Acids

Definition
An acid is a substance which produces hydrogen ions, H
+
, as the only positive ions when it is
dissolved in water.
The acid dissociates in water to give H
+
ions and the corresponding anion.
It is the dissociation of hydrogen ions in water to give acids their acidic properties.
Role of water
In the absence of water, hydrogen chloride exists as a covalent molecule. It does not produce
hydrogen ions,, hence does not behave like an acid.
In water, hydrogen chloride dissociates to form hydrogen ions and chloride ions. The
hydrogen ions are responsible for the acidic properties.
Basicity
The number of hydrogen ions produced by the dissociation of one acid molecule in water.
Monobasic, Dibasic and Tribasic
Properties
Acids have a sour taste.
Acids dissolve in water to form solutions which conduct electricity. The aqueous ions are
mobile in solution and are able to act as mobile charge carriers to conduct electricity.
Acids turn moist blue litmus paper red.
Reactions with metals
Acid + Metal Salt + Water
Dilute acids react with metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series to produce hydrogen
gas and a salt.
P S C M A Z I L H C S G
Reactions with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates
Acid + Carbonate/Hydrogencarbonate Salt + Water + Carbonate
Reactions with Bases
Acid + Base Salt + water
Test for substances
Hydrogen Gas will extinguish a lighted splint with a pop sound when it is placed at the
mouth of a test tube.
Carbon Dioxide will form a white precipitate with limewater.
Strength vs Concentration
Strength of an acid refers to the extent to which an acid dissociates to form H
+
ions when
dissolved in water.
A strong acid completely dissociates in water to form hydrogen ions in water. All the acid
molecules become ions in water.
A weak acid partially dissociates in water. Most of the acid molecules remain dissociated as
covalent molecules.
Concentration refers to the number of solute particles per unit volume of the solution.
A concentrated/dilute acid is made by dissolving a large/small number of acid moleculs in a
small amount/a lot of water.
Uses of Sulfuric Acid
Manafacture of Fertiliser, Manafacture of Detergents, Battery acid in cars.



Bases and Alkalis
Definition
A base is any metal oxide or hydroxide that reacts with an acid to produce salt and water
only.
An alkali is a hydroxide that produces OH
-
ions when it is dissolved in water.
Strength
A strong alkali ionizes completely to form hydroxide ions in water.
A weak alkali ionizes partially to form hydroxide ions in water. Most of the alkali molecules
remain undissociated.
Properties
Alkalis have a bitter taste and soapy feel.
Alkalis dissolve in water to form solutions which conduct electricity. The aqueous ions are
mobile in solution and are able to act as mobile charge carriers to conduct electricity.
Alkalis turn moist red litmus paper blue.
Reaction with Acid
Acid + Base Salt + Water
Neutralisation
Reaction with Ammonium salts
Alkali + Ammonium salt (heat) Salt + Water + Ammonia Gas
Alkalis react with ammonium salts with heating.
Reaction with metal salts (Precipation)
Alkali (Metal B Hydroxide) + Salt (of Metal A) Metal A hydroxide + Salt of metal B
Alkalis react with solutions of metal salts to give metal hydroxide and another metal salt.
Test for substances
Ammonia gas turns moist red litmus paper blue.
Ammonia gas can also be recognized by its characteristic pungent smell.
pH
pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
pH = -lg(H
+
)
Concentration depends on basicity, strength and initial concentration.
Phenolphthalein
0-8 Colourless 11-14 Pink
Methyl Orange
0-3 Red 5-14 Yellow
Thymol Blue
0-1 Red 3-8 Yellow 10-14 Blue
Congo Red
0-3 Blue 5-14 Red
Bromothymol Blue
0-3 Yellow 7-14 Blue
Universal Indicator
1-2 Red 3-4 Orange 5-6 Yellow 7 Green 8-10 Blue-green 11-12 Blue 13-14 Violet






Oxides
Definition
An oxide is a compound of oxygen and other element.
Acidic Oxide
Acidic oxides may be formed by nonmetals.
Most dissolve in water to form an acid.
e.g. SO
2

Basic Oxide
Basic oxides are oxides formed by metals.
Most basic oxides are insoluble in water. A few such as sodium oxide and potassium oxide
dissolve in water and are called alkalis.
e.g. MgO
Amphoteric Oxide
Some metallic oxides are amphoteric.
e.g. Zinc Oxide
Neutral Oxide
Some nonmetals form oxides that do not react with either acids or alkalis and therefore do
not form salts.
e.g. CO, NO, H
2
O

Salts
Definition
A salt is an ionic compound formed when a metallic ion or an ammonium ion replaces one
or more hydrogen ions of an acid.
Hydrated and Anhydrous Salts
Many salts combine with water molecules to form hydrated salts.
Water molecules are known as water of crystallization.
Hydrated (heat) Anhydrous
Salt Preparation
Precipitation
Solution with cation + Solution with anion
1. Add anion solution to cation solution and stir till no more precipitate forms.
2. Filter to collect ___ as the residue.
3. Wash the residue with a small amount of deionized water to remove impurities.
4. Dry the ___ between two pieces of filter paper.
Reaction of dilute acid with excess insoluble substance
Metal/Base/Carbonate + Acid
1. Add excess Metal/Base/Carbonate to Acid to ensure that all acid has been reacted.
2. Filter to collect ___ as the filtrate.
3. Heat the filtrate to get hot saturated solution.
4. When the filtrate is saturated, leave it to cool and crystallize.
6. Filter the mixture and collect ___ as the residue. Wash the residue with a small amount of
cold deionized water to remove impurities. Dry the ___ between two pieces of filter paper.
Titration
1. ___ was titrated with ___ using methyl orange as indicator.
2. After determining the volume of nitric acid needed to reach the equivalence point, the
titration was repeated without the use of indicators.
3. Heat the resulting solution to get a hot saturated solution.
4. Leave the saturated solution to cool and crystallise.
5. Filter the mixture and obtain sodium nitrate as the residue.
6. Wash the sodium nitrate with cold deionized water.
7. Dry the sodium nitrate crystals between sheets of filter paper.

QA
Cation NaOH (few - excess) Nh4 (aq) (few - excess)
Al white - soluble white - insoluble
Pb
Zn white - soluble
Ca white - insoluble no visible change
Cu blue - insoluble blue - soluble
Fe(II) green - insoluble green - insoluble
Fe(III) reddish-brown - insoluble reddish-brown - insoluble
NH
4
no ppt - nh4 gas given off
upon heating
ammonia gas turns moist
red litmus paper blue


Anion Test Observations
NO
3
Add aqueous NaOH, then a Moist red litmus paper
piece of aluminium foil.
Warm mixture.
Test the gas given off with
moist red litmus paper.
turns blue.
Ammonia gas is given off.

CO
3
Add dilute HCl.
Pass the gas given off into
limewater.
Effervescence is observed.
Gas given off forms a white
ppt with limewater.
CO
2
gas is given off.
Cl Add dilute HNO
3
, then
silver nitrate solution.
A white ppt of silver
chloride is formed.
I Add dilute HNO
3
, then
silver nitrate solution.
A yellow ppt of silver iodide
is formed.
SO
4
Add dilute HNO
3
, then
barium nitrate solution.
A white ppt of barium
sulfate is formed.

Gas Colour and odour Test Observations
H
2
C and O Place a lighted splint
at mouth of test
tube.
extinguished with a
pop sound
O
2
Place a
glowingsplint at
mouth of test tube.
rekindled
CO
2
Bubble through
limewater.
white ppt formed
Cl Greenish yellow gas
with a pungent
smell
Place a piece of
moist blue litmus
paper at mouth of
test tube.
moist blue litmus
paper turns red, is
then bleached
SO
2
Colourless gas with
a pungent smell
Place a piece of
filter paper soaked
with acidified
potassium
manganate (VII) at
the mouth of test
tube.

Place a piece of
filter paper soaked
with acidified
potassium
dichromate (VI) at
the mouth of test
tube.
purple potassium
manganate (VII)
turns colourless

orange potassium
dichromate (VI)
turns green
NH
3
Place a piece of
moist red litmus
paper at mouth of
test tube.
moist red litmus
paper turns blue