangular Irregular Network (TIN)

TIN is constructed by connecting points in an array to create a network of adjoining triangles.
Required critical information such as breaklines or faultlines
Advantage: improved representation of relief compared to DEM
Disadvantage: algorithm-driven contouring based on incorrect assumptions result in
erroneous relief representation

7.2 Maps and Map Design ( 17)

Maps are visual expressions/representation of a portion of the Earths surface. It can also be
considered a communication tool for conveying spatial relationships of mapped features

Three basic elements of a map include;
Points
Lines
Blank spaces

Digital maps can be stored, analyzed, modified, enlarges (reduced), in scale and contour
intervals changed in digital form.

Digital maps are essential in development and operation of Land Information Systems (LIS),
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for storage, retrieval, manipulation, merging, analysis,
and display of geospatial data.


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7.2.1. Accuracy Standards of Mapping ( 17.4)

A) National Mapping Accuracy Standards (NAMS) specification for hard-copy maps

Horizontal (positional) accuracy:
For map of 1:20,000 and larger; no greater than 10% of well-defined points will have
errors greater than 1/30 inch (0.8mm)
On maps with smaller scales than 1:20,000 error not greater 1/50 in (0.5mm) e.g., for
scale 1in=200ft then the error limit is: 200*1/30=6.67ft

Vertical accuracy: defined in terms of contour interval (CI)
Class I: RMS error of well-defined points not greater than 1/3 CI
ClassII: RMS error of well-defined points greater than 2/3 CI

B) National Mapping Accuracy Standards (NAMS) specification for digital maps specifies
95% confidence for;
Coordinates of points
Distances
Elevations
Implementation of these standards on digital map products carry confirmation statements
regarding accuracy validation.

7.2.2 Map Design

Effective map design follows to explicitly important criteria/questions:

Purpose
Audience

Effectiveness of map design (and, hence communication) requires:

1) Clarity: - communicate completely and unambiguously
2) Order: - hierarchy to direct the readers eye
3) Balance: - map elements weighted around the visual center of the map
4) Contrast: - line type & lettering should enhance clarity
5) Unity: - avoid conflicts such as background color (eg., bad power-point slides)
6) Harmony: - avoid too many different font & few overbearing symbols

7.2.3 Map Layout

1) centering
2) alignment (w.r.t. cardinal directions)


7.3 Photogrammetry

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Photogrammetry is the art and science if obtaining reliable geospatial information from
photographs. Two components:

Metrical determine
spatial relationship (i.e.,
distance, triangle,
height differences) from
measurements made on
the photographs
Interpretive recognize
and judge the
significance of
photographic images

7.3.1 Principles of
Photogrammetry ( 27.6-27.8)

Photogrammetry involves the
application of perspective
geometry which, in turn,
involves the characteristics of
the optics such as focal length.
The camera focal length (f) is pre-defined for the specific application of the photographic
system.

Two coordinate systems:

Ground system: The X-Y axes define the coordinate system either local of regional fixed. Point
O, in the datum plane, is the origin of the coordinate system, Point A is located at (X
A
, Y
A
)

Photographic Systems: The x-y axes defined by the fiducial marks, define the photographic
system. The origin o' corresponds to the point O in the datum plane. Point a in the photograph
is located at x
a
, y
a.

7.3.2 Ground Coordinates from a single photograph

Using similar triangle Lo'a' and LO
A
A' we get;
a
A
A
A A
a
a
A
A
A A
a
y
f
h H
Y
h H
f
Y
y
A A
a a
x
f
h H
X
h H
f
X
x
OA
a o

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

= =

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

= =



7.3.3 Scale of a vertical photograph

Definition: Scale is interpreted as the ratio of a distance on a map to the distance on the ground
of the same object (i.e., in photograph and ground system). As before, envision similar triangles
where Lab and LAB are co-planar (also see Figure 27.6 in W/G), then we write;
CE200 Study Guide
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A
A
A
h H
f
s
h H
f
LA
La
AB
ab
s

= =

= = =
Subscripts in the above equation express the scale at the point A. Hence, photo-scale increases
at the higher elevation and decreases at the lower elevation. In general, the scale s at any point
whose elevation h is above the datum is expressed as
avg
avg
h H
f
s

=


Ex 1: Using a camera with focal length of 6 in at flying height H=10,000 ft above mean sea
level (i.e., the datum) compute;
a) photo-scale at A where h
A
= 2500 ft
b) photo-scale for average terrain elevation of 4,000ft.

a) 000 , 15 : 1
1250
1
500 , 2 000 , 10
6
= =

=
ft
in
h H
f
s
A
A

b) ? : 1
000 , 4 000 , 10
6
= =

=
A
A
h H
f
s

Ex 2: A length of runway of 5280 ft is measured on a photograph as 4.15 inches. What is the
approximate flying height, assuming the camera focal length is 6 inches

=
= = =
avg
avg
H
H
f
AB
ab
s
5280
15 . 4

Stereoscopic parallax is defined as the displacement of the position of an object w.r.t. the
reference frame due to a shift in the point of observation. Parallax (apparent motion) is a
function of its relief. Hence, by measuring parallax we obtain information on relative
elevations.

For stereo mapping, each imaged footprint will have been covered by two photographs with a
60% overlap (endlap). In this way a long strip of the earth surface can be mapped
stereoscopically (where each photographic image contains 60% information in the adjacent
photograph). The distance between camera exposure stations is called the air base.

Another strip of photography, parallel to the previous strip, can be obtained in the same
manner. For stereoscopic imagery of the landscape, however, a minimum of 25% overlap
(sidelap) is required.

Stereoscopic Viewing
Stereoscopic viewing refers to seeing an object in three dimensions where the observers eyes
are separated by a distance called the eye base
CE200 Study Guide
48


The left eye and right eye focuses on the same object taken from two (different) exposure
stations and the brain fusses these two images (left and right) into a 3-D model.

Objects and features are located (x, y, z) in this 3-D virtual model. The (x, y, z) locations of
these features are referenced to the photographic system. Invoking a coordinate (conformal)
transformation obtains point locations of the virtual 3-D image in the ground systems.
































CE200 Study Guide
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8.0 Horizontal Curves

An arc, in a horizontal plane, that connects two straight tangent sections is called a horizontal
curve. Two types of curves are used in general engineering projects; circular arcs and spirals.

A simple curve is a circular arc connected by two tangents. A compound curve is composed of
two or more circular arcs of different radii tangent to each other with their centers on the same
side as the alignment. A reverse curve consists of two circular arcs tangent to each other with
their centers on opposite sides of the alignment.

A spiral is circular arc of uniformly decreasing radius from infinity at the tangent to that of the
curve it meets.

Several applications of curves for engineering projects
railroad tracks
roller coasters
roads
bridges
large-scale physics experiments


8.1 Definitions and Formulae ( 24.3 24.4)

The degree of a curve (D) is defined by the angle subtended by a circular arc of 100 ft.

) (
58 . 5729
2
100
360 ft R
D
R
D
= =

o


Example: With a radius of 700m, what is the degree of the curvature?

1 2 9 2 2 48910 . 2
28083 . 3 700
58 . 5729
= =

=
o o
D
[Question: What is the unit of the numerator?]













CE200 Study Guide
50





























PI = point of intersection

PC = point of curvature

PT = Point of tangency

R = Radius of curvature
T = Tangent distance ( |
.
|

\
|
=
2
tan
I
R T )
L = Length of curve ( I R L = , I in radians)
LC = Chord Length (
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
sin 2
I
R LC )
Radian = 180/ = 57.29577951





Figure 8.1: Horizontal Curve
LC
I
L
T
O
PT
I
R
PC
Back
Tangent
Forward
Tangent
CE200 Study Guide
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Example: Given I = 8.24' and degree of curvature D=2. What is stationing of PT when PC
stationing is zero?

Solution:

ft
I
R LC
ft rads I R L
ft R
62 . 419
2
sin 2
420
29578 . 57
4 2 8
79 . 2864 ) (
79 . 2864
2
58 . 5729
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
=

= =
= =
o
o

PT station = PC station + L
= 0 +420
= 4 + 20.00 ft


Curve Layout ( 24.5)

Steps
1. Establish PC and PT by measuring T from PI along tangent

2. Measure total deflection angle at PC from PI to PC





Methods for setting out horizontal curves

a) Deflection Angle:
a. Minimal computation
b. Obstruction from vegetation requires re-computing
c. No check at end of curve (disadvantage)

CE200 Study Guide
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k S
a a
= where
L
I
k
2
=

k S
i i
= where n i ,..., 1 =
In general


i i
R C sin 2 =


2) Coordinates
d. Requires reference coordinate systems
e. Azimuth of back-sight must be known
f. Compute latitude and departures

Figure 8.2: Setting out Horizontal Curve
C
1

L
O
PI
R
PC
0+00
Tangent

2

C
2

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53

Example: Given R=400m, I= 24.32 and back azimuth-326,40.20, Compute the data to stake out
the 1
st
and 2
nd
point on the curve (POCs) at 20m increments. Assume the PC stationing is
458.53m

L = 400 x2432' |
.
|

\
|
o
180

=171.275m
T = 97 . 86
2
2 3 24
tan 400 =
|
|
.
|

\
|
o
m


Dep Lat Coordinates
Pt Station Dist
(S
i
)
Def Ang
(
i
)
Chord
C
i

Az
i
=
Az
i-1
+
i

X Y X Y

0 458.53 5770.97 3656.28

1 460.00 1.470 006'19" 1.47 32634'01" -0.810 1.227 5770.16 3657.51

2 480.00 21.47 132'16" 21.468 325 08' 04" -12.272 17.616 5758.695 3673.894



k S
i i
= , where ( 071617 . 0
275 . 171 2
2 3 24
2
=

= =
o
L
I
k )
= = = 071617 . 0 47 . 1 071617 . 0
1 1
S 006'19

Az
1
= 32640'20 - 006'19 = 32634'01
C
1
= 1.470

X
1
= 1.47 sin (32634'01 ) = -0.810
Y
1
= 1.47 cos (32634'01 ) = 1.227

2
= 21.470 x 0.071617 = 132'16"
Az
2
= 32640'20 - 132'16" = 32508'04"

X
2
= 21.468 sin (32508'04" ) = -12.272
Y
2
= 21.468 cos (32508'04" ) = 17.616


Coordinates of POC

X
1
= X
0
+ X
1;
X
2
= X
0
+ X
2

Y
1
= Y
0
+ Y
1;
Y
2
= Y
0
+ Y
2


(More details are describe in W/G section 24.13 and table 24.4)
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9.0 Vertical Curves


The main basic function of a vertical curve is to provide a gradual change in grade from an
initial incline (back tangent) to the grade of the second decline (forward tangent). Parabolas are
ideal in applications of vertical curves used by vehicular traffic because parabolas provide a
constant rate of change of grade.

Vertical curves are generally represented by a parabolic curve of the form

2
cx bx a z + + =


9.1 Two types of vertical curves
a) Crest curve the curve turns downwards (i.e., -ve change of grade)
b) Sag curve the curve turn upwards (i.e., +ve change of grade)






Constraints on vertical curve design include the following:

a) Good fit with the existing ground profile
b) Balance and minimizing depths of cut/fill
c) Not exceed maximum specified grade
d) Maintain adequate drainage
e) Fit the grade lines they connect
f) Provide sufficient sight distance for safe vehicle operation


Ground
profile
B
H
Back tangent
Crest
Curve
Back tangent
Forward tangent
Sag
Curve
Figure 9.1: ground profile and grade lines for proposed road.
CE200 Study Guide
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9.2. Equation of equal tangent ( 25.3)






























VPI = Vertical point of intersection (i.e., vertex is the intersection of the two tangents)

VPC = Vertical point of curvature (i.e., beginning of vertical curve BVC)

VPT = Vertical point of tangency (i.e., end of vertical curve EVC)

L = Length of the curve

g
1
is the grade line that precedes to meet the curve (i.e., back tangent)

g
2
is the grade of the line that the curve will meet (forward tangent)


Figure 9.2: Vertical parabolic (Crest) curve relationships
g
1
X
P

g
2

O
VPT
VPI
X
VPC
Back
Tangent
Forward
Tangent
g
1

L
X
P

P
Z
VPC

0.5(rX
2
P
)
Z
c

L
2


Datum = MSL
CE200 Study Guide
56


From the Figure 9.2 we get

2
1 P p VPC p
cX X g Z Z + + = , where
g
1
is the slope of the back tangent

(i.e., g
1
is in percent grade which means that X is in 100-ft station intervals or
units of 100m
100
X

2 2
1 2
r
L
g g
c =

= , where g
2
is the slope of the forward target

Substituting, we write the general equation for vertical curves

2
1
2
X
r
X g Z Z
VPC p
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =

Example:
Given the tangents of a vertical curve have grades of g
1
= -3.629% and g
2


= 0.151%. The
Stationing and elevation at its vertex is 5+265 and 350.52m, respectively. The equal-tangent
parabolic curve (L) of 240-m length will join the tangents.
a) What type of curve is this?
b) What is the elevation of the lowest point on the curve?
c) what is elevation of points 95, 200 and 450 m from the PVC?

Answer:

a) draw the curve and decide!






b) compute the elevation at the beginning of the curve
( )
875 . 354
120
100
1
629 . 3 52 . 350
2
0 . 240
1
=
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
=
VPC
VPC
VPI VPC
Z
Z
L
g Z Z
L


Now, compute the elevation of the point of tangents (end of curve)
CE200 Study Guide
57

( ) 701 . 350 174 . 4 875 . 354 4 . 2
2
575 . 1
100
240
) 629 . 3 ( 875 . 354
2
2
2
1
= = |
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ =
+ + =
VPT
VPC VPT
Z
L
r
L g Z Z

The lowest point of the equal-tangent vertical curve is at half the distance L (X=120m)
( ) 654 . 351 221 . 3 875 . 354 2 . 1
2
575 . 1
100
120
) 629 . 3 ( 875 . 354
2
2
2
1
= = |
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ =
+ + =
LOW
VPT LOW
Z
X
r
X g Z Z




c)
Table: Notes for curve lay-out

Station Distance
from PVC
X/100 X g
1

2
2
rX

Curve
Elevation
PVC+00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 354.875
PVC+95 95.0 0.95 -3.448 0.711 352.138
PVC+200 200.00 2.0 -7.258 3.15 350.767
PVC+450 450.00 4.50
















CE200 Study Guide
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10 Earthworks

Earthworks involve determining volumes of various types of materials such as concrete, dirt
etc., for planning and construction projects.

Units: Volumes: m
3
(35.315ft
2
)
o Liquids Acre-foot
o Water flow ft
3
/sec

10.1 Methods to estimate Volumes

a) Cross-section involves profiles at pre-determined station intervals centerline of linear
construction
b) Unit Area involves construct of DEM. The volumes of each cell is given
by Area h V
i
i c
|
.
|

\
|
=

=
4
1
4
1
, and the Total Volume =

=
=
n
i
i
V V
1
, where n = # of grid cells
c) Contour-Area involves the use of a planimeter that measures area enclosed by each
contour
a. The volume is obtained by multiplying the area by the contour interval (CI)
b. This method is suitable for large areas such as cut/fill estimates at proposed
airport runways, capacity of reservoirs created by a proposed dam

10.2 Examples of estimating Volumes





















In general, we write the formula for volume for a road works

Figure 10.1: Terrain
C
15.0
B
L
H
A
2

A
1

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59

L
A A
m V
+
=
2
) (
2 1 3
, where
A
1
and A
2
are the end-areas (from profile) and L is the horizontal distance between the
end profiles.

Using generalized cross-section of Area
1
we will apply two methods to estimate volumes:


10.2.1 Volume Computation by Simple Figures

First we generalize the cross-sections into trapezoids (or regular geometric shapes) as shown
below.


































Figure 10.2: Cross-Section of typical end profile (A
1
)
A
O
24.0
C
1
0
.
0

1
9
.
0

C
15.0 15.0
15.0
B
B
L
R
D
G
H
1
2
.
0

X
Y
L
CE200 Study Guide
60


Figure Computation Area

BCGB [(18+19)35]/2 647.5 (+)

CRG [(1910)/2] 95 (+)

LBB [418]/2 36 (+)

LBH [512]/2 30 (-)

=748.5 ft
2






10.2.2 Volumes Computation by Coordinates:

Set up a local coordinate system with origin at L

(-ve) xy Station x y (+ve) xy

L 0.0 (+ve) 0

0 B 4 6 0
(-ve)
234 C 39 7 28

343 R 49 -2 -78

-78 G 39 -12 -588

-108 H 9 -12 -468

0 L 0 0

=391 =-1,106



Area =
2 2
5 . 748
2
391 1106
) ( ft m A =

=



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61

11.0 Construction Surveys

Construction surveys involve establishing; from the survey control point the azimuth,
horizontal distance, and elevation differences of points of a stake-out project. These survey
data are called setting-out data from control network points

11.1 Equipment for Construction Surveys

Total Station Instrument for construction, roads and engineering projects
Visible laser beam grade staking at airports etc.,
GPs to establish geodetic survey control for maps and planning purposes
Better boards for building layouts

11.2 Survey Control for Construction Projects ()

Horizontal and vertical control provides a basis for positioning structure, utilities and
engineering projects.

As-built projects:

Inventory of infrastructure, utilities, buildings, and engineering projects performed from control
network of survey points. For example, a laser scanner can produce a 3-D CADD rendering of
as-built construction projects such as historical building, bridges, and railroads etc., Control
points provide the survey framework for the 3-D CADD and subsequent data analysis.

Optimal and convenient placement of control points is essential to ensure permanence and/or
accuracy of survey results.

Stake-out projects include

Pipeline
o establish reference off-set line

to centerline
o Precise alignment and grades of pipeline placement done by batterborads or
laser beam

Building
o Nails on batterboards guide the line that defines the outside wall of a building.
Check diagonals for symmetry and square
o Radial method using TSI to set Azimuth, and distance to place building corner,
Azimuth and distances computed from control points to building corners using
coordinate geometry.





CE200 Study Guide
62

Highways
o Establish sufficient control points to provide checks on accumulated survey
errors
o Start staking, at full stations, from 1
st
tangent run to 1
st
Point of intersection
o Turn deflection angles and continue staking along new azimuth
o Insert horizontal curve point (PC, POT, PT)
o Set Benchmark no greater than 1000ft apart
o Set appropriate grade stakes per projects specification


Other construction
i) Causeways, bridges, offshore platforms require hydrographic surveys using
some mapping devised to establish/plot dredging cross-section for underwater
engineering projects

ii) Earthworks (dams, levees) projects require fixed and permanent stations for
Horizontal and vertical control in addition to subsequent deformation
monitoring

iii) Underground (tunnels, mines) surveys require transfer of Azimuth and
elevation from above ground, down a shaft


11.3 Stake-out Surveys using Total Station Instrument

To establish Azimuth using coordinates or by resection
Establish elevation by trigonometric leveling
HR HI S H H
A P
+ + = sin
Where is the vertical angle, HI is the height of the instrument above the control station,
and HR is the height of the reflector above the control point
S is the slope distance. H
A
id the elevation of the control A above the datum (msl)

11.4 Stake-out Surveys using GPS

To establish project control and locate construction stakes
Produce maps for planning and design










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63

12.0 Introduction to Global Positioning Systems (GPS)


The Global Positioning System (GPS) can show you your exact position on Earth any time,
anywhere, in any weather. The system consists of a constellation of 24 satellites (with about 6
"spares") that orbit 200,000 km above Earths surface and continuously send signals to ground
stations that monitor and control GPS operations.
GPS satellite signals can also be detected by GPS
receivers, which calculate their locations
anywhere on Earth within less than a meter by
determining distances from at least three GPS
satellites. No other navigation system has ever
been so global or so accurate.

First launched in 1978, the development of a
global navigation system dates back to the 1960s
when The Aerospace Corporation was a principal
participant in the conception and development of
GPS, a technology that has significantly
enhanced the capabilities of our nations military
and continues to find new uses and applications
in daily life. Weve helped build GPS into one of historys most exciting and revolutionary
technologies and continue to participate in its ongoing operation and enhancement

Positioning with GPS involves computation of point locations in a coordinate system.
Locations can be given in X, Y, Z Cartesian coordinates or in geographical coordinates such as
latitude, longitude, and height.

Position defined by GPS observations is determined by precise range (distances) from the GPS
satellites flying at 20,000 km above the earth, to a receiver located on the earth. Specifically,
the positioning using timing and signal information

12.1 The GPS Signal

The GPS signal has a reference (fundamental) frequency
o
f =10.23 MHz.
The signal is broadcast on tow frequency bands;
L1=1575.42MHz L1=154
o
f
L2 = 1227.60 MHz L2=120
o
f

The broadcast message consists of;
1. Almanac
2. Ephemeris
3. Clock error
4. Ionospheric corrections
5. Satellite condition (health)
6. Review the basic trigonometric formulae
CE200 Study Guide
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12.2 GPS System Configuration ( 13.2)

12.2.1 Space Segment
1. 24 satellites in 6 orbital planes.
2. Orbital planes are spaced 60 degrees apart.
3. Orbital inclination of 55 degrees with respect to the equator.
4. GPS provides 24hr satellite coverage 80 latitude.
5. Orbits at 20,000 km above the Earth every 12 hrs.
6. Precise atomic clocks
onboard satellite and quartz
clocks in receivers

12.2.2 Control Segment
5 Stations track the
satellites and upload
broadcast ephemeris
Broadcast ephemeris
include X,Y Z, t) of
satellite and clock biase

12.2.3 User Segment
Standard Precision Service
(SPS) on L1 broadcast
frequency.
L1 has horizontal positional
accuracy of approx.100m
Precise Positioning Service (PPS) broadcast on tow frequencies; L1 and L2 with
horizontal accuracy of approx 18m and vertical accuracy of approx 28m.



12.3 Satellite Reference Coordinate System

The orbit of the GPS satellite follows Keplers law of motion. The elliptical orbit has a
closest approach (perigee) and apogee (point of furthest distance)
The origin of the coordinate system is at the center of Mass of the Earth.

A Geocentric Coordinate System relates points in space physically to the Earth. Figure shows
the orbital configuration with respect to the Earth.

The satellite position is described by six Keplerian elements (semi-major axis (a),
orbital inclination (i), right ascension of ascending node (), argument of perigee (), true
anomaly (f), orbital period (P). The relationship (and conversion) between the satellite
coordinate system and the geocentric coordinate system is described by four angular
parameters (orbital inclination (i), right ascension of ascending node (), argument of perigee
(), and the Greenwich hour angle of the vernal equinox ()
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The Geodetic Coordinate System

In general, the association between
a 3-D Cartesian system and the
Geographic coordinate is specified
through a uniquely defined
mathematical model of the earth
called the ellipsoid of revolution
with
semi-major axis a (or
radius) of the Earth
The mass (GM) as the
Earth
The same rate of rotations
on its spin axis
The gravity dynamic form
factor (J
2
)

The origin of the Cartesian system is at the center of mass (COM) of the Earth



i
Sat(X,Y,Z,t)
Z (CIO)
X
(THRO
GREENWICH)
Y
Equator plane
Meridian
Orbit
Figure 13.1 Geocentric Coordinates system and
GPS satellite orbit
COM
E

f
perigee

Ascending Node

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A point located by GPS on the
surface of the Earth is defined by
geographical coordinates in a
Cartesian systems as follows;

cos cos ) (
P R
h N X + =
sin cos ) (
P R
h N Y + =
sin ] ) 1 ( [
2
P R
h e N Z + =
with the geometric quantities N as
the radius of the Earth

2 2
sin 1 e
a
N
R

= ;
2
2
1 |
.
|

\
|
=
a
b
e ;
( ) f a b = 1


and the GPS height of the point A is given by hH+N . The orthometric height (H) is generally
obtained from leveling. Leveling process transfers elevation difference relative to mean sea
level. The geoid undulation (N) is the departure of the mean sea level from the ellipsoid. The
geoid is determined from very precise gravity measurements. Mean sea level approximates the
geoid on a global average.

The values H and N are distances relative the ellipsoid. The ellipsoid is an international
standard every GPS user (in the world) is tied to the GRS80 ellipsoid. The ellipsoid is a well
defined mathematical surface so that every point on its envelop is uniquely defined.

H is the orthometric height derived from leveling i.e., height above the mean sea level.

N is the deviation of the geoid (or global mean sea or level equipotential surface) from the
ellipsoid. The geoid can be thought of as undulating topography. So in some places the geoid
will be above the ellipsoid (N is positive) and other areas the geoid will be below
the ellipsoid (N is negative). However, the above equation still holds.

12.4 Positioning with GPS

The fundamental equation is the geometric range from the satellite to the receiver is given by;

t c
S
R
= where c (=299,792,458 m.s
-1
) is the speed of light and t is the time traveled
from the satellite to the reciever.


By observing three satellites simultaneously from one receiver at located at A we write;

h
P(, , h)
Z
X
Y

Equatorial plane
Meridian
Ellipsoid
Figure 13.2 Point location by GPS
Topography
CE200 Study Guide
67


( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
2
1
2
1 1
A A A A
Z Y X + + =

where
A A
X X X =
1 1
;
A A
Y Y Y =
1 1
and
A A
Z Z Z =
1 1


( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
A A A A
Z Y X + + =

( ) ( ) ( )
2
3
2
3
2
3 3
A A A A
Z Y X + + =



Errors in GOS observations include the following;

Satellite and receiver clock biase
Ionospheric and tropospheric refraction (delays) effects
Multipath
Poor Satellite Geometry
Receiver antenna not properly centered over the control point

12.4.1Geometry of the Observed Satellites (13.6.4)

Weak geometry of the simultaneously observed satellites results in larger errors in their
computed GPS receiver positions. The effects of satellite geometry on the accuracy of the GPS
solution are called dilution of precision (DOP)

Several DOP factors are named for convention:
PDOP DOP in position
HDOP DOP in horizontal position
HDOP- DOP is heights
GDOP DOP is satellite geometry.

The lower the DOP value the better the expected positional precision.

Sky Plots

Sky plots as also called satellite visibility diagrams. Satellites are not normally tracked below
an elevation of 15 to 20 due to large atmospheric refraction errors at low elevation angles.

Generate a skyplot before deciding to accept GPS data for processing The skyplot provides
the following information
1. satellite geometry suggest estimates on DOP values
2. illustration of GPS satellite trajectories over a given ground site
3. reveal impact of possible obstructions on satellite visibility.
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Example of a sky plot generated for September 2, 1995 for station GRAZ, Germany.




























Reference:
Marshall, J., (2002) GPS Solutions, 6:118-120, doi 10.1007/s10291-002-0017-3

Numerical Example:
Compute the geocentric coordinate of station A which has latitude of 39 27'07".58, longitude
86 16 '23 ".49 and elevation above the ellipsoid of 203.245 m
(Reference ellipsoid parameters: e
2
=0.0066 943799; a=6,378,137 m)




15
o
masking angle
Local Horizon
Trajectory of
satellite # 18
CE200 Study Guide
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Answer

2 2
sin 1 e
a
N
R

= =
cos cos ) (
P R
h N X + = = 49 . 3 2 6 1 86 cos 58 . 7 0 7 2 39 cos ) ( +
o o
P R
h N =
sin cos ) (
P R
h N Y + = = 49 . 3 2 6 1 86 sin 58 . 7 0 7 2 39 cos ) ( +
o o
P R
h N =
sin ] ) 1 ( [
2
P R
h e N Z + = = 58 . 7 0 7 2 39 sin ] ) 1 ( [
2
+
o
P R
h e N =

12.5 Surveying and Mapping with GPS

Relative positioning using dual frequency (L
1
, L
2
) receivers are preferred over single frequency
(L
1
) receivers for the following reasons;
Faster data collection
Observing longer baselines
Eliminating ionospheric delays effects on GPS signals

A minimum of four (4) satellites should be tracked simultaneously to determine a receiver
position optimally.

12.5.1 Types of GPS Surveys for relative positioning (14.2)

Static:
Rover-rover receiver configuration; occupy station> 1 hr
Survey complete when baseline form a geometrically closed figure
Applicable for Geodetic Control Survey

Rapid Static
Master-rover receiver configuration for baselines length (BL) up to
25 km. Mater receiver never moves from its location until survey
completed
Applicable for small control surveys
Kinematic
Receiver initialize to determine integer ambiguity
Initialization methods include
Observe a short known baseline
Antenna swap

One rover receiver collects survey points for later processing
Applicable for construction and topographic surveys

Real-time Kinematic (RTK)
Similar to Kinematic positioning but points positions are determined
simultaneously
Baselines are limited to 10 km with most radio links
Application for construction stakeout and real-time mapping
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12.5.2 Observing Scheme (14.3.4)

The planned sequence of observing sessions must ensure that every station in the network
except for Kinematic Surveys) is connected to at least one other station by a baseline plus
redundancy for checking purposes plus improving precision and reliability of work.
[CORS site data used to strengthen baseline links to CORS station]







12.6. Conversion of Geocentric coordinates to Geodetic Coordinates
Longitude of point P
(

=

P
P
P
X
Y
1
tan
Latitude of point P
(

=

) 1 (
tan
2
1
e D
Z
P
P
P
where,

| |
2
1
2 2
P P P
Y X D + =

Geodetic height
R
P
P
P
N
D
h
(

=
cos
for '
P
45


) 1 (
sin
2
e N
Z
h
R
P
P
P

(

for '
P
> 45

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Example: Given (X=1,241,581.343, Y=-4,638,917.074, Z=4,183,965.568) coordinates of a GPS
receiver location at point P. Find the geodetic height of the point P.

[Use 2444 . 8 1 5 1 41 =
o
P
, 3148 . 440 , 387 , 6 =
R
N m]

| |
2
1
2 2
P P P
Y X D + = = 4,802,194.8993
R
P
P
P
N
D
h
(

=
cos
= 313.28 m




E
P
X
Z
G
S
H
N
Y
N
R
G = Geoid
E = Ellipsoid
S = Surface
H = Orthometric Height
N = Geoid height
N
R
= Radius

Y
P
X
P
Z
P
h
GPS
H + N
Figure13.3 Coordinate Geometry of GPS station position
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13.0 Introduction to Geographic Information Systems


GIS is a toolkit for the input, storage, retrieval, manipulation, and output of geospatial data

GIS output is based on simultaneous analysis of heterogeneous data, co-located (georeferenced)
in a common geographic reference (coordinate) system. The output forms the basis for decision
making for planning, design, management etc.

Accuracy of spatial data is a significant component of the integerty of GIS solution.
Specifically, after data input, the subsequent analyses and data display (map) form the basis for
decisions regarding planning, management and development. Hence, the accuracy of the
geospatial data in a GIS impacts the quality of GIS output results and decision making.

Analysis of GIS data is generally performed on data sets that are referenced in a common
geographic coordinate system such as state plane coordinates, UTM grid or a local system.
Coordinate transformation is a significant component in GIS data management.

Input x,y,z-triplets (or other geographic coordinates) are entered (terminal
input, download, uplink, scanning, digitizing, etc).

Storage Massive data volumes require huge archiving and storage. Digital
storage on hard drives, magnetic tape, scuzzy disks, and optical drives. New approaches
to digital data storage include holograms.

Retrieval Huge inventories and data catalogue have to be accessed for data
analysis. Sophisticated computer algorithms require to efficiently and quickly access
specific data records.

Manipulation Map-algebra includes Boolean operations. Sophisticated data
manipulations such as spectral analysis, correlations, regression, and statistical analysis
require sophisticated software.

Output Data display could be in forms of Tables, Charts, or Maps. Results of
geospatial data analysis in map form are a combination of art and science. All elements
of map making are important considerations for effective computer generated map
display.

GIS has important applications for planning, design, impact assessment, and predictive
modeling. The successful implementation of a GIS relies on the effective collaboration of of
inter-disciplinary team of professional. For example, data themes could include soil science,
agriculture, conservations, forestry, hydrology. Specialists involved in developing a GIS other
than surveying include computer scientists, geographers, and landscape architecture.

Land Information Systems (LIS) is a subset of GIS is a focused primarily of land records data
such as parcel information, lot improvements, parcel value, and ownership.
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13.2 Spatial data

Geospatial data consist of natural and cultural features which must be represented and
spatially located in digital form.

Natural features include
Visible feature such as topography, rivers, marshes, wetlands, shorelines,
and vegetation.
Invisible features such as minerals (deposit), gravity,
Dynamic features such as precipitation rates, atmospheric conditions.
These naturally occurring features can be depicted by various mapping
conventions (symbols, linear, area, contours)

Cultural features include
Utility terminals/connecters (light poles, fire-hydrants,) and utility routes
(overhead electric wires (sags), sewer lines, buries cables)
Transportation infrastructure such as roads, bridges (traffic movement
and traffic patterns)
Engineering projects such as buildings, reservoirs, and harbours.

13.2.1 Database Elements

The fundamental elements of spatial data in digital databases are
1. Points [nodes]
2. Lines [string]
3. Polygon [Area]
4. Pixel [equal-size cell]
5. Grid cell
Pixel size defined data resolution and symbiotic trade-off with storage

13.2.2 Fundamental Formats

Vector (nodes, strings, area) Each node has a point ID and (x,y,z) triplets plus an
attribute link in tabular forms

Raster (pixel, grid cell). Each pixel has row and column ID that is unique plus attributes
value
The attribute describes the characteristic (color, texture, value) of the spatial feature.

Topological Relationship are listed in tables and stored in GIS database

o Connectivity: Specifies node connection of chains
o Direction: Defined FROM and TO directions of a line
o Adjacency: Assigns polygon to LEFT and RIGHT side of a chain
o Nestedness: Identify which spatial object (i.e., node, line, polygon) are inside
another polygon
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Non-spatial data, or attribute data, is stored as alpha-numeric characters describing the value of
the features. The common identifier links the spatial data and attribute data.

13.3 Data Format Conversion

Vector to-raster:
i. Predominance (what is most?)
ii. Precedence (hierarchy)
iii. Center-point


Raster-to-Vector
This type of conversion generally appears as a staircase outline. Subsequent
rectification algorithms are costly and cannot retrieve the original detail. Raster-
to-vector conversion is dangerous due to irretrievable loss of accuracy and
information. Precision of data conversion depends on the size of the grid cell;
coarse resolution raster result in low accuracy representation of the origin al
data. Conversely, a high resolution raster provide high accuracy representation
but demands huge storage requirements

13.4 Creating a GIS Database

To create GIS database the following considerations are important
Data types and formats
Reference coordinate System
Accuracy of each data type
Provision for database updating


13.4.1 Digital Data Inputs

1. Surveys: Download point data from Total Station and data collector
(COGO routines transform survey data to coordinate list)
Download x,y,z-triplets from Photogrammetric solutions.

2. Digitizing: Initializing the digitizing tablet. Initialization requires coordinate
transformation to obtain scale, rotation and translation parameters [See
chapter 11 in W/G for details]. Proceed by digitizing each point. The
coordinate of each digitized point is converted (transformed) to the
reference coordinate systems and stored in the digital database.

3. Scanning: Converts a graphical document (i.e., maps, plans) to digital form and
output a raster file. Post processing in the form of editing is important to
ensure the integrity of the digital database. Coordinate transformation is
required to represent features in a geodetic (or other) coordinate system
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Meta data described the content, quality, condition, modification and other characteristics about
geospatial data

13.5. GIS Analytical Functions

Most GIS are equipped with basic data analysis capabilities. User-specified analyses functions
are either add-ons or developed in-house. In-house developed software must be rigorously
validated and tested using field data and varied scenarios.

Proximity: To create new polygons (around points or lines) to perform radius search
Polygons are generated by a process called buffering.
Buffering allows analysis of relative position by boundary operations;
Adjacency identify adjoining polygons and attributes for
zonation inquiry.
Connectivity identify intersection of linear features for
infrastructure maintenance and management.

Overlay: Co-registered disparate data layers (e.g., point or line in polygon)

Logical Operations: Union, Difference, etc.

Other Functions: Statistics
Geometry
Volume

13.6 GIS application

Land-use planning [Korea] - Analysis of landscape patterns (agricultural, urban, natural) he
GIS used to asses demographic and land use characteristics on local transit services in relation
to regional transportation system

Resource mapping and Management Coastal and watershed application for analysis on oil
spills sensitivity. Determine flow characteristics of watershed and classify streams (i.e..,
morphological and zonation criteria).

Environmental impact assessment [Brazil] - To investigate water control. GIS used to improve
organizational capabilities and formulate environmental policies.

Route Selection [India] To satisfy transportation and infrastructure requirement of a county in
concert with its development pace. GIS requirements included network analysis, statistical
analysis and spatial analysis.

Infrastructure and Utility mapping/ Management - GIS used in planning (locate and identify)
potential emergency (security) management of infrastructure; to mitigate hazards and assess
risks; to develop preparedness protocol.
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13.7 Projected Future Role of Surveyors

Design and develop GIS
Implement and manage the GIS
Establish quality control and assessment strategies f geospatial data
Establish protocol on quality assurance for GIS I/O operations
Other