Sustainable Rice-Wheat Rotation YADVINDR-SIN!" AND #I$AY-SIN!" Department of Soils Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana 141 004 Punjab %& IN'R(D)*'I(N In the next 25 years, the challenge for agriculture will not only be to meet the food needs of the worlds expanding population, but also undertake it in a manner that is sustainable for present and future generations. Although world population growth rates will be slow, it is projected to increase by just less than one percent in Asia around the year 22. As land constraints become increasingly binding, the synergy generated by genetic engineering and nutrients will be necessary to maintain and boost crop yields. !remendous "uantities of nutrients are re"uired to produce the food necessary to feed the world in any gi#en year. $oor management of these nutrients in many parts of the world has led to en#ironmental pollution and the degradation of this resource base, particularly in the de#eloping world. !o meet agricultural production and sustainable intensification goals o#er the short% and long%term, plant nutrient and soils need to be managed properly. !he challenge for agriculture is immense. Integrated plant nutrient supply &I$'() is an important component of sustainable agricultural intensification. !he goal of I$'( is to integrate the use of all natural and man%made sources of plant nutrients, so as to increase crop producti#ity in an efficient and en#ironmentally benign manner, without diminishing the capacity of the soil to be producti#e for present and future generations. It seek to maintain or impro#e soil fertility for sustaining the desired le#el of crop production and crop producti#ity through optimi*ation of the benefit from all possible sources of plant nutrients in an integrated manner. !he I$'( is made up of components which possess great di#ersity in terms of chemical and physical properties, nutrient release efficiencies, positional a#ailability, crop specificity, and farmers acceptability. (ince organic manures cannot meet the total nutrient needs of modern agriculture, integrated use of nutrients from fertili*ers and organic resources seems to be a need of the time. +or I$'( to make desirable progress and find wide acceptance, nutrient supply packages for important agro%ecological en#ironments need to be de#eloped. !hese should be technically sound, practically feasible, economically attracti#e and socially acceptable. Integrated plant nutrient systems can ensure long%term sustainability of agricultural growth through impro#ement in soil health and will significantly reduce the needs for chemical fertili*ers. !he complementary use of chemical fertili*ers and organic fertili*ers may increase the efficiency of chemical fertili*ers in order to maintain a high le#el of crop producti#ity. 2,5 -ecause of low primary nutrient content and thus the need for large applications per unit area, farmers and policy makers are often reluctant to adopt and promote the use of organic fertili*ers. !he different components of integrated nutrient management possess great di#ersity in terms of chemical and physical properties and nutrient release patterns. .rganic matter is an important soil constituent influencing fa#orably a number of constraints linked with crop producti#ity. It is widely accepted that high soil organic matter &(./) means high potential producti#ity and health of the soil. Amount of (./ in soils of I0$ #aries from .5 to ,.,12 &!omar and 3oshi, 4551). 6#en at low concentrations, (./ is the major substance facilitating aggregation and structural stability of soils. .rganic fertili*ers play important role in the impro#ement of organic matter content. Apart from contributing modest "uantities of the primary nutrients, they also offer a good source of the secondary and micronutrients necessary for plant growth. -iological nitrogen fixation by leguminous plants offers great potential to meet ' demands of the following crop. If used appropriately, the recycling of organic waste from urban to rural areas is a potential, largely un%tapped source of nutrients for crop needs. A possible strategy for integrating di#erse sources of nutrients is to compute their fertili*er e"ui#alents that is, "uantity of organic source which can gi#e as much crop yield increase as one unit of fertili*er nutrient &!able 4). (uch nutrient e"ui#alents reflect not just the #alue of materials nutrient component but its total impact on crop producti#ity brought about by chemical, physical and microbiological factors. !hese will automatically take care of the differences in nutrient use efficiency of different sources. It is felt that computation of fertili*er e"ui#alents will facilitate the integration of different sources into practical recommendations. Table 1. Fertilizer equivalents of organic sources .rganic source +ertili*er e"ui#alent +7/ 8.9 kg t %4 &':$2.5:;2.) 2<4<4 0reen manure &,5 day%old) 5%9 kg 'ha %4 0reen manure &9 day%old) 1%42 kg 'ha %4 0reen manure ,., kg ' t %4 &fresh wt.) $ress mud 4%42 kg ' t %4 &dry wt.) in rice and 9%1 kg ' : 5%9 kg $2.5 t %4 in wheat &residual) $oultry manure 45 kg ' t %4 & as efficient as urea ') =ice straw and wheat straw A*olla 8%, kg t %4 0reen gram straw &1 kg ' ha %4 ) 9 kg 'ha %4 $ig manure &1 kg ' ha %4 ) 5 kg 'ha %4 !he declining area under legumes and green manures, less a#ailability of organic manures and burning of crop residues are responsible for making rice%wheat production system unsustainable. !he I$'( approach has perhaps greater scope in rice%wheat than in any other cropping system. (ince rice is grown predominantly under submerged conditions that offer wider scope for harnessing different nutrient sources. In the coming 2,9 decades, a major issue in designing sustainable agricultural systems will be the management of soil organic matter and the rational use of organic inputs such as animal manures, industrial wastes, green manure, crop residues and biofertili*ers. /aintaining or increasing soil organic matter content is of great benefit in terms of recycling plant nutrients, minimi*ing need for inorganic fertili*ers and impro#ing soil "uality. (ustainability of a agricultural production system must address simultaneously the two basic issues of economic de#elopment and ecological sustainability. !he greatest challenge for the coming decades lies in the fact that the production en#ironments are unstable and degrading. /ost of our soils in the I0$ are deficient in plant nutrients. About 21%8 mt of nutrients are remo#ed from the soil while 41%2 mt are added through all sources, lea#ing a gap of about 4 mt. there is an urgent need to de#elop region specific integrated nutrient management strategies with emphasis on increasing nutrient use efficiencies. 6ffecti#e and efficient management of these resources and technologies, by farmers specifically through I$'( practices, will help to make it possible. !hese sources apart from supplying the plant nutrients, can impro#e o#erall soil producti#ity. +& S()R*S (, P-AN' N)'RIN'S A #ariety of organic resources are a#ailable for recycling in agriculture. !he major sources of plant nutrients are< &i). (oil reser#es &ii). >hemical fertili*ers (iii). ?i#estock wastes< >attle shed wastes, slaughter house wastes, piggery and poultry wastes &i#). @uman wastes &#). >rop residues, tree wastes and a"uatic wastes &#i). 0reen manures &#ii). Arban and rural wastes< =ural and urban wastes, sewage sludge, biogas slurry &#iii). Agro%industrial wastes< $ress mud, coir pith from coconut industry, rice husk, paper and pulp waste, oil cakes, sawdust, groundnut husk, distillery waste, fruit and #egetable industry waste, tobacco industry, coffee industry. &ix). /arine wastes< (ea weeds, fish meal, etc. &x). -iofertili*ers
2.1. Soil reser.es (oils of the I0$ supply large amounts of nutrients to the rice and wheat crops. @owe#er, continuous cropping has resulted in the depletion of se#eral plant nutrients o#er the years because nutrient remo#al far exceeds its additions through fertili*ers and recycling. It has been estimated that soil depletion of ' : $2.5 : ;2. is 1%4 million tones per annum at the national le#el. $articularly alarming is the huge negati#e ; balances. $otassium is becoming a limiting factor in crop production in rice%wheat system, because this nutrient is absorbed the two crops in large amounts. Beficiencies of ', $, ;, Cn and /n are now common in many soils of the I0$. !hus the important task of I$'( system is the efficient management of soil nutrients. 2,D +&+& *hemical fertili/ers =ise in food production in India is directly related to consumption of chemical fertili*ers. !he efficiencies of nutrients in India continues to be #ery low, resulting in large economic losses. In addition, nutrient losses &particularly ') causes pollution of air and water. !he reliance on chemical fertili*ers for sustainable crop production would ha#e to be continued in spite of the en#ironmental threats. !here is need to de#elop strategies to impro#e nutrient use efficiencies, reduce losses and reduce ad#erse en#ironmental impacts of intensi#e use of chemical fertili*ers. +&+& (rganic sources +&+&%& Potential and *omposition of organic sources !he potential nutrients &':$2.5 :;2.) a#ailable from human excreta, dung and crop residues during 2 were estimated at 2., 9.9, and 9.24million t, respecti#ely. In addition, se#eral sources of nutrients like city refuse, rural compost, sewage sludge, press mud and other agro%industrial wastes ha#e large nutrient potential. 'utrient potential of all biological and industrial wastes has been estimated at 45.448 mt. !he a#ailability of se#eral organic resources will increase with time. +or example, additional 4.2% 4.5 million t crop residues will be generated with e#ery million t increase in grain production. Additional .25 million t excreta year %4 will be discharged with e#ery million increase in human population. As fertili*er use in most areas is sub%optimal, organic resources can supplement a#ailable fertili*er supplies. About 252 nutrient needs of Indian agriculture can be met by utili*ing #arious organic sources. According to an estimate, the annual production of dung and urine from bo#ine population in India is 4221 and 1 m.t., respecti#ely. If the entire wet dung and urine excreted by bo#ines are conser#ed for manorial purposes, its potential for supplying major plant nutrients has been worked out as 9.59 m.t. of ':$2.5:;2. &0aur, 4552). @owe#er, a#ailability is often constrained as most farmers use the dung as fuel and most of the nutrients passed into the urine are lost under the traditional methods of recycling. 6stimates of animal dung used as domestic fuel in rural areas ha#e increased from 82 in 45Ds to D52 in the early 455s. 6stimated current potential of crop residues is , m.t. and rice and wheat straws account for D2 of crop residues generated in India. >rop residues can contribute about 1,D, m.t. of '$;. Apart from supplying major nutrients, organic resources are rich sources of secondary and micronutrients. !andon &4559) pro#ided projections on the a#ailability of organic resources for agriculture in India &!able 2). .rganic manures such as +7/, composts and crop residues supply low "uantities of major plant nutrients. .il cakes, slaughterhouse wastes, poultry manure, etc. are relati#ely richer in nutrient contents. >ity composts contain higher concentration of nutrients than rural composts &!able 8). !he nutrient concentration in organic manures depends on the type of animal, diet, collection and storage of manure, amount of bedding manorial used and any possible manure treatment (harma et al. &45D1) analy*ed 5 randomly selected samples +7/ and found that total ' content ranged from .85%4.12 &mean #alue of .992), total $ from .,5% .4512 &mean #alue of .422) and total ; .51%4.982 &mean #alue of .552). .n a#erage, +7/ application at 4 t ha %4 will add about 5%9 kg ', 1%4 kg $ and 5%4 kg ;. 2,1 Table 2. Some projections on the availability of organic resources for agriculture in n!ia =esource 2 225 I. 0enerators a. @uman population &million) 4 48 b. ?i#estock population &million) ,51 559 c. +oodgrain production &million t) 28 845 II. =esources a. @uman excreta 49.5 24.5 b. ?i#estock dung &dry) &million t) 8D5 ,29 c. >rop residues &million t) 8 ,59 III. =esources tapable a. @uman excreta 48 4D b. ?i#estock dung &dry) &million t) 448 421 c. >rop residues &million t) 55 492 IE. 'utrients potential &':$2.5:;2.) a. @uman excreta 2. 2.9 b. ?i#estock dung &dry) &million t) 9.9, D.5, c. >rop residues &million t) 9.24 2.2D E. 'utrients potential &':$2.5:;2.) a. @uman excreta 4.9 2.4 b. ?i#estock dung &dry) &million t) 2. 2.29 c. >rop residues &million t) 2.5 8.85 !otal 5.95 D.D5 (ource< !andon &4559) +&+&+& Animal dung !he potential a#ailability of cattle dung in India is about 2 billion tons per year with a nutrient potential of about D. mt &0aur, 4552, 3ain and ;umar, 4555). . It contains 8.,, mt ', 4.84 mt. $2.5, 2.24 mt ;2. or a total of D. mt of nutrients. >attle account for about 52 of the total animal dung and nutrients. $roportion of cattle dung a#ailable for recycling has declined from D2 in the early 45Ds to 82 in early 455s &!andon, 4559). Its major competing use is in the form of dung cakes for energy. Fhere#er possible it is better to route the dung through biogas plants in order to get both fuel and manure. Another recent estimate of animal dung production is at 8.2 billion tonnes. 2,5 Table ". #verage chemical compositions of !ifferent manures /anure! residue 'itrogen &2) $hosphorus &2) $otassium &2) >rop residue &rice straw) &wheat straw) .5 G .1 ., G .9 .D G .42 .D G .4 4., G 2. .5 G 4.2 +7/ .1 G 4.2 .2 G ., .85 G .95 >ompost 4.5 G 2. ., 4.2 (heep and goat manure 8. ., 4.D $oultry manure 2.5 % 8. 4.48 .D % 4.2 .il cakes 2.5 G D.5 .8 G 4.8 4. G 4.1 0reen manure (esbania 4.D G 2.1 .4 G .2 4.4 G 4.5 A*olla 4.59 G 5.8 .49 G 4.55 .8D G 5.5D +&+&0& "uman e1creta @uman excreta are another #aluable nutrient resource. @owe#er, social factors come in the way of its large scale recycling on the land. About 49.5 mt of material is a#ailable from 4 million people in a year with an a#erage nutrient content of with an a#erage nutrient content of .55 million t ', .99 million t $2.5 and .88 million t of ;2. &4.51 mt of '$;). A working assumption for a de#eloping country is that adult produces about 25%85 grams of faeces and 4.2 kg of urine day with a dry solids content of 8%9 grams. !he sewage of the cities can be put to proper use through the use of sewage for irrigation, use of sewage sludge as fertili*er, and use of sludge produced by biogas plants. !he nutrient content of sewage #aries from town to town and season to season in the same town. !he a#erage concentration of ', $ and ; in the sewage is estimated as 9, 2, and , mg l %4 , respecti#ely. At a conser#ati#e estimate of ,, 4, and 8 g m% 8 of ', $, and ;, respecti#ely, effluent applied at 4, m 8 ha %4 year %4 will add ', $, and ; at ,, 4 and 8 kg ha %4 . (uch rates supply all or e#en more ', $ and ; than what the rice and wheat crops re"uire and also the #aluable micronutrients. .n such fields, addition fertili*ation may not be needed. +&+&2& 3anure and composts /anures from cattle, pigs and poultry are important, as they positi#ely affect nutrient supply, crop yields, soil structure and water retention, and benefit soil organisms. !he nutrient #alue of manures largely depends on how they are handled, stored and applied. ?osses of nitrogen tend to be highest when li"uid systems of storage are used and when the manure is broadcast without incorporation. Among organic manures, farmyard manure &+7/) is the most commonly used manure by the rice%wheat farmers in the Indo%0angetic plain. !he rate and periodicity of application of +7/, howe#er, depends on its a#ailability with the farmers. Biagnostic sur#eys &7ada# et al., 2) rea#eal that while 45%2 t +7/ ha %4 is applied at an inter#al of 8%5 years in !rans 25 0angetic plain and Apper 0angetic plain, the a#erage rates of +7/ application are low in the /iddle 0angetic plain &5%9 t ha %4 at an inter#al of 2%8 years) and ?ower 0angetic plain &2%, t ha %4 at 2%8 years inter#al). !he results of a long%term experiment in rice%wheat rotation re#ealed that combined use of 42 t ha %4 farm yard manure and 1 kg ' ha %4 ga#e rice yield comparable to 42 kg ' ha %4 , thereby sa#ing , kg ' ha %4 in rice. +arm yard manure also ga#e considerable residual effect on the succeeding wheat crop &0ill and /eelu, 4512). >omposting is a techni"ue of long standing that combines the use of animal manures, crop residues and household wastes. >omposting is particularly #aluable in the tropics +&+&4& #iogas slurry -iogas is one of the potential renewable sources of energy from the 41 million t of animal dung per annum in India e#en if two%third of the dung is used for biogas production it is expected to yield biogas not less than 42 million m 8 day %4 . -iogas slurry is the end product of biogas plants when organic materials are con#erted into >@, and >.2. -iogas slurry is generally richer in ' than +7/ containing 4.2%2.2 ', .5%.D2 $ and .5%4.2 ; &dry weight basis) along with significant "uantities of micronutrients. -iogas slurry may be applied directly with irrigation water or after drying as manure. -iogas plants ser#e dual purpose as they pro#ide fuel as well as good "uality manure. !herefore, construction of biogas plants by the farmers should be encouraged in the country. +&+&5& Solid 6astes of cities !he municipal solid waste is a mixture of se#eral items ha#ing different physical properties with a daily generation of about 5 g per indi#idual &=amaswami, 4555).!he solid waste generated daily from the four metropolitan cities is about 495 tonnes. !hese wastes can be con#erted into #aluable compost by following appropriate biocon#ersion technology. +&0& Industrial 6astes (ewage sludge, press mud from sugar mills, city refuge, #egetable wastes, rice mill wastes, sludges, and distillery wastes ha#e large nutrient potential. 'utrient potential of all biological and industrial wastes has been estimated at 45.44 mt &3uwarkar et al., 4552). If used appropriately, the recycling of organic wastes from urban to rural areas is a potential, largely untapped source of nutrients for farm and crop needs. Arban waste needs to be treated and its application monitored to be used safely, howe#er. >urrently, effecti#e utili*ation of urban waste is hampered by its high water content, bulkiness, its distance from rural areas, and high labour intensi#e handling, storage, transport and application costs. @ousehold and commercial organic wastes can be collected and composted to form a safe nutrient%rich amendment for application on local farms and gardens. +&0&%& *oir Pith 254 India ranks third among the coconut production countries of the world with a production potential of 9 million nuts &=amaswami, 4555). !he a#erage proportion of coir to pith is 4<4. !he pith is a waste material and is dumped on road sides or burnt and disposed. -ut it can be efficiently composted and utili*ed as manure since it contains .252 ', and .12 ;. $oultry droppings can be mixed with coir pith for composting. +&0&+& Pressmud In the recent past many sugar industries ha#e been established in the country. About 1.5 million tons of pressmud cake &$/>) is produced annually from the sugar industries in India. (ugarcane is con#erted to crystalline sugar by the sugar industries using two processes< carbonation and sulphitation. !he carbonation process is used mainly by the old industrial units, which are gradually changed to sulphitation. >arbonation press mud cake &$/>) contains high amounts of >a>.8 and therefore, is not recommended for alkaline soils. !he $/> produced from the sugar industries employing sulphitation process contains about 4.1% 2.25 2 ', .1%4.2 2 $, .,%.92 ; in addition to se#eral other plant nutrientsH 2.5 g +e kg %4 , 4.5 g /n kg %4 , .2D g Cn kg %4 , and .48 g >u kg %4 . $ressmud can supply large "uantities of nutrients, particularly ' and $, in the rice%wheat system, and its application will impro#e soil fertility. +&0&0& Rice "us7 About 45 mt of rice husk is a#ailable in India e#ery year, which contains about .852 ', .42 $ and .82 ;. It can be applied directly to agricultural land or may be used in composting. A significant portion of rice husk is used as fuel by rice shelling industry, resulting in problem for disposal of burnt rice husk. +&0&2& Se6age sludge (ewage sludge is an important source of organic matter and plant nutrients. @owe#er, toxicity due to micronutrients and hea#y metals &>d, 'i, >r, $b), which they generally possess, has to be taken into consideration before their application to soils, hea#y metals are harmful for human health and en#ironment "uality. !here is considerable #ariation in the hea#y metal content of sewage sludge produced in different cities &3uwarkar et al., 4552). After application, these elements are con#erted into #arious forms in the soil not all of which are e"ually a#ailable for plant uptake. !he a#ailable form is usually a small fraction of the total input but can accumulate to harmful le#els. (reeramulu &455,) reported that urban sewage and sludge at low le#els of application can help to reduce the amounts of chemical fertili*ers up to 252 with out any loss of yields. @e also ruled out any toxicity of hea#y metals in crops and ad#ocated their use for crop production. (hort%term application of sludge showed no toxic effects of hea#y metals on soil and plants. +&2& *rop residues !he annual production of crop residues in the country is estimated to range from 848 to 859 million t with nutrient potential of 9.8 to D.5 million t. About one%third 252 residues are a#ailable for direct recycling amounting to 489 , million t and if used can add 8.5, million t of ', $2.5 and ;2. annually. !hroughout the I0$ there is little retention of crop residues in the field Geither they are har#ested for fuel, animal feed or bedding, or are burnt in the field. >ombine har#esting of rice and wheat is now popular among farmers in western parts of the I0$. In $unjab about 52 of area under rice is har#ested by machine, and a majority of this machine har#ested rice residue is completely burnt. Ander wheat, the machine% har#ested area is 12 in $unjab, and in the machine %har#ested wheat fields chaff maker is used to collect the chaff for fodder, which lea#es about 2%252 residue in the field, which is usually disposed of by burning. According to an estimate, 81 million t of rice and wheat residues are a#ailable for recycling in the I0$ of India &(arkar et al. 4555). In $unjab alone, about 42 million t of rice straw is burned annually, which causes ' loss worth of =s 55 million. (tubble burning is the easiest and cheapest way of remo#ing residues from fields. @owe#er, the disposal of crop residues by burning is often critici*ed for accelerating losses of soil organic matter &(./) and nutrients, increasing > emissions, causing intense air pollution, and reducing soil microbial acti#ity. 6stimated emissions of greenhouse gases due to burning of rice straw in whole the I0$ of India are "uite substantial. -esides contributing to greenhouse effect, large scale burning of rice straw has added health ha*ards through a reported increase in respiratory problem and itching of eyes in the local population &(amra et al., 28). 6ffecti#e management of post har#est crop residues is perhaps the foremost challenge facing the intensi#e rice%wheat producing regions of the world. -urning of crop residues has to be a#oided at all costs due to en#ironmental reasons. =esults from a long% term field study demonstrated that the rice and wheat producti#ity was not ad#ersely affected when rice residue was incorporated for 4 to , days prior to establishment of succeeding wheat crop as compared with remo#al or burning of straw &7ad#inder%(ingh et al., 28c). A few studies ha#e been carried out on impro#ed fertili*er management practices for the rice%wheat cropping system on soils amended with crop residues. +&4& -egume green manures ?egume green manures grown together with or before rice can reduce, and sometimes eliminate, the need for ' fertili*ers. (ymbiotic bacteria present in nodules that de#elop on the roots of legumes fix nitrogen directly from the atmosphere. !ransition period of ,5%9 days between har#esting of wheat and transplanting of rice could be utili*ed by planting fast growing legumes as green manure crops. Iuick growing legumes are #aluable green manures for rice%wheat cropping system and ha#e the potential to meet much, if not all, of the ' re"uirements of succeeding rice crop. !he fertili*er e"ui#alents of green manure in rice range from ,%42 kg ' ha %4 &7ad#inder%(ingh et al.4554). Incorporation of green manure crops into soil significantly increases the a#ailability of ' and many other plant nutrients &7ad#inder%(ingh et al. 4552). .ne of the most remarkable crops is the Sesbania aculeata. It can grow on most soils, fixes large amounts of ', and produces on an a#erage 5 t ha %4 of dry matter and 4 kg ' ha %4 in 9 days. !he other important legumes for green manuring are Crotalaria juncea and cowpea. Sesbania rostrata, which de#elops nodules on both root as well as stem is also fast '%fixing legume plant and perform better than S. aculeata in hot and humid climates &/eelu et al., 455,). ?ong%term field study by 7ad#inder%(ingh et al. &28b) showed that organic 258 manuring with +7/ plus 0/ without the application of any inorganic fertili*ers pro#ed "uite effecti#e in producing high rice yields &!able ,). !he regular incorporation of crop residues and +7/ increased &though at a slow rate) (./ contents. (hort season legume pulses such as mungbean can be grown in the fallow period between wheat and rice crops. $ulses pro#ide the much needed protein for human consumption in the form of grains and residues can be turned under to ser#e as manure. /eelu et al. &455,) showed that mungbean can pro#ide about 4 t ha %4 of grains and supply ,%9 kg ' ha %4 to the following rice. Table $. %ffect of green manure an! farmyar! manure (F&') on average crop yiel!s an! soil organic ( in a long)term rice)*heat e+periment at ,u!hiana (1-..) --). !reatment A#erage rice yield &t ha %4 ) A#erage wheat yield &t ha %4 ) (oil .rganic > &2) after 4555 rice Area%' 5.D,b ,.,4 bc .,4d 0reen manure 5.Db ,.,4 bc .,5d +7/ 5.2Db ,.95 a .9b +7/ : 0/ 5.55a ,.D4 a .95a (ource< 7ad#inder%(ingh et al. &28b) +&5& #lue green algae and A/olla -lue%green algae &-0A) are another important source of ' in rice. !he most fre"uently mentioned estimates of ' fixed by -0A inoculation are in the range of 2%8 kg ' ha %4 &/eelu et al., 455,). !he -0A also fix atmospheric ' whilst li#ing in ca#ities in the lea#es of a fern, A*olla &Anabaena azollae) that grows on the water surface co#ers the rice fields but does not interfere with the normal culti#ation of the rice crop. Eery high nitrogen production is possible following a*olla inoculation in the rice fields. .#er the whole year A*olla can fix more than , kg ' ha %4 . !he ' is only a#ailable to the rice crop after A*olla has decomposed, so the ferns must be incorporated into the soil whilst wet as a green manure. !he results of a large number of field experiments conducted in Asia ha#e shown that when A*olla is grown in rice fields, rice yields increase from , to 45 kg ha %4 &a#erage D kg ha %4 ) &/eelu et al., 455,). !he incorporation of A*olla would allow ' applications to be reduced by at least 8%, kgJha in India &/eelu et al., 455,). Although the benefits of A*olla would appear ob#ious, many farmers are not using it. +&8& #iofertili/ers in IPNS (ome soil microorganisms play an important role in impro#ing soil fertility and crop producti#ity due to there capability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, solubli*e insoluble phosphate and decompose farm waste resulting in the release of plant nutrients. !he extent of benefit from these microorganisms depends on there number and efficiency which, howe#er, is go#erned by a large number of soil and en#ironmental factors. Fhen 25, the number and acti#ity of specific microorganisms is sub%optimum, artificially multiplied culture of that micro%organism called microbial inoculants &biofertili*er) is used to hasten biological acti#ity to impro#e a#ailability of plant nutrient. -iofertili*ers &-+) differ from fertili*er in the sense that the former do not directly supply any nutrient to crop plant and are the culture of some specific bacteria and fungi. -acterial cultures like =hi*obium, A*ospirillium, A*otobacter ha#e the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen which in turn increase nitrogen supply to crop. -acterial cultures of $seudomonas and -acillus species and fungal culture of Aspergillus species help to con#ert insoluble phosphate into soluble &$lant usable) phosphate and thus impro#e phosphate a#ailability to the plants. (imilarly, fungi like Eesicular Arbuscular /ycorrhi*ae &EA/) increases nutrient uptake particularly of $ due to increased contact of roots from larger soil #olume. It is important to mention that so far -+ a#ailable are able to only take care of additional nitrogen from the atmosphere while phosphate (olubli*ing -+ only help in reco#ering $ fixed in soil and do not constitute addition of $ to the soil. .f late, biofertili*ers are being promoted as an important component in supplementing plant nutrient need of the Indian Agriculture. !he reason for renewed emphasis on the exploitation of biological nitrogen fixation &-'+) is ob#iously because of the higher cost of fossil fuel used for the production of mineral ' fertili*er. @owe#er, it may be mentioned here clearly that -+ would ne#er be able to substitute the need of fertili*er in modern agriculture system which is input intensi#e. +or example, rice%wheat cropping system producing about 4 tonnes foodgrains ha %4 remo#e about 25%8 ;g ' ha %4 year %4 . -iofertiliser at their present stage of de#elopment can not supply more than 45% , ;g 'Jha. It could, therefore, be considered only supplementary sources of plant nutrient nitrogen. !here are some constraints to the use of -+ due to which these ha#e not become popular !o make -+ an effecti#e supplementary source of fertili*ers, the following aspects need to be critically attended to< >ontinuous research is needed to produce region specific -+. Ideal, cheaper and easily a#ailable carrier for increasing longe#ity of -+ should also be de#eloped. =esearch should be done with regard to suitability of -+ against ad#erse conditions. ' fixation by different legumes under different agroclimatic situations needs to bed estimated. >oncurrent transfer of ' fixed by legumes for associated crops in intercropping should be in#estigated. Intensi#e promotional acti#ities need to be undertaken by extension agencies so that farmer de#elop confidence in the use of -+. +&9& (rganic manures and soil properties !he use of organic manures not only helps to substitute partly for chemical fertili*ers but also impro#e o#erall soil producti#ity through beneficial effects on physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. (e#eral workers &/askina et al., 4511, -ijay%(ingh et al., 455D) ha#e reported increases in organic > content of soil, a#ailable nutrient contents with the application of organic manures in rice. .rganic 255 manures also play a significant role in correcting micronutrient balance in rice%wheat system. Integrated use of organic manures and chemical fertili*ers has been found to be promising not only in maintaining higher producti#ity but also for pro#iding stability in crop production. !he effects ha#e been more pronounced in case of acidic than normal soils. In long term fertility experiments conducted in India, application of +7/ along with recommended '$; fertili*ers resulted in an extra grain yields of 2%45 kg ha %4
o#er '$; alone plots &'ambiar et al., 4552). !he residual effects in the following crop were 4%42 kg grains ha %4 . (ince +7/ was added on top of the recommended '$; application through chemical fertili*ers, its impact on crop yields can be attributed largely to beneficial effect on soil properties, soil moisture, better nutrient a#ailability, more fa#ourable conditions for root growth and supply of micronutrients. .rganic manures can influence the se#eral microbiological processes in soil such as urea hydrolysis, nitrification, denitrification, etc. .rganic manures also promote the growth and multiplication of useful microorganisms in the soil due to the fresh supply Incorporation of crop residues alone or in combination with green manure significantly increased the soil organic carbon and total ' contents. >ereals crop residues with wider ><' ratio and higher humification coefficient possibly lea#e more carbon in the soil form con#ersion to stable humus &/eelu et al., 455,). 0reen manuring and crop residue incorporation promoted water stable aggregates particularly K2mm and mean weight diameter, infiltration rate and reduced bulk density of the surface 5 cm soil layer and helped to remo#e the soil physical conditions o#er fertili*er ' treatment &/eelu et al., 455,). 0& *(N*-)SI(NS AND A!NDA ,(R ,)')R RSAR*" 'o doubt chemical fertili*ers will continue to play a major role in meeting the nutrient needs of crops. (ince fertili*ers are costly input and there is negati#e balance of nutrients, there is an urgent need for integration of chemical fertili*ers with organic sources for achie#ing production sustainability. If only a part of the a#ailable wastes are recycled seriously and regularly, this will result in considerable impro#ements in #alue% added waste disposal, human health and sanitation, crop yields and soil health. !he integrated use of green manures, organic manures, biofertili*ers and inorganic fertili*ers in rice%wheat system has a great potential to off%set the hea#y re"uirements of chemical fertili*ers, to achie#e maximum yields and to sustain the crop producti#ity on long term basis. (ome estimates of fertili*er e"ui#alents of organic materials are a#ailable but they are based on limited date and for few soils and agro%ecological regions. !here are a number of gaps in our knowledge for de#eloping "uantitati#e estimates on different aspects of integrated nutrient management for specific en#ironments. !he residual effect of organic manures needs to be accounted for the entire cropping system. In order to determine optimum application rates of different organic materials, we need to know the potential and limitations of each nutrient source. -esides, for achie#ing sustainability of high production, there is need to integrate both organic and inorganic sources of nutrients as has been re#ealed by large number of long%term fertili*er experiments conducted all o#er India. !here are definite methods and technologies to increase use efficiency of #arious sources of nutrients. !hese need to be adopted for efficient nutrient use and to 259 pre#ent the deterioration in the "uality of production en#ironment. $riorities for future research are as under< 4. An in#entory of all the a#ailable sources of plant nutrients is to be prepared for each agro%eco region to strength research and de#elopment efforts and also bring out the potentials and limitations of each resource. !he chemical, physical and biological characteristics of all the a#ailable recyclable materials is to be catalogued. 2. !here is a need to work on recycling of wastes and their con#ersion into easily transportable and usable forms for their effecti#e utili*ation in plant nutrient supply. 8. 6fficient management of organic materials as nutrient source re"uires a knowledge of se#eral aspects of there transformations in soil. !he net release of nutrients from organic sources is a function of their chemical composition and of soil, climate and cultural factors. !here is a need to study decomposition and nutrient release patterns from di#erse sources of organic materials under laboratory and field conditions. !he data collected from these studies should be used to de#elop predicti#e modals for the net release of nutrients from soil and organic sources under field conditions. ,. !here is also need to work out and "uantify fertili*er replacement #alue of different organic sources so that effecti#e integrated nutrient packages can be assembled for different cropping systems in different soils and agroeco%regions. 5. 6stimation of the percentage contribution of organic sources to soil nutrient budget that will be a#ailable during the current growing season and residual nutrients from their applications. 9. =ole of organic materials in impro#ing fertili*er use efficiency and utili*ation low grade rock phosphate need to be in#estigated. D. Iuantification of nutrient losses from organic materials and de#ise methods to increase the efficiency of their use. 1. 6#aluation of long term benefits of organic materials on soil physical properties, biological acti#ity, organic matter dynamics and stabili*ation of crop yields. 5. =esearch on de#eloping cultures of micro%organisms and techni"ues which hasten the process of composting in order to produce good "uality of compost will be useful. =ole of earthworms in digesting organic wastes needs to be e#aluated. 4. -reeding and selection of superior '2% fixing legume species and culti#ars for green manuring, short duration pulses and fodder legumes with fast growth to pro#ide highest possible biomass and ' input in short duration. 44. 6fficient management of crop residues in rice%wheat system should be in#estigated. 42. (creening of species of A*olla and -0A for tolerance to #ery high and low temperature, low concentration of $ in the growth medium and low soil moisture content. At present, sensiti#ity of A*olla and -0A to these conditions limited their use. 48. /anagement of mycorrhi*a and other promising beneficial micro%organisms e.g. phosphorus solubili*ing microorganism. !he potential of biofertili*ers to supply $ and micronutrients is yet to be harnessed. 25D 4,. Impro#ing management of inorganic fertili*ers through timing of fertili*er application, use of inno#ati#e fertili*er materials, de#elopment and e#aluation of impro#ed soil testing methods &use of ' minerali*ation potential approach, use of chlorophyll meter in determining ' needs.) 45. Although the positi#e effects of organic matter on the soil physical properties is accepted, all its benefits are not sufficiently "uantified through research. /ore data are needed on the direct and indirect benefits of greater soil organic matter content, impro#ed physical properties, replenishing secondary and micro nutrients, better buffering of soil p@ and the reduction of en#ironmental externalities. 49. 6conomic e#aluation of the each integrated nutrient management technology and identification of constraints in the adoption of new technology. R,RN*S -ijay%(ingh, 7ad#inder%(ingh, /askina, /.(. and /eelu, .. $. &455D). !he #alue of poultry manure for wetland rice grown in rotation with wheat. 'ut. >ycl. Agroecosys. ,D<2,8%25. 0aur, A.>. &4552). -ulky organic manures. In< Fertilizers, Organic Manures, Recyclable Wastes and Biofertilizers, &@.?.(. !andon, 6d.), pp 89%54. +B>., 'ew Belhi, India. 0aur, A.>. and (ingh, 0. &4555). In< Recycling of Crop, Anial, !uan and "ndustrial Wastes in Agriculture &@.?.(. !andon, ed.), pp. 84%,5. +B>., 'ew Belhi, India. 0ill, @.(. and /eelu, ..$. &4512). (tudies on the substitution of inorganic fertili*ers with organic manure and their effect on soil fertility in rice%wheat rotation. +ert. =es.8< 88% 84,. 3ain, /.>. and ;umar, (. &4555). In< Recycling of Crop, Anial, !uan and "ndustrial Wastes in Agriculture .&@.?.(. !andon, ed.), pp. 5%9D. +B>., 'ew Belhi, India. 3uwarkar, A.(., (hende, A., !hawale, $.=., (atyanarayanan, (., Beshbratar, $.-., -al, A.( and 3uwarkar, A. &455,). In< Fertilizers, Organic Manures, Recyclable Wastes and Biofertilizers. &@.?.(. !andon, 6d.), pp. D2%5. +B>., 'ew Belhi, India. /askina, /.(., 7ad#inder%(ingh and -ijay%(ingh &4511). =esponse of wetland rice to fertili*er ' in soil amended with cattle, poultry and pig manures. -iol. Fastes 29<4%1. /eelu, ..$., 7ad#inder%(ingh and -ijay%(ingh &455,). 0reen /anuring for (oil $roducti#ity Impro#ement. +A. Forld (oil =esources =eports 'o.D9. 428 pp. 'ambiar, ;.;./., (oni, $.'., (ingh, ;.$., and ?al, (. &4552). AI>=$ on ?ong%term +ertili*er 6xperiments. Annual =eports &451D%11, and 4511%15). Indian Agricultural =esearch Institute, 'ew Belhi. 251 $rasad, -. &455,). Integrated nutrient management for sustainable agriculture. +ert. 'ews 85&5)< 45%25. $rasad, -., $rasad, 3. and $rasad, =. &4555). 'utrient management for sustainable rice and wheat production in calcareous soil amended with green manures, organic manures and *inc. +ert. 'ews , &2)< 85%,5. =amaswami, $.$. &4555). =ecycling of agricultural and agro industry wastes for agricultural production. 3. Indian (oc. (oil (ci. ,D< 994%995. (amra, 3.(., -ijay%(ingh and ;umar, ;. &28). /anaging >rop =esidues in the =ice% Fheat (ystem of the Indo%0angetic $lain. In< "pro#ing t$e %roducti#ity and Sustainability of Rice&W$eat Systes' "ssues and "pact. &3. ;. ?adha, 3. 6. @ill, 3. /. Buxbury, =. ;. 0upta, and =. 3. -uresh, 6ds.), A(A (pecial $ubl. 95, pp. 4D8%455. A(A, /adison, FI. (arkar, A., 7ada#, =.?., 0angwar, -. and -hatia, $.>. &4555). >rop residues in India. !ech. -ull. $roject Birectorate for >ropping (ystem =esearch, /odipuram, India. (harma, ;.'., -ijay%(ingh, =ana, B.(. and ;apur, /.?. &45D1). $robability analysis for estimating the #ariability in nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents of farmyard manures. Indian 3. Agril. (ci. ,1<D41%D22. (reeramulu, A.(. &455,). Atili*ation of sewage and sludge for increasing crop production. 3. Indian (oc. (oil (ci. ,2< 525%582. !andon, @.?.(. &4559). In< %lant (utrient (eeds, Supply, )fficiency and %olicy "ssues. &3.(. ;anwar and 3.>. ;atyal, 6ds.), $p. 45%21. 'ational Academy of Agricultural (ciences, 'ew Belhi, India. !omar, '.;. and 3oshi, B.>. &4551). (tatus, composition and characteristics of organic matter in soils of Indo%0angetic plains. -ull. 45. Indian (ociety of (oil (cience, 'ew Belhi, India. pp 84%,D. 7ad#inder%(ingh, -ijay%(ingh, 0upta, =.;., ;hind, >.(. and ?adha, 3.;. &28). /anaging pressmud cake for nitrogen and phosphorus nutrition of crops in a rice%wheat rotation. Int. =ice =es. 'otes 21 &4)< 55%94. 7ad#inder%(ingh, -ijay%(ingh, ?adha, 3.;. ;hind,
>.(., 0upta, = ;., /eelu, ..$. and $asu"uin, 6. &2,a). ?ong%term effect of organic inputs on yield and soil fertility in the rice%wheat rotation. (oil (ci. (oc. Am. 3. 91< %. 7ad#inder%(ingh, -ijay%(ingh , ?adha, 3. ;., ;hind,
>. (., ;hera, !. (. and -ueno, >. &2,b). /anagement effects on residue decomposition, crop production, and soil fertility in a rice%wheat rotation in India. (oil (ci. (oc. Am. 3. 91< %. 255 7ad#inder%(ingh, -ijay%(ingh and ;hind, >.(. &4552). 'utrient transformations in soils amended with green manures. Ad#. (oil (ci. 2< 28D%85. 7ad#inder%(ingh, ;hind, >.(. and -ijay%(ingh &4554). 6fficient management of leguminous green manures in wetland rice. Ad#. Agron. ,5< 485%415. 29