Reducing Electrode Consumption

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The general aim of this project was to reduce graphite electrode consumption at DC EAF
plants.
Camera-based systems allowing for monitoring of the state of the electrode after the
melting of each scrap basket were installed in the steel plants of ArcelorMittal Esch-
Belval and Differdange. Dedicated image analysis software and logging systems were
developed to follow up the electrode wear.
Three industrial measurement campaigns were carried out. Electrode consumption was
calculated on a basket-by-basket basis and the accuracy of the measurement method
was evaluated. Industrial results were studied in detail, splitting electrode consumption
into three main mechanisms: continuous consumption, crack losses and stub-end loss-
es. Statistical analyses were then carried out, and the main operating parameters influ-
encing the different modes of consumption identified.
An extended version of the BFI electrode consumption model was proposed and vali-
dated.
Additional investigations (using X-ray scanning and metallographic analyses) were car-
ried out on industrial electrode samples to study the generation and propagation of
cracks in the electrode material.
CSM carried out dedicated pilot-scale tests in order to evaluate the influence of several
process parameters on electrode consumption and to study the behaviour of artificially
cracked electrodes.
Guidelines to reduce the electrode consumption in DC plants were proposed.
Four such camera-based electrode-monitoring systems have now been installed in
industrial EAF plants and more are envisaged. The system is used both online by furnace
operators and offline by plant managers to negotiate with electrode suppliers and to
support the development of new electrode solutions.

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Monitoring system for controlling
and reducing the electrode consumption in
DC EAF plants
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European Commission
Research Fund for Coal and Steel
Monitoring system for controlling and reducing
the electrode consumption in DC EAF plants
J. Borle, M. Wauters, C. Mathy, M. Weber
CRM
Avenue du Bois Saint-Jean, 21 (P59), 4000 Lige, BELGIUM
M. Picco, J-C. Baumert
ProfilARBED
Rue du Luxembourg, 66, 4009 Esch-sur-Alzette, LUXEMBOURG
B. Kleimt
VDEH-BFI
Sohnstrae, 65, 40237 Dsseldorf, GERMANY
L. Di Sante, P. Frittella
CSM
Via di Castel Romano, 100/102, 00128 Roma, ITALY
Contract No RFSR-CT-2003-00024
1 September 2003 to 31 August 2006
Final report
2009 EUR 23889 EN
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Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2009

ISBN 978-92-79-11982-8

ISSN 1018-5593

European Communities, 2009
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Final summary .................................................................................................................. 5
2. Scientific and technical description of the results ..................................................... 15
2.1. Objectives of the project................................................................................................ 15
2.2. Comparison of initially planned activities and work accomplished ......................... 15
2.3. Description of activities and discussion...................................................................... 17
2.3.1. WP1: Implementation and set-up of optical system for electrode monitoring..................17
2.3.1.1. Task 1.1: Installation of camera and computer........................................................17
2.3.1.2. Task 1.2: Pre-tests of measurement system...........................................................23
2.3.1.3. Task 1.3: Development of software for image analysis ...........................................23
2.3.1.4. Task 1.4: Preparation of the logging system............................................................27
2.3.1.5. Task 1.5: Test at twin-shell EAF ..............................................................................27
2.3.2. WP2: Industrial measurement campaigns and analysis of results...................................27
2.3.2.1. Task 2.1: Measurements and data logging..............................................................27
2.3.2.2. Task 2.2: Analysis of the results (operating parameters) ........................................28
2.3.2.3. Task 2.3: Analysis of the results (tip drops, breakage)............................................62
2.3.2.4. Task 2.4: Influence of mechanical solicitations........................................................77
2.3.3. WP3: Extension of the Calculation Model for Electrode Consumption............................78
2.3.3.1. Task 3.1: Information about industrial results..........................................................78
2.3.3.2. Task 3.2: Extension of the Calculation Model..........................................................79
2.3.4. WP4: Pilot Scale Simulations...........................................................................................83
2.3.4.1. Task 4.1: Preparation and Modifications of Pilot Plant............................................83
2.3.4.2. Task 4.2: First Series of Tests .................................................................................87
2.3.4.3. Task 4.3: Second Series of Tests............................................................................94
2.3.5. WP5: Definition of Guidelines for Reducing Electrode Consumption.............................101
2.3.5.1. Task 5.1: Modification of furnace operation...........................................................101
2.3.5.2. Task 5.2: Electrode Grade, nippling.......................................................................103
2.4. Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 104
2.5. Exploitation and impact of the research results ....................................................... 105
2.5.1. Current applications +Technical and economic potential for the use of the results......105
2.5.2. Any possible patent filing;...............................................................................................106
2.5.3. Publications / conference presentations resulting from the project;...............................106
2.5.4. Any other aspects concerning the dissemination of results ...........................................107
Annex A - Description of the image processing routines............................................................. 109
Annex B - Review and validation of the data file from APLDi ...................................................... 113
Annex C - Accuracy of the electrode consumption measurement .............................................. 119
List of figures .................................................................................................................................... 133
List of tables ...................................................................................................................................... 137
List of references .............................................................................................................................. 139

3

1. FINAL SUMMARY
The general objective of the project was to reduce the consumption of graphite electrode at DC EAF
(Direct Current Electric Arc Furnaces), thus lowering steelmaking costs through direct electrode costs
and enhanced productivity (notably through the reduction of production downtime for electrode
replacement).
Modern high-powered DC furnaces are equipped with very large electrodes, which are submitted to
specific thermo-mechanical solicitations. In these furnaces, discontinuous consumption events
(electrode breakage, butt losses or tip drops and tip spalling) have become highly significant.
Understanding and monitoring these events could thus allow a noticeable reduction in electrode
consumption.
The proposed approach was to set-up in the DC EAF plant of APLBe (ProfilARBED Esch-Belval) a
camera-based system that allows monitoring the state of the electrode after the melting of each scrap
basket. Dedicated image analysis software would then be developed and incorporated into an
automatic system for the follow-up of electrode wear mechanisms. From there on, the work
programme was divided into three main parts:
Industrial measurement campaigns in Esch-Belval, allowing to collect sufficient data set for
statistical analysis;
Pilot tests in an experimental 1t DC furnace, allowing to test specific wear mechanisms under
controlled conditions;
Definition of guidelines to reduce electrode consumption.
Moreover, in the scope of this research, it was also included to test the applicability of the electrode
monitoring system at the twin-shell DC EAF of APLDi (ProfilARBED Differdange), where the operating
schedule for the electrode (and thus for the monitoring system) is more stringent. This would help
reaching clear conclusions about the transferability of the system to other types of EAF plants.
All WPs (work packages) and tasks have been carried-out by project partners in relatively good
agreement with the initial schedule. Additional tasks have even been performed to better understand
electrode cracking mechanisms (metallographic and X-ray analyses of electrode samples).
WP1: Implementation and set-up of optical system for electrode monitoring
Task 1.1: Installation of camera and computer
Installation in APLDi twin-shell DC EAF
A low resolution CCD camera (640x480 pixels) with an embedded image processing unit was
installed at the APLDi twin-shell EAF before the start of the current project. Located on the symmetry
line between the two vessels, the camera is mounted on the rear wall of the furnace hall, installed in a
protective housing and equipped with a compressed air heat exchanger. It is externally triggered by
means of the signal from an encoder measuring the angular position of the electrode arm in-between
the two vessels. Additional equipment is a laser distance sensor for the height of the electrode arm
and a calibration panel.
In order to make use of this pre-existing equipment in the frame of the current project, APLCSE R&D
had to adapt the programs for camera control, image acquisition automatic data logging.
Installation in APLBe DC EAF
The EAF of APLBe differs from the APLDi furnace, as it is equipped with a single shell DC furnace.
APLCSE R&D installed a new camera-based electrode monitoring system equipped with a higher
5

resolution camera (1280x1024 pixels). Fixed on a beam located close to the rear wall of the furnace
hall, the camera is installed in a tent-shaped protective housing, equipped with a compressed air heat
exchanger and air blowing nozzles protecting the system from strong dust accumulation and keeping
the camera window clean. The system also comprises a laser distance sensor for the electrode arm
height and a calibration panel.
APLCSE R&D developed programs for camera control, image acquisition and storage. Raw and
processed electrode images are stored, together with relevant furnace data in a dedicated database.
Task 1.2: Pre-tests of measurement system
Pre-tests of the camera-based systems were carried-out both in Differdange and Esch-Belval during
installation, calibration and development of data transmission and image analysis softwares. Initial
images recorded in both plants demonstrated the feasibility of the electrode monitoring system and
the interest to use such system for the follow-up of EAF plant operation.
Task 1.3: Development of software for image analysis
APLCSE R&D developed image-processing routines for evaluating the electrode wear both in APLDi
and APLBe plants. The detection of electrode tip allows a basic calculation of electrode consumption.
Analysing the shape of the electrode tip then allows refining the computation of wear and identifying
the type of wear mechanism. Geometric parameters such as the tip width and the oxidized length are
extracted from the images, in parallel with the detection of cracks, with their length and size.
In APLDi, artificial colouring of the images was also used to give an indication on the distribution of
heat across the electrode rod, which may be influenced by a deflection of the electric arc.
Task 1.4: Preparation of the logging system
APLCSE R&D has developed a dedicated logging system for static and dynamic operating data at
APLBe. A comprehensive on-line database has been created that links raw electrode images to the
results of the automated image processing routine and to relevant furnace operating parameters
collected from plant control systems.
Task 1.5: Test at twin-shell EAF
The applicability of the camera based monitoring system at the twin shell furnace of APLDi has been
evaluated. In such furnace, the pictures of the electrode have to be taken when the electrode passes
in front of the camera, with no possibility to select a suitable moment for luminosity. Moreover, it has
to be noted that the low-resolution camera available that plant had no possibility for automatic
adjustment of luminosity. Some electrode images are thus too bright (saturated) and some others too
dark to be exploited. Nevertheless, the data set obtained with the monitoring system during the first
industrial measurement campaign was found to be sufficient for effective use.
Probably only a very high speed camera capable of taking a series of images using different
apertures or exposure times may allow extracting all wear features of the electrode tip. The cost for
such system is considered as prohibitive in APLDi.
WP2: Industrial measurement campaigns and analysis of the results
Task 2.1: Measurements and data logging
Data from APLDi: A large set of images was first recorded with the low-resolution system in APLDi,
during the month of February 2004. These images were processed and furnace-operating data were
collected by APLCSE R&D. The collected data files were then handed over to CRM for extensive
compilation and data processing.
6

First Data set from APLBe: A large set of industrial data was recorded with the high-resolution
camera system in October and November 2004, February, March and May 2005. This data collection
campaign had to be extended in 2005 in order to obtain a sufficient data set, considering the limited
operation of the furnace. All electrode images, results of the image software analysis and the relevant
EAF process data collected in APLCSE R&D database were then sent to CRM for preparation and
review.
Second Data set from APLBe: APLCSE R&D collected a second large set of data in APLBe from
J anuary 2006 to J une 2006, with more then 3600 heats included. Again, all data files were handed
over to CRM. However, as some difficulties were encountered with the dedicated data logging
system, part of the data was missing (tip width and crack length of the electrode, sonic-meter signal,
injections of lime and of carbon, etc) and had to be recomputed off-line by CRM, when possible.
Task 2.2: Analysis of the results (operating parameters)
The electrode consumption is commonly divided into two modes: The continuous consumption and
the discontinuous consumption:
Continuous (or net) consumption covers the progressive consumption of the hot end of the
graphite column. It is usually splitted in two contributions: the tip consumption (mainly linked to the
transmission of the electrical current) and the side consumption (relating to oxidation reactions
with furnace atmosphere and slag). Many references can be found in the literature to describe
these two contributions to the electrode wear.
Discontinuous consumption events include tip spalling, stub end losses and breakages. Tip
spalling (or crack losses) consists in the loss of a part of the electrode tip, induced by the network
of cracks that generate and propagate at electrode tip due to mechanical and thermal stress. Stub
end losses correspond to chunk drop-offs of the whole graphite electrode tip up to a nipple
transition. Breakages can be induced by various strong mechanical shocks, possibly taking place
out of the furnace (during power-off periods), and lead to the loss of a significant part of the
electrode mast.
The electrode monitoring system that was developed in the project allows monitoring the different
types of wear, except the breakage which leads to full electrode replacement and thus resets the
consumption calculation. Melts with only continuous consumption or with crack loss or stub-end loss
events taking place can be detected by a detailed observation of successive electrode pictures.
The basic computation of the electrode consumption is carried-out by measuring the difference in
length of the electrode (before and after the melting phase) from the analysis of two successive
electrode pictures and the recorded positions of the electrode arm. Work was done to refine this
computation by taking into account the real shape of the electrode tip: using the measured tip widths
and oxidized lengths. Both computation techniques give similar results. Although the second one is
more accurate and allows splitting consumption values into tip and side consumptions, it is very costly
in terms of number of valid calculation cases, reducing the available data for statistical review.
The accuracy of the measurement method was then evaluated for both steel plants. Some corrective
actions were proposed and applied to all data sets (effect of luminosity in APLDi and parallax
deviation in both plants). The main final result from the investigation is a residual standard uncertainty
on the measurement of electrode consumption of 2 to 6% in APLBe, with the high-resolution camera.
Data from APLDi:
102 870 tls (t of liquid steel) were produced in 694 charges during February 2004. According to plant
operators, 58 electrode elements were consumed for a total weight of 128 990 kg or 1,25 kg/tls. After
review and processing, the exploitable data file ended-up containing 897 baskets melting (439 first
baskets, 458 second baskets) and 377 complete charges, with two valid baskets.
The electrode consumption per basket and per charge was analysed by reviewing the electrode images
to classify consumption values in 3 groups: melts with a very clear and significant stub end loss occurring,
7

melts with other discontinuous consumption mechanisms taking place (mainly crack losses, with possibly
partial stub end loss) and melts with no visible discontinuous consumption. For the two baskets, the
continuous consumption values form a baseline which is directly proportional to the electrical energy used
for melting (consumption ratio of about 2.1 kg electrode/MWh). Discontinuous consumption values all lie
above a separation line that can be drawn at 3.5 kg/MWh. They show no clear relationship with the
electrical energy. The higher discontinuous values correspond to stub end losses, which can account for
an increase in graphite consumption up to 300 kg/basket.
The calculated average consumption per charge is 164 kg of electrode (1.07 kg/tls or 2.6 kg/MWh).
However, it reduces to 142 kg (0.93 kg/tls or 2.2 kg/MWh) when charges with only continuous
consumption are considered. The overall fraction of electrode consumption due to discontinuous
events is thus about 13%. This value is consistent with the literature.
Despite the relatively low resolution of the camera installed in APLDi, some electrode shape
parameters were also monitored. Oxidized length values range from 0.1 to 1.7 m, with an average of
about 0.6 m. Generally speaking, oxidised length increases more or less steadily with the utilisation
time of each electrode segment, then sharply decreases when switching to a new electrode segment.
Logically, tip width variations are just the opposite: continuously decreasing from 700-760mm when a
new electrode segment has been reached. The evolution of the crack size parameter is more erratic,
but it was observed that it generally decreases when switching to a new electrode segment.
The average values of continuous consumption were found significantly different for the two vessels
of the twin-shell plant (e.g. +20% for first baskets in vessel n2). No significant variation in process
parameters (O
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lances, coal, O
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PC, etc) could explain such difference, but a significant variation
was found in a parameter given by the image analysis software, which indicates the distribution of
heat across the electrode rod at the end of a melt. The distribution is strongly uneven at vessel 2
because of a persistent deflection of the electric arc. This most probably explains the large difference
in average continuous consumption between the two vessels.
First APLBe data set
The data set, that originally contained 2060 basket recordings, reduced after review and processing to
1470 valid baskets (766 first baskets and 704 second baskets) and 531 complete charges (with two
valid baskets). The average electrode consumption values computed from image analysis (1.09 kg/tls)
is in quite good agreement with the figures reported by the plant for the corresponding months.
The detailed analysis of electrode consumption was performed using the image analysis system and
led to the same general conclusions than for the APLDi data set. The gross consumption per charge
is 171 kg of electrode (1.09 kg/tls or 3 kg/MWh), but reduces to 151 kg (0.96 kg/tls or 2.6 kg/MWh)
when charges with only continuous consumption are considered. Comparing with the APLDi results,
the electrode consumption per ton of liquid steel is almost the same. However, as the specific
electrical energy consumption is much lower in APLBe (-12%), the electrode consumption per unit of
electrical input is much higher (about 15%).
Other elements for comparing the two plants are:
The frequency of discontinuous consumption events (especially crack losses) is significantly
higher in APLBe. However, as these events occur with less consequence (lower average extra
graphite consumption), the overall fraction of electrode consumption due to discontinuous events
ends up about the same in both plants: 12% in APLBe versus 13% in APLDi.
The higher frequency of crack losses in APLBe was investigated. The average current is almost
the same on both sites (about 115 kA), but a noticeable difference can be found in current peaks.
Values observed at APLBe (average =140 kA, with a standard deviation of 6.6 kA) are higher and
fluctuate more than in APLDi (130 kA, with standard deviation of 3.4 kA). Another possible
explanation for higher crack losses in APLBe is the erratic operation of the furnace during the
recording period: frequent shut down and start-up phases have certainly enhanced transient
effects (thermal shocks), which are detrimental to the electrode integrity.
8

The values of the oxidised length are much higher in APLBe: from 0.5 to about 2.5 m (and even
up to 4 m) with an average at 1.06 m. Moreover, the link with the utilisation time of the electrode
segment is not as clear. These differences are most probably due to the much higher post-
combustion injections (air and oxygen) in the APLBe furnace, leading to more side wear.
Using the APLBe data, it was also shown that the influence of electrical current can be more precisely
quantified using the current density variable, computed by taking into account the real (measured)
size of the electrode tip. Smaller tip sizes lead to higher current densities, higher temperature of the
graphite, higher stress in the tip and thus higher continuous electrode consumption.
Finally, it was observed that the junction between electrode segments acts both as crack generator
and propagator. The main element is the nipple, which induces an area of uneven mechanical,
thermal and electrical solicitations, with associated stress pattern.
Second APLBe data set
The data set, which originally included 4032 basket recordings, is finally composed of 2747 valid
baskets (1328 first baskets and 1419 second baskets) and 1132 complete charges (with two valid
baskets). Unfortunately, some data were incorrectly logged (e.g. power-on time) and others were
missing (e.g. sonic-meter signal). The average electrode consumption values computed from image
analysis (1.03 kg/tls) is only 4% lower than the plant average value for the same 6-months period.
leads to the same general conclusions than for the other data sets. The gross consumption per
charge is 162 kg of electrode (1.03 kg/tls or 2.8 kg/MWh) but reduces to 137 kg (0.88 kg/tls or
2.4 kg/MWh) when charges with only continuous consumption are considered. The overall fraction of
electrode consumption due to discontinuous events is thus about 15%, slightly higher than for the
other data sets. This increase is in fact mainly due to the lower continuous consumption rate, which is
about 7% lower than for the other data sets (0.88 kg/tls against 0.93 and 0.96 kg/tls). This can
probably be explained by the steadier EAF process operation and by an improved current regulation
system, which reduces the scatter of the average current.
As for the other data sets, the average wear rate for the first basket (2.9 kg/MWh) is higher than for
the second basket (2.7 kg/MWh). This is mainly due to discontinuous consumption events. Comparing
the two steps of the process, the second melting phase involves a phase on flat bath which is steadier
(stable current, very little electrode movements, etc) and is thus be far less stringent for the electrode,
causing less discontinuous event per kWh of electrical energy.
Statistical analysis of industrial data
Statistical analyses of relationships between electrode consumption and furnace operating
parameters were carried-out by CRM and the BFI for APLDi and APLBe plants, for complete charges
and for baskets data, for continuous consumption (separately for tip and side wear mechanisms) and
for discontinuous consumption events. Generally, correlations are weak, due to artificial scatter from
several sources: the intrinsic error on consumption measurements (higher for APLDi than for APLBe),
the alternate baskets operation and the arc deflection problems at APLDi twin-shell plant, the
variations in electrode quality (different electrode lots and different suppliers) and the irregular
operation of EAF plants (especially during the collection of the first data set from APLBe).
The main factor influencing continuous tip consumption was found to be the electrical energy (total
electrical energy, power-on time, average current, etc). It was suggested that the best way to take this
parameter into account is probably to calculate an average current density, on the basis of real
electrode tip width.
The oxygen injected in burners, lances and post-combustion injectors also plays a significant role,
both on tip and side continuous wear. Finally, the iron oxide content in the slag and the extent of slag
foaming (measured by means of a sonic-meter) also exhibits an influence on continuous
9

consumption. Other correlations established with steel composition (Cr for both plants, Cu for APLDi
only) could not be readily explained and may be due to statistical bias.
Regarding discontinuous consumption events, the operating parameters identified as relevant were
essentially the same as for continuous wear. However, the number of recordings was rather low
(<100 in all data sets); these results can thus be questioned.
Task 2.3: Analysis of the results (tip drops, breakage)
Discontinuous consumption events, tip drops (or stub end losses) and crack losses, have been
already extensively described, analysed and studied in task 2.2. On complete charges, crack losses
and stub-end losses induce extra graphite consumptions of about 100 kg and 200 to 230 kg,
respectively, to be compared with 140-150 kg of average graphite consumption for charges with only
continuous wear.
Graphite electrodes are ceramic materials and exhibit a fragile behaviour when submitted to tensile
stresses. They are not able to absorb the stress energy by means of a plastic strain and the rupture
arises without any large elongation. Customary value of tensile strength is 10 Mpa, to compare with a
classical 250 Mpa or higher for steels. However, it must be mentioned that the tensile strength
increase as the temperature rises (+100% at 2500C) up to 2500 C but deteriorates beyond that
temperature. In DC furnaces, a strong temperature gradient is created by the flow of current in the
electrode column and results in a corresponding stress state: the core is in compression, while the
surface is in tension.
This stress is even enhanced once the electrode cools down (i.e. when the current is stopped): the
core is hotter than the surface that cools down quickly (thermal shock). The tensile stress strongly
increases at the surface, leading to a critical stress state. The same holds for tip of the electrode: the
arc that is fixed to the cathode (electrode) can reach a temperature higher than 3500C (sublimation
temperature of the graphite), thus generating an axial thermal gradient and high stress state. The tip
is thus submitted to what is called the thermal spalling.
The real stress state in the electrode is a complex combination of the various thermal effects, plus the
mechanical effects of vibrations, mechanical shocks, etc. Once a crack has been generated, it can
thus easily propagate through the core of the electrode.
It has been shown for the APLBe furnace that the frequency and severity of crack losses is higher just
before of after stub-end losses, i.e. around the junction between two electrode segments. As already
mentioned, this area is indeed a region of high stress:
The nipple has to hold the electrode column and thus obviously generates an area of uneven
mechanical solicitations.
The thermal pattern inside the electrode is disturbed by the material discontinuity in the nippling
section.
The uneven distribution of current in the nipple and at the interface between successive electrode
segments induces regions of very high current density, and thus additional thermal and
mechanical stresses.
In APLDi, the concentration of crack losses around nippling section is even stronger: they only occur
in the nipple area, mainly before the transition between electrode segments. The explanation of this
difference between APLBe and APLDi probably lies in the twin-shell configuration of the APLDi
furnace, where the electrode quickly switches from one vessel to the other between melts and has
thus little time for cooling (reduction of thermal shocks).
Around nipple transition, a network of longitudinal and transversal cracks is often observed.
Longitudinal cracks are generated and propagate due to hoop (transversal) stress, while transversal
cracks are created by axial stress. Longitudinal cracks can result in loosening of graphite parts,
especially at the end of electrode segments (opening and falling-off of complete electrode rings =
stub-end losses). The effect of transversal cracks can even be more detrimental to graphite
10

consumption: apart from loosening graphite parts, they also impair the flow of current by reducing the
well-structured conductive section and thus increase current density in the remaining graphite section.
To have a better understanding of crack wear, it was decided to investigate cracks formation and
propagation by means of observations on an electrode section. With the help of APLCSE R&D, CRM
collected two electrode sections at APLBe: a used electrode segment including the tip and a virgin
sample (part of a segment from an electrode breakage that did not enter into the furnace). The tip
presents several cracks, including a longitudinal crack with a length of 50 cm and propagating through
the whole tip section.
The most appropriate technique for observing the internal structure of the electrode was found to be
X-Ray scanning (Tomography). Analyses were realised by CRM in the department of image analysis
at the C.H.U (Centre Hospitalier Universitaire) of Lige. Moreover, to have a closer look at the
microscopic structure of graphite electrodes, CRM then performed qualitative metallographic analyses
on various electrode samples, both from the used and virgin sections. The objective was obviously
to check for any modification in microstructure during electrode usage. These investigations led to the
following conclusions:
cracks initiate mostly at the electrode surface as a result of a complex thermal and mechanical
stress pattern;
cracks then propagate trough the core of the graphite electrode by inter-granular progression,
using existing voids (0.01-1 mm ) and micro-cracks (2-3 mm long) in the graphite structure;
the amount of such defects increase significantly (from 8% to about 20%) in the lower part of the
electrode, close to the tip;
a network of cracks is thus created at the electrode tip, the most fragile and most stressed zone,
resulting in thermal spalling at a macroscopic scale;
steel droplets were observed at the surface of the electrode and deep in some cracks (10 to
15 cm deep); they may also play a role of crack generator and/or propagator.
Task 2.4: Influence of mechanical solicitations
As shown in tasks 2.2 and 2.3, discontinuous electrode consumption events during melting mainly
result from thermo-mechanical solicitations: breakage or loss of matter occurs once the strength limits
have been reached. Additional mechanical solicitations of the electrode mast are created by:
shocks / collisions / impacts, either because of bad handling operations or because of unusual
events during the melt (e.g. falling of scrap pile or big scrap piece on the electrode);
normal electrode movements during melting operations (vertical movements to follow the
progress of the process), in-between melts (withdrawal from furnace when roof has to be opened)
and during transportation to the electrode stand for adding a new electrode segment (nippling
operation).
Several visits at industrial plants (APLBe and APLDi) and discussions with plant engineers and
electrode operators have allowed checking the successive electrode handling operations, with a
special focus on the nippling procedure. Indeed, one of the main elements regarding the mechanical
strength of the mast is obviously the junction between successive segments (nippling section). The
quality of the nipple (strength) and the design of the junction (size of the nipple, threads, etc) are both
very important. From the operational point of view, the nippling operation must be realised very neatly
(without damaging electrode or nipple), controlling clamping torque and correctly joining electrode
segments.
A severe thermo-mechanical stress is also induced when the electrode is removed from the furnace: it
cools down very quickly, especially at its surface (thermal shock). That period is very critical for the
electrode, because its surface is then submitted to maximum traction stress (which is more critical
than compression). Cracks may then propagate or even be initiated at locations of lowest resistance.
11

Interesting data was obtained from the APLDi plant to illustrate the influence of mechanical
solicitations, thermal shocks and nippling procedure. In 2005, the electrode diameter in APLDi was
increased from 760 to 800 mm. This change had a positive effect on all types of consumption.
Although larger electrodes induce higher mechanical solicitations, this effect was more than
compensated by the reduction in current density (+11% in electrode section). Moreover, a nippling
robot was installed. Such robot allows fitting new electrode segments on the electrode mast while the
electrode remains in the furnace, thus avoiding the strong cooling of the electrode and the associated
build-up of thermal stress. This change induced additional gains in electrode consumption. The effect
on stub-end losses was especially convincing (52 %). This huge reduction illustrates the detrimental
effect of thermal shocks on all consumption mechanisms, although the automatic control of the
nippling torque by the robot may also have contributed.
Comparing these results with those from the APLBe plant, where a similar nippling robot is installed
since the beginning of the project, lower consumption values would be expected from APLBe. This
can probably be explained by the single shell configuration at APLBe: electrode badly cools down
between heats (during the charging of the next basket), thus causing frequent thermal shocks. This is
clearly an advantage of twin-shell furnaces such as APLDi: the electrode quickly switches from one
vessel to the other, with only limited time for cooling.
WP3: Extension of the calculation model for electrode consumption
Basis for calculation of the continuous electrode wear is an existing model developed by BFI during a
former ECSC-granted project. This standard model distinguishes tip and side wear. Calculation
results were compared to the consumption figures determined by image analysis at APLDi and
APLBe furnaces. The standard model did not fit the measured data with sufficient accuracy; the
formulas are not very well suited to a heat-by-heat analysis on a given furnace.
Further investigations were thus required to extend the model. Additional operational parameters that
influence the continuous electrode consumption were identified by a correlation analysis. The model
was then extended and improved by taking into account further relevant operating data in the
calculation of tip and side consumption factors. These operating data are mainly the oxygen input via
burners and lances and the steel and slag composition. Model coefficients were adjusted using the
APLDI and the first APLBe data sets. The correspondence between the modelling result and the
electrode consumption from image analysis was found significantly improved with this extended
modelling approach. Finally, the extended model was validated using the second APLBe data set.
WP4: Pilot scale simulations
Task 4.1: Preparation and Modifications of Pilot Plant
The pilot plant is a 1t-1.5MW DC electrical arc furnace installed at CSM. It is equipped with a single
nippled graphite electrode of 250mm diameter and with devices for gas analysis, materials injection,
control and data logging. The plant was revamped for the tests. Notably, the refractory of the inner
walls of the furnace and the bottom electrode were replaced. In order to precisely follow-up the
electrode wear during the tests, a dedicated stand was built close to the furnace to measure the
electrode length and take pictures of its tip every 30 minutes.
The testing programme was defined in collaboration with other project partners, focussing on two
operating parameters (the electrical current and the steel and slag bath compositions) and on
understanding the propagation of cracks. Two series of tests were performed.
Task 4.2: First Series of Tests
Test with high current intensity: Three steps of intensity were tested (3000, 3500, 2500 A) at the same
voltage level (100 V). The measured electrode consumption rate were found very similar, and are also
in the same range as industrial values (2.2 to 2.7 kg/MWh), even if the current density at pilot plant is
about 4 times lower. This implies that larger electrodes are much more resistant to continuous wear,
which is confirmed by data provided by electrode suppliers.
12

Test to investigate the cracking mechanism of the electrode: A new electrode column was prepared
and an horizontal notch cut was made in the side of the electrode to simulate a surface crack. Nor
opening, neither propagation of the crack happened during the melt.
Test with different composition of slag and metal bath: The influence of slag composition in terms of
basicity and metallic oxides (Cr and Fe) was evaluated. The test was carried-out in two phases: first,
CaO addition to the base melt, then scales addition. Scales contain high levels of chromium and iron
oxides that dissolve in the slag. These metallic oxides exhibited a severe influence on electrode
consumption (increase by a factor 3 to 4).
Task 4.3: Second series of Tests
During the first series of tests, the test with the artificial crack did not lead to any useful conclusion
regarding the behaviour of cracks. It was therefore decided to repeat such test with other crack
shapes and locations, on the tip of the electrode.
These additional tests first confirmed that artificial cracks do not propagate in the graphite structure,
whatever their position on the electrode (side, tip, etc). It must however be noted that, in these pilot
tests, the electrode is not submitted to any mechanical solicitations (vibrations, shocks), is operated
at a low current density (about 4 A/cm
2
) and in flat bath conditions only.
Although the electrode consumption rate was the same in both tests, the non-symmetrical notch on
the side of the tip prepared for the second test led to a clear arc anchoring phenomenon, which
resulted in a strong opening of the crack. 90% of the graphite consumption took place by that
mechanism. On the contrary, during the third test, the symmetrical notch in the tip led to very limited
crack opening, which is confirmed by the low percentage of consumption in the crack (about 10%).
WP5: Definition of Guidelines for Reducing Electrode Consumption
Thanks to the experience gained on electrode consumption with the developed camera-based
monitoring system and with the pilot tests, some guidelines have been proposed in order to reduce
the electrode consumption in DC EAF plants. However, the applicability and effect of these guidelines
will obviously be influenced by the configuration and current practices in each steel plant. Should the
objective be a dedicated evaluation and a detailed follow-up of progress in a given steel plant, the
installation of a camera-based system similar to those developed in the current project is a must.
Task 5.1: Modification of furnace operation
Although the contribution of electrical current on continuous consumption cannot be avoided, the
contributions of oxygen (from lances, burners and post-combustion injectors) and oxides in slag (FeO,
Cr
2
O
3
, etc) can often be reduced:
Post-combustion injections in the furnace should be limited in the window (in terms of flow and
time) where they are very efficient.
A better control of the slag foaming with a decrease of the FeO content will lead to a less
aggressive slag and a higher insulating layer of slag, reducing graphite consumption.
Several furnace operating parameters influencing discontinuous consumption rate were also
identified. The general principle is to reduce mechanical and thermo-mechanical solicitations as much
as possible, in order to limit the cracking mechanism (generation and propagation of cracks). First,
thermal shocks must be limited. Elements such as a steady operation of the furnace and the use of a
nippling robot are very beneficial from that perspective. Second, all the factors increasing current
density at electrode tip must be reduced (or possibly avoided). Such factors are: severe electrode side
wear, current peaks and arc deflection problems. An efficient current regulation system is thus clearly
of first importance.
Electrode breakages must - of course - be avoided. Electrode handling during power-off periods must
be carried-out very carefully, avoiding any strong mechanical shock on the mast. During melting
13

operations, the falling of scrap piles or big scrap pieces (massive girders) on the electrode must also
be avoided; a strict monitoring of scrap charging may greatly limit the occurrence of such events.
Task 5.2: Electrode Grade, nippling
Apart from the basic selection of nominal electrode diameter, it is of first importance to control and
improve the quality of electrodes, regarding graphite grade, nipple design, etc. This obviously requires
a common work with suppliers.
Improving the graphite grade first requires reducing the amount of voids and micro-cracks and
increasing the tensile strength of the electrode material. Other very important characteristics are the
thermal conductivity of the electrode and its coefficient of thermal dilatation. Increasing the thermal
conductivity would reduce thermal gradients in the electrode. Such reduction, completed with a
reduction in the thermal dilatation coefficient could greatly decrease thermo-mechanical solicitations,
which are the first cause of stress and cracking.
The nipple is especially fragile and has an outermost importance in the occurrence of discontinuous
consumption events. Therefore, its design (size, angle, threads, etc) has first to be carefully
optimised. Moreover, the nippling operation must be realised very neatly (without damaging electrode
or nipple), controlling clamping torque and correctly joining electrode segments. In case of bad joint,
the current carried by the electrode would mainly flow trough the nipple, creating a strong temperature
gradient and associated stress, possibly leading to nipple breakage. The use of a nippling robot,
further to reducing thermal shocks, is also beneficial in realising the nippling operation in a controlled
and reproducible manner.
In APLDi and APLBe, discussions with the electrode suppliers were engaged on the basis of monthly
reports from the camera-based electrode monitoring systems and allowed starting a dynamic
exchange process in view of developing new solutions (electrode grade, design, etc). One of the
suppliers notably decided to initiate the development of a completely new concept for electrode
nippling, which should avoid most of the drawbacks of the current connecting pins.
Exploitation and impact of the research results
Four electrode-monitoring systems are now installed in industrial plants. After APLDi and APLBe, two
more systems were installed: first in APLSc (Schifflange), a twin-shell AC furnace plant, then in
Stahlwerke Thringen, a mono-shell DC furnace plant. Other plants, such as CORUS Aldwarke, have
also shown interest in installing similar camera-based systems.
The system is used both on-line by furnace operators, and off-line by plant managers to negotiate
with electrode suppliers and to support the development of new electrode solutions.
Another important result of the project can be found in the building of knowledge regarding electrode
consumption phenomenon.
14

2. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE RESULTS
2.1. OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT
The general objective of the project was to reduce the consumption of graphite electrode at DC EAF
(Direct Current Electric Arc Furnaces), thus lowering steelmaking costs through direct electrode costs
and enhanced productivity (notably through the reduction of production downtime for electrode
replacement).
Modern high-powered DC furnaces are equipped with very large electrodes, which are submitted to
specific thermo-mechanical solicitations. In these furnaces, discontinuous consumption events
(electrode breakage, butt losses or tip drops and tip spalling) have become highly significant.
Understanding and monitoring these events could thus allow a noticeable reduction in electrode
consumption.
The proposed approach was to set-up in the DC EAF plant of APLBe (ProfilARBED Esch-Belval) a
camera-based system that allows monitoring the state of the electrode after the melting of each scrap
basket. Dedicated image analysis software would then be developed and incorporated into an
automatic system for the follow-up of electrode wear mechanisms. From there on, the work
programme was divided into three main parts:
Industrial measurement campaigns in Esch-Belval, allowing to collect sufficient data set for
statistical analysis;
Pilot tests in an experimental 1t DC furnace, allowing to test specific wear mechanisms under
controlled conditions;
Definition of guidelines to reduce electrode consumption.
Moreover, in the scope of this research, it was also included to test the applicability of the electrode
monitoring system at the twin-shell DC EAF of APLDi (ProfilARBED Differdange), where the operating
schedule for the electrode (and thus for the monitoring system) is more stringent. This would help
reaching clear conclusions about the transferability of the system to other types of EAF plants.
Basically, the responsibilities of the partners were as follows:
CRM and APLCSE R&D (ProfilARBED Recherches) had to work together to implement and set-
up the industrial measurement system at Esch-Belval, to perform the two measurement
campaigns, to transfer the plant data to BFI and to test the applicability of the monitoring system
in the Differdange plant;
BFI had to carry-out statistical analyses on the results from industrial campaigns to update and
extend the electrode consumption calculation model;
CSM had to conduct the pilot tests;
All partners (under the co-ordination of CRM) had to collaborate to define the guidelines to reduce
electrode consumption.
2.2. COMPARISON OF INITIALLY PLANNED ACTIVITIES AND WORK ACCOMPLISHED
The work programme was broken down into five work packages:
WP1: Implementation and set-up of optical system for electrode monitoring
WP2: Industrial measurement campaigns and analysis of results
15

WP3: Extension of the calculation model for electrode consumption
WP4: Pilot scale simulations
WP5: Definition of guidelines for reducing electrode consumption
The initial project bar chart is given hereafter.

All tasks have been carried-out in relatively good agreement with the initial schedule. Small deviations
occurred and are described hereafter. These deviations had no consequence on the overall progress
of the project.
The installation of the camera system and the dedicated image analysis software in the Belval plant
(APLBe) was carried-out in due time. A first set of images of electrode tip was successfully recorded
by APLCSE R&D from October 2004 to May 2005. Such a long recording period turned out to be
necessary to obtain a statistically exploitable set of data, due to the irregular operation of the furnace
during that period. A second large set of electrode images was recorded by APLCSE R&D in Belval
from J anuary to J une 2006. Both sets of data were processed by CRM and provided to the BFI for
analysis.
The additional industrial tests at the twin-shell EAF of the Differdange plant were carried-out ahead of
schedule, using a low-resolution camera already installed in that plant for measuring the length of
the graphite electrode rod at the end of every heat. A large set of images from Differdange was
recorded by APLCSE R&D in February 2004, processed by CRM and provided to the BFI before mid-
term.
The EAF pilot plant at CSM was revamped and modified during the first one and half year of the
project. Later on, due to a delay in the approval of legal documents allowing plant operation, the first
series of pilot tests was postponed by about 6 months to the third week of October 2005. Basic tests
were performed (test with high current intensity, test to define the cracking mechanism of the
electrode and test with different composition of slag and metal bath). Later on, on the 21
st
and 22
nd
of
March 2006, CSM carried out the second campaign of pilot tests aiming at a better understanding of
the electrode cracking mechanism.
In the frame of task 2.4, CRM carried-out additional (unscheduled) experiments to better understand
the electrode cracking mechanism. Two parts of electrode (one from the tip and one from a section of
16

the electrode that had not entered the furnace) were observed and analysed at microscopic level,
using metallography, ultrasonic waves and X-ray scanning (tomography).
2.3. DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES AND DISCUSSION
2.3.1. WP1: Implementation and set-up of optical system for electrode monitoring
2.3.1.1. Task 1.1: Installation of camera and computer
This task was launched through an exchange of information between partners, in order to share the
experience of BFI in camera-based electrode monitoring systems. This experience has been gained
during a previous ECSC project [
I
], where such a system has been installed at three different AC EAF
plants.
2.3.1.1.1. Installation in APLDi twin-shell DC EAF
A low resolution CCD camera (640x480 pixels) with an embedded DSP for image processing was
installed in the Differdange plant in 2000, before the start of the current project. The initial purpose of
that installation was to measure the length of the graphite electrode rod at the end of every heat in
order to carry out a short-circuit determination of the height of the steel bath. A view of the
Differdange furnace is given in Figure 1, with the electrode at its stand-by position.

Figure 1: View of the EAF furnace of APLDi
As shown on the Figure 2, the camera is located on the symmetry line between the two vessels and is
externally triggered by means of a signal issued from a encoder measuring the angular position of the
electrode arm in-between vessel 1 and 2.
The camera is installed in a protective housing and equipped with a compressed air heat exchanger,
as shown in Figure 3. The camera housing is mounted on a solid platform using vibration isolators.
17

The platform is attached to a beam located close to the rear wall of the furnace hall, as shown in
Figure 2.
CCD camera
(640x480 pixels)
EAF 2 EAF 1
Graphite
electrode
Electrode
arm
Centre
of
rotation
Post-combustion
chamber
Top view of the layout in APLDi

Figure 2: Top view of the layout at APLDi camera fixed next to the rear wall

Figure 3: Left hand-side: camera and its protective housing right-hand side: injection of cooling air in
the protective housing
The images are transmitted via a serial link to a PLC. This PLC also records the height measurement
coming from the laser distance sensor and calculates the electrode length and its change between
subsequent data sets, e.g. after each basket melting phase. Figure 4 shows a schematic side-view of
the measuring system at APLDi. It comprises the electrode in imaging position, the camera, and the
camera calibration panel. This calibration panel mainly consists of two halogen projectors, mounted
exactly 1 meter apart inside a U-shaped rail with two precisely machined rectangular windows. This
panel (Figure 5) is only used for set-up and alignment of the camera system, being then attached to
the post-combustion chamber and centred on the optical axis of the system. After the imaging of the
panels light spots and image processing, together with precise measurements of the camera to
electrode and camera to target distances, calibration factors are calculated to correctly convert
camera pixel data to real distances in the observed electrode pictures.
18

Graphite
electrode
Electrode
arm
Post-combustion
chambre
659
Table for
elegtrode
length
adjustment
Calibration
panel for
camera :
2 halogene
projectors
Attachment for
calibration panel
Angle of
view 10.5
15620 (+/- 5mm)
Fi el d of view
~2400mm
1440
Optical axis
= '0'
for camera
Level '8.5m'
Level of optical axis:
6473 (+/- 2mm)
Height reference
Electrode
arm height
Camera
mounti ng
tabl e
1200
1000
Vertical
beam
Mark
Laser
distance
meter
Other
mark
691
Offset
+
-
16610 (+/- 5mm)
Camra

Figure 4: Schematic side-view of the electrode in imaging position, the camera location and the
calibration target
In order to make use of this pre-existing equipment in the frame of the current project, APLCSE R&D
had to adapt the programs for the camera control, image acquisition and data storage, including the
development of an image analysis routine (see section 2.3.1.3) and the automatic storing of raw and
processed electrode images in a database. Moreover, the electrical power supply for the camera and
the PC has been modified by connecting the installation on an uninterruptible power supply
preventing the camera installation from undesired power shut downs.

19

Figure 5: Camera calibration panel
2.3.1.1.2. Installation in APLBe DC EAF
Most of the development work and the implementation of the electrode monitoring system have been
performed at the steel plant of APLBe. This plant is equipped with a single-shell DC furnace of 155
tons capacity (Figure 6). Main data for this plant is:
shell diameter =7.3 meters
electrodes diameter =760 mm (28)
maximum arc voltage 800 V
current 120 kA
2 oxygen lances and 4 post-combustion oxygen injectors

20

Figure 6: View of the EAF furnace of APLBe
APLCSE R&D installed a new camera-based electrode monitoring system equipped with a higher
resolution camera (CMOS-sensor chip of 1280x1024 pixels). The top view of the layout at APLBe is
illustrated hereafter (Figure 7).
O2 lance
Carbon injection
CCD camera
(1024x1280 pixels)
Door burner
Top view of the layout in APLBe
Graphite electrode
Electrode arm
Centre of
rotation
Post-combustion
chamber
Burner
Burner
Burner
P.C. lance
P.C. lance
Burner
Carbon injection
P.C. lance
O2 lance

Figure 7: Top view of the layout in APLBe camera fixed next to the rear wall
The camera has been installed in a protective housing and has been equipped with a compressed air
heat exchanger, as shown in Figure 8. An external tent-shaped cover, equipped with air blowing
nozzles, protects the system from strong dust accumulation and keeps the camera window clean
(Figure 9). The camera housing is mounted on a solid platform using vibration isolators. The platform
is attached to a beam located close to the rear wall of the furnace hall, as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 8: Camera in protective housing with heat

Figure 9: Tent-shaped camera housing with
21

exchanger window purge nozzles

Figure 10: Camera on platform during alignment
Figure 11 shows the schematic side-view of the measuring system with the electrode in imaging
position, the camera, and the camera calibration panel. This calibration panel has the same
characteristics as the one used in APLDi except that the camera calibration is realised by suspending
the calibration panel just in the longitudinal axis of the electrode.
camera
Table for
electrode
length
adjustment
Calibration
panel for
camera
Electrode
arm
Graphite
electrode
Optical axis
= 0
for camera
Laser
distance
meter
Camera
mounted
table
Mark
Height reference
5832 mm
Y +
Post-combustion
chambre
Vertical
beam
Offset
17985 mm

22

calibration target
A dedicated fibre-optic network allows transferring the camera images in raw format to an external
PC, where image-processing algorithms are used to fulfil all the tasks of information extraction.
APLCSE R&D developed programs for camera control, image acquisition and storage. Raw and
processed electrode images are stored, together with relevant furnace data in a common database.
Some problems were experienced with the electrical to fibre-optical converters for the so-called
'FireWire IEEE 1394' interface used to link the camera and the PC. This somewhat delayed the final
installation of the system on site.
The installation in Belval has also been equipped with modules (type ADAM 6066) which can be
remotely managed as they are designed with a 10/100 Base-T Ethernet port. The modules are used
to reset the complete camera installation from the office computer.
2.3.1.2. Task 1.2: Pre-tests of measurement system
Pre-tests of the camera-based systems were carried-out both in Differdange and Esch-Belval during
installation, calibration and development of data transmission and image analysis softwares.
Initial images recorded in both plants demonstrated the feasibility of the electrode monitoring system
and the interest to use such system for the follow-up of EAF plant operation.
2.3.1.3. Task 1.3: Development of software for image analysis
2.3.1.3.1. In APLDi
Thanks to the pre-existing camera system in Differdange (APLDi), electrode images from that plant
were available very early for starting the development of the image analysis softwares. Using these
images, APLCSE R&D has developed dedicated image-processing routines for evaluating electrode
wear, including:
determination of the precise shape of the lower part of the electrode (tip, bottom, and cone);
measurement of the oxidized length of the graphite trunk;
follow-up of crack formation (length and size);
detection of tip breakage and graphite chunk drop-offs.
A typical set of electrode tip images, recorded over a 6-hour period is shown in Figure 12. As can be
observed, some images either too dark or too bright, making the extraction of some desired wear
features very difficult. This is due to the twin-shell configuration of the Differdange plant, where the
electrode passes in front of the camera without stopping, as explained in section 2.3.1.5. Figure 13
shows the calculated X and Y positions of the electrode tip with respect to a defined optical axis, over
the same 6-hour period. This information allows calculations electrode consumption values (see
section 2.3.2.2.3).
In order to obtain additional data on the electrode consumption mechanisms, more advanced image
processing techniques have then been applied. These have first allowed improving the electrode
contour extraction by reducing the noise content of the image, as shown in Figure 14. Shape
parameters of the electrode tip can then be extracted: Figure 15 shows the same picture as in Figure
14 with over-plotted lines of the tip shape and sides of the graphite cone, allowing the measurement
of tip width and oxidized length, and the appraisal of the location of cracks, including their length and
size. Figure 16 shows examples of well-visible crack formations near the tip and the remainder of a
nipple after tip fall-off.
Artificial colouring of the luminosity distribution in the image was also used to give an indication of the
heat distribution across the electrode rod, which may be inhomogeneous as caused for example by a
23

deflection of the electric arc. Figure 17 shows an example of such an image before and after
processing. The left-hand side of the tip is clearly hotter than other one.

302 303 304

305 306 307

308 309 310

311 312 313

314 315 316
Figure 12: Set of successive electrode tip image recordings at the APLDi EAF
24

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g
]
Electrode Arm F1/F2 Angular Position [0 - 90] Camera Electrode Tip Meas. Y [mm] Camera Electrode Tip Meas. X [mm]
302 316

Figure 13: Electrode tip positions (X and Y) and electrode arm angular positions at APLDi EAF
Raw image
Contour extraction Thresholding Nonlinear filtering

Figure 14: Sequence of processing steps - APLDi

Figure 15: Calculation of tip shape,
sides of cone (oxidized length) and
cracks size - APLDi

Figure 16: Cracks near tip and tip fall-off
at stub end, with visible nipple APLDi
Y
25

Figure 17: Colouring of the luminosity distribution - APLDi
2.3.1.3.2. In APLBe
When the camera system started operation in the Esch-Belval plant, in summer 2004, the image
processing routines had to be adapted to the larger size, high definition images from this plant. While
for the Differdange application a commercially available imaging toolkit (MCM Design) was used, the
processing of Esch-Belval images was programmed in the Borland Delphi 5 environment (with
routines implemented as a component as well as an ActiveX version). A typical electrode tip image
with overlaid processing information is shown in Figure 18. The lowest point of the tip is identified (X),
the angles of the left and right hand sides of the cone with respect to the vertical are shown, by
extrapolation the oxidized length (OL) is calculated, and finally the volume of the visible part of the
electrode is also indicated. This processing routine is extensively detailed in ANNEX A. Further
processing of the images allows for example an automated detection of cracks close to the tip of the
electrode. Figure 19 shows on the left-hand side a typical image, where the tip location is
automatically detected and a scanning area is delimited for the search of cracks. The picture on the
right hand side shows the processed image after edge and crack detection. The over-plotted line
indicates the location, average orientation and length of an observed crack. Different types of defects,
such as horizontal and vertical cracks, located below or above the nippling line, single or branching
cracks may then be classified.

Figure 18: APLBe electrode image
with primary processing
Figure 19: Picture of tip of electrode and automated
crack detection - APLBe
26

2.3.1.4. Task 1.4: Preparation of the logging system
APLCSE R&D has developed a dedicated logging system for static and dynamic operating data at the
Esch-Belval EAF plant. A comprehensive on-line database has been created that links raw electrode
images to the results of the automated image processing routine and to relevant furnace operating
parameters collected from plant control systems.
2.3.1.5. Task 1.5: Test at twin-shell EAF
The applicability of the camera based monitoring system at the twin shell furnace of ProfilARBED
Differdange (APLDi) has been evaluated. In such furnace, the operating schedule of the electrode is
more stringent. For the monitoring system, the pictures of the electrode have thus to be taken when
the electrode passes in front of the camera, with no possibility to select a suitable moment for
luminosity. This is clearly shown on Figure 12 and Figure 13, where some images are too bright and
some others too dark. At about 20:40, the electrode was stopped in front of the camera because of
irregular furnace operation. Two pictures were then taken while electrode was cooling down (pictures
308 and 309 in Figure 12). While on the first picture the tip of the electrode is too bright (saturated), it
appears very clearly, with much details, on the second picture. It has to be noted that these
applicability tests were carried-out by means of the lower resolution CCD camera available in APLDi
with an embedded DSP for image processing and no possibility for adjusting luminosity.
Although these two factors (difficult control of luminosity and lower resolution of images) combine to
reduce the amount of information that can be extracted from electrode pictures, the data set obtained
with the monitoring system during the first industrial measurement campaign was found to be
sufficient for effective exploitation (see task 2.2).
An additional difficulty is faced in APLDi since the beginning of the year 2005: the EAF electrode size
was increased from 760 to 800 mm. The image processing routines were adapted to the larger size of
electrode, but the first tests with the modified system showed that the tip of the 800-mm electrodes
was much brighter than before. It was thus necessary to reduce the camera exposure time to very
short values. As a consequence, only the tip of the electrode is now visible, whereas most of the
electrode column is dark. Tip position can still be detected for measuring electrode consumption, but
some wear features cannot be extracted anymore.
Probably only a very high speed camera capable of taking a series of images using different
apertures or exposure times may allow extracting all wear features of the electrode tip. The cost for
such system is considered as prohibitive in APLDi.
2.3.2. WP2: Industrial measurement campaigns and analysis of results
2.3.2.1. Task 2.1: Measurements and data logging
2.3.2.1.1. Data from APLDi
A large set of images was first recorded with the low-resolution system in the Differdange plant.
These images were processed as described in task 1.3. Complementary files of furnace operating
data were collected in order to support the launching of task 2.2 (search for relationships between the
electrode consumption and furnace operating parameters) and task 2.3 (investigation on the
formation of cracks and the occurrence of tip drops and breakage).
The data files collected by APLCSE R&D at Differdange for the whole month of February 2004 were
handed over to CRM. These files included:
the whole set of electrode tip pictures (to be treated by the off-line image processing routine
developed by APLCSE R&D for APLDi);
EAF process data files (dynamic data) which include variables such as material injection (flow and
mean values), electrical power input, basket number, etc logged at 5s interval;
27

EAF equipment data files (dynamic data) which include variables such as electrode arm height,
position of the electrode arm, etc), also logged at 5s interval;
EAF scrap files, giving the weight and quality of scrap in every layer of each basket;
EAF charge data file, giving the main characteristics of each charge (start and end time of
process, electrical power consumption, oxygen consumption by lances and burners, natural gas
consumption, the analysis of the steel charge, etc);
an additional file giving the history of each electrode segment (segment identification number,
electrical power seen by the electrode, number of charge before changing the electrode, etc).
These files were then compiled by CRM for further treatment and analysis.
2.3.2.1.2. First Data set from APLBe
In the Esch-Belval plant, a large set of industrial data was recorded with the high-resolution camera
system in October and November 2004, February, March and May 2005. This data collection
campaign had to be extended in 2005 in order to obtain a sufficient data set, considering the limited
operation of the furnace. Again, all electrode images, results of the image software analysis and
relevant EAF process data have been sent to the CRM for compilation. However, thanks to an
improved preparation of databases and logging system by APLCSE R&D (section 2.3.1.4), the
compilation work was by far less time-consuming than for the first APLDi set. These files included:
the whole set of electrode tip pictures treated by the on-line image processing routine;
the results of image processing: height of electrode, oxidized length, slopes of the sides of the
electrode, the crack length as well as the tip width;
EAF process data files, including electrical power input, electrical power consumption, oxygen
consumption, scrap charge, basket number, chemical steel analysis, chemical slag analysis,
sonic meter signal, foaming index, etc.
2.3.2.1.3. Second Data set from APLBe
A second large data file from Esch-Belval has been collected from J une 2005 to December 2005.
Unfortunately due to the highly irregular performance of the plant and due to reliability problems of the
camera installation, not enough heats could be recorded during this period. A new recording
campaign thus took place from J anuary to J une 2006. All data files collected by APLCSE R&D at the
Belval EAF were handed over to CRM, as for the first Esch-Belval data set.
However, as some difficulties were encountered with the dedicated data logging system
1
, part of the
data was missing (tip width and crack length of the electrode, sonic-meter signal, injections of lime
and of carbon, etc) and had to be recomputed off-line by CRM, when possible.
2.3.2.2. Task 2.2: Analysis of the results (operating parameters)
2.3.2.2.1. Description of an electrode column
The electrode column (or mast) in DC EAF furnaces is made of an assembly of several electrode
segments (usually 3). Each segment has threaded sockets on both ends and is connected to the
others by means of a connecting pin (also called a nipple). The segments are usually delivered with
connecting pins already mounted at one side of electrode. Once the electrode column becomes to
small during operation, a segment is added to the column by screwing it at the top of the electrode
column. The following sketch (Figure 20) illustrates the main components of an electrode column.

1
APLCSE R&D could not modify the logging system in time to accommodate some changes carried-out in the steel plant
control system.
28

V
Upper segment
Middle
segment
Working segment
Nipples
Electrode column
Cathode (-)
Anode (+)
I

Figure 20: Schematic view of an electrode column in a DC EAF
2.3.2.2.2. Electrode consumption mechanisms
As illustrated on Figure 21, electrode consumption mechanisms are usually divided into two
modes [
1
]: The continuous consumption and the discontinuous consumption.
Overall ( or gross)
electrode consumption
Discontinuous
consumption
Electrode tip
consumption
Electrode side
consumption
Breakage
Continuous (or net)
consumption
Tip spalling
Stub end (or butt)
losses

Figure 21: Schematic subdivision of electrode consumption mechanisms
Other classifications [
2
] can also be found in the literature, but are basically very similar.
Figure 22 illustrates these various electrode consumption mechanisms. The continuous (or net)
consumption - A on Figure 22 covers the progressive consumption of the hot end of the graphite
29

column. It is usually splitted in two contributions: the tip consumption and the side consumption, as
illustrated on Figure 23. Generally, it can be stated that the electrode tip consumption D on Figure
23 is mainly linked to the transmission of the electrical current (sublimation phenomenon occurring
in the electrical arc); it thus increases with power-on time and with the square of the electrical current.
The side consumption E on Figure 23 - relates more to oxidation reactions with furnace
atmosphere and slag; it thus increases with the total processing time (tap-to-tap time) and with the
external electrode surface. Many references, such as the well-known Bowmans formula [
3
], can be
found in the literature to describe these two contributions to the electrode wear [
4
,
5
,
6
,
7
and
8
]. A
significant part of the work of the BFI in the current project was devoted to the extension to DC
furnaces of the calculation model initially developed for the continuous electrode consumption of AC
furnaces [
9
]. Results are presented in section 2.3.3 (WP3).
Discontinuous consumption events include tip spalling, stub end losses and breakages. Tip
spalling (or crack losses - B on Figure 22) consists in the loss of a part of the electrode tip. Such
loss is induced by the network of cracks that generate and propagate at electrode tip due to
mechanical and thermal stress. Stub end losses (C on Figure 22) correspond to chunk drop-offs of
the whole graphite electrode tip up to a nipple transition. Breakages (D on Figure 22) can be induced
by various strong mechanical shocks, as illustrated at Figure 24.
Electrode wear mechanisms
A C B
D

Figure 22: a) Continuous wear, b) Tip spalling, c) Stub end loss, d) Breakage
30

Tip sublimation
A
D
E
Approximately
10 000C
27 A/cm
C
C
C
C
C O2
O2
O2
O2
CO
CO
Surface oxidation
CO
CO
CO2
CO2

Figure 23: a) Continuous consumption, d) Tip wear, e) Side wear

Figure 24: Main causes of electrode breakage occurrences [
10
]
31

The electrode monitoring system that was developed in the project allows monitoring the different
types of wear, except the breakage which leads to full electrode replacement and thus resets the
consumption calculation.
An example of each type of consumption, as recorded during our industrial campaigns, is given on the
following figures (Figure 25, Figure 26 and Figure 27). In each example, left and right pictures were
taken before and after the melting phase, respectively. The difference in vertical position thus
indicates the amount of electrode consumption during the melting phase. Figure 25 shows a basic
case of continuous electrode consumption. During the melt illustrated at Figure 26, a crack loss (or tip
spalling) took place in addition to the continuous consumption; it can be detected by a detailed
observation of successive pictures: loss of a part of the electrode up to a pre-existing crack which
leads to a higher electrode consumption. Figure 27 illustrates a melt with a stub end loss. It can be
very easily identified from electrode pictures: a residual part of the nipple is visible after the melt.
These cases lead to the highest consumption values.

Figure 25: continuous consumption

Figure 26: electrode crack loss induced by a circumferential macro-crack
32

Figure 27: Electrode stub end loss
The next sequence of successive electrode pictures (Figure 28) illustrates a stub-end loss following a
crack loss (or tip spalling or tip fall-off). M indicates that a melt has taken place between pictures.
During the first melt, only continuous consumption took place. During the second melt, a tip fall-off
occurred. It was induced by propagation of the longitudinal and circumferential cracks already visible
on the second picture. After the second melt, a stub end loss took place outside of the furnace shell
and was pictured by the camera system: after tip fall-off, the remaining part of the electrode was not
held on the nipple anymore and dropped off quickly during cooling (only a few seconds elapsed
between the third and the fourth pictures). During the third melt, only continuous consumption was
observed, concentrated on the remaining part of the nipple.

Figure 28: Sequence of melting phases leading to a stub en loss
2.3.2.2.3. Measurement of the electrode wear
Figure 29 illustrates the basic principle used to compute electrode consumption. As described in the
previous section, electrode pictures taken before and after the melting of a basket are analysed.
The position of the electrode is measured on each picture, using the software developed by APLCSE
R&D. The corresponding electrode arm height is measured at the same time. By combining these two
measurements, it is possible to know the electrode length from the electrode arm to the tip before and
after the melt. The electrode wear is then obtained by multiplying the difference in lengths (expressed
in meters) by the weight of one meter of electrode, k0, calculated as the section of the electrode
(considered as a cylinder) multiplied by the bulk density of the graphite:
k0 = .
2
. /4
with =electrode diameter (m) and =bulk density (kg/m
3
)
e.g. k0 =771 kg/m for =0,762 m and =1700 kg/m
3

M M M
33

before
after
Electrode consumption
= length (m) . k0

Figure 29: Principle used to measure the electrode consumption
One objection raised by the BFI during technical meetings is that this measurement method does not
take into account the real shape of the electrode tip. A refined computation procedure was thus
proposed.
Using the measured tip width and oxidized length given by image analysis routines, the tip of the
electrode was modelled as a trapeze (right-hand side of Figure 30) with the smallest basis being the
tip width and the height being the oxidized length. The electrode consumption can then be calculated
by difference between two successive pictures, as illustrated on Figure 31 (left side).
Electrode tip Modelled tip
O
x
i
d
i
s
e
d

l
e
n
g
t
h
Nominal
diameter
Tip width

Figure 30: Modelling of the tip width by means of a tip width and an oxidized length
With this procedure, a split of the electrode consumption in two components (tip and side consump-
tions) could even be obtained, as shown on the right-hand side of Figure 31.
34

Charge i
Charge i+1
Tip wear
Side wear

Figure 31: APLDi - Improvement in the computation of electrode consumption
A basic comparison of the two calculation procedures was carried-out by CRM on data from APLDi
(considering melts with continuous consumption only). Figure 32 shows that the results are in
relatively good agreement (1 component denotes the initial basic procedure based on tip position
only and 2 components the refined procedure).
However, the average consumption with the 2 components procedure is somewhat higher; this
probably reflects a progressive wear of electrode flanks (progressive reduction of the diameter of an
electrode segment throughout its usage in the furnace). The scatter is due to the imprecision on the
side contribution of the 2 components calculation, as discussed below.

35

Figure 32: Comparison between the two procedures for calculating electrode consumption
(APLDi dataset Feb 2004)
Figure 33 shows the relative contributions from tip and side consumptions, as given by the 2
components procedure. The tip consumption is the main wear mechanism (about 2/3 of wear). The
scatter in the measurement of the side consumption is much higher because it is strongly influenced
by the measurement of the oxidised length, which is far less accurate than the basic tip position.

Figure 33: Comparison between the two procedures for calculating electrode consumption side and
tip contributions (APLDi dataset Feb 2004)
Both calculation procedures were used on all data sets. The second one is more accurate but is very
costly in terms of number of valid calculation cases, reducing the available data for statistical review
as shown in the next table.
Table 1: Comparison between number of valid data
for 1 component and 2 components calculations
" 1 component" " 2 components" difference
baskets 897 571 -36%
charges 377 144 -62%
baskets 1471 677 -54%
charges 531 80 -85%
baskets 2749 1164 -58%
charges 1132 143 -87%
APLBe second data set
APLDi data set
APLBe first data set

36

The reason for such a decrease in valid cases lies in the measurement of tip width and oxidized
length. These values are not easy to define as various shapes of tip can be encountered. Moreover,
factors such as the luminosity also have a strong influence (see next section). The invalid cases are
then generated by geometrical considerations on the measured tip widths and oxidized lengths of the
electrode that lead to an apparent creation of electrode matter during the melt (see Figure 34).
Tip width
default
Oxidised length
default
Charge i
Charge (i+1)

Figure 34: Different cases of measurement incompatibilities
The results from the basic (and robust) 1 component procedure were thus often used for data
analyses, except when the split into tip and side contributions was required (such as the statistical
analysis carried-out by BFI, see section 2.3.3).
2.3.2.2.4. Accuracy of the measurement method
An evaluation of the accuracy of the measurement method was carried-out for both steel plants
(APLDi and APLBe). Details on these evaluations are reported at Annex C.
The possible sources of uncertainties are mentioned on Figure 35. AH stands for the measured
electrode arm height, Y
i
for the vertical position of the electrode tip on the picture taken by the
camera, is the bulk density of the electrode and its diameter. The indexes i and i+1 refer to the
pictures taken respectively before and after melting.
Electrode consumption = k0 x length
k0 = . . /4
=1680 kg/m or 1700 kg/m
Fluctuation of Arm Height
Measurement of Arm
Height
Bending of electrode arm
Camera precision
Luminosity
Vertical position - parallax deviation
Dilatation
length =Length1 - Length 2
=( ( AH1 - Y1 ) - ( AH2 - Y2 ) )

37

Figure 35: Schematic view of the various parameters involved in the determination of electrode
consumption
In order to limit the effect of luminosity (in APLDi) and parallax deviation (in APLDi and in APLBe) on
the accuracy of the measurement system, some corrective actions were proposed and applied to all
data sets (see Annex C). The main final results from the investigation are summarised at Table 2,
where the residual standard uncertainty on the measurement of electrode consumption is given for
both plants. The highest uncertainty (23%) is found at the APLDi steel plant (with the low-resolution
camera) for the continuous electrode wear during the melting of the first basket. That high level is
generated by the lack of synchronisation that can exist between the moment at which the electrode
arm height is recorded and the moment at which the picture is actually taken by the camera. By
diminishing or suppressing that uncertainty, the overall uncertainty in APLDi should decrease by a
factor two to three. Uncertainty in Esch-Belval, with the high-resolution camera, is 2 to 6%.
Table 2: Residual standard uncertainties on the measured electrode consumption values
basket1 59,2 44 23,7 66,4 52,9 5,5 63,3 49,1 5,9
basket2 124,6 92,5 11,3 118,7 92 3,3 107,9 83,6 3,6
charge 191,2 142 7,5 194,8 151 2,3 177,2 137,3 2,4
basket1 136,4 101,2 10,4 129,6 100,5 3,1 134,2 104,1 3,0
basket2 272,4 202,2 5,3 234,6 183 2,0 235 182,2 2,0
charge 336,6 249,8 4,4 309,9 239,9 1,7 313,4 242,9 1,7
basket1 349,1 259,1 4,2 257 199,3 1,9 227,9 176,7 2,1
basket2 395,4 293,5 3,8 371 287,6 1,6 340,8 264,2 1,7
charge 504,3 374,3 3,1 447,3 346,8 1,5 433 335,7 1,5
stub end losses
crack losses
continuous consumption
standard
uncertainty
(%)
length
(mm)
weight
(kg)
standard
uncertainty
(%)
length
(mm)
weight
(kg)
length
(mm)
APLBe data set 2
weight
(kg)
standard
uncertainty
(%)
APLDi data set APLBe data set 1

2.3.2.2.5. Analysis of the data from APLDi
CRM compiled and processed the February 2004 APLDi files described in section 2.3.2.1.1. The
computation of electrode consumption data was carried-out by running the image processing routine
on valid images. Related data was then retrieved in the various other files: electrode identification,
length of the electrode segment, position of the electrode arm when the camera took the picture etc.
This work turned out to be very much time-consuming because of the various indexing methods used
for the various files, because of some inconsistencies between files and because of the need to
eliminate invalid results. Many such invalid results were caused by a change in the clamping position
of the electrode that generally leads to a negative value in electrode consumption. These changes in
clamping position were not recorded in the APLDi databases.
The plant provided the following information for the month of February 2004:
total production: 102 870 t of liquid steel (tls);
total electrode consumption: 58 electrode elements =128 990 kg =1.25 kg/tls;
no electrode breakage occurred;
the electrodes were provided by 2 suppliers, but no information on switch between electrode lots
and electrode suppliers could be provided.
694 charges were tapped during the period, corresponding to about 1400 basket melts. In the data
set, start-up charges were removed due to their specific practice with three baskets. Because some
problems occurred with plant data logging, operating parameters were not available for some periods
of time. Moreover, from the 1351 images recorded during that month, 232 were dark and ignored by
38

the image analysis software. Finally, negative electrode consumption value (caused by a change in
clamping position of the electrode arm or by the addition of an electrode segment on the mast) had to
be detected and eliminated. The exploitable data file thus ended-up containing only 897 baskets
(439 first baskets, 458 second baskets) and 377 complete charges (with two valid baskets).
A detailed review and validation of the data file was carried-out, as shown in Annex B. The proposed
corrective actions (luminosity and parallax deviation, see section 2.3.2.2.4) were then applied and
some complementary operating parameters such as the average current and the time-integration of
current levels exceeding a reference level were calculated.
The computation of the electrode consumption was performed with the use of the image analysis
software, as described in section 2.3.2.2.3. The following figures (Figure 36 to Figure 39) illustrate the
good detection of the electrode tip position, even when the electrode tip is irregular or when an
obstacle comes in front of the camera (chain, hook, etc).
1383-1a 1383-1b

Figure 36: Electrode tip detection customary tip shape
39

749-1 748-2

Figure 37: Electrode tip detection apparent connecting pin
750-2 1381-2

Figure 38: Electrode tip detection unusual tip shape
40

1057-1 1078-1

Figure 39: Electrode tip detection tip partly hidden
Table 3 allows comparing the average values of the main operating parameters in the data set to their
average values over the whole year 2004. It can be noted that the electrical energy in the data file is
lower (-25 kWh/tls). This can be explained by an increase of the chemical energy used during
February (natural gas, oxygen, coal), equivalent to about +44.8 kWh/tls.
The average electrode consumption values computed from image analysis (1.07 and 1.11 kg/tls with
the 1 component and 2 components procedures, respectively) are about 10% lower than the yearly
average given in the table (1.20 kg/tls); they are also lower than the 1.25 kg/tls given by plant
operators.
Table 3: Comparison between average values (yearly and data set), APLDi
2004
data
average stdev
Number of basket per heat 2 2
tap weight (steel in ladle per heat) t 147 152.5 7.9
remaining hot heel t 30
steel temperature before tapping C 1625 1623.3 25.5
tap-to-tap time (incl. Unplanned delays) min 58.5
power-on time min 43.1 42.5 3.8
total scrap charge kg/t 1112 1105.2 109.1
recycled dust kg/t 6
lime kg/t 29.3 17.9 6.9
other slag formers kg/t 4
eletric energy kWhr/t 434 416.5 29.6
natural gas consumption of burners Nm3/t 11.9 8.6 0.8
oxygen consumption of burners Nm3/t 17.4 1.7
oxygen consumption of lances Nm3/t 8.4 2.6
oxygen for post-combustion Nm3/t 2.7 0.8
coal/coke charged with basket kg/t 11.1
injected coal kg/t 5.7 4.6 3.7
total electrode consumption kg/t 1.37
consumption without breakage kg/t 1.2 1.072 0.507
(377 baskets)
36.8
Feb 2004

Two types of analysis were then carried-out:
41

The consumption per basket, with separate analyses for first and second baskets. Such analysis
allows highlighting differences of consumption and behaviour due to the influence of process
parameters. The melting patterns of the two baskets are indeed different: the melt of the first
basket consists only in the melting of the first scrap charge, whereas the melt of the second
basket also includes the final metallurgical operations on flat bath (temperature and carbon
adjustments).
The consumption per charge, which allows estimating the influence of process parameters such
as final bath temperature, steel composition, etc.
On Figure 40, electrode consumption values (per basket and per charge) are plotted versus the
electrical energy input. For most of the heats, the electrode consumption is found directly proportional to
the electrical energy input. This result is consistent with the findings from previous statistical studies: a
consumption baseline is due to the continuous consumption mechanisms which are taking place during
every charge. Electrode consumption values well above baseline are recorded for melts during which
discontinuous consumption events took place.
This statement was confirmed by a complete review of the electrode images of the whole data set.
Consumption values were visually classified in 3 groups, as illustrated in section 2.3.2.2.2: melts with a
very clear and significant stub end loss occurring, melts with other discontinuous consumption
mechanisms taking place (mainly crack losses, with possibly partial stub end loss) and melts with no
visible discontinuous consumption. These categories were named stub end losses, crack losses and
continuous consumption, respectively. Results are presented at Figure 41. It appears very clearly that
these categories form distinct clusters. The continuous consumption clusters are located on a baseline
which is directly proportional to the electrical energy used for melting (consumption ratio of about
2.1 kg electrode/MWh), which is common for the two baskets, which goes through the origin and which
shows only limited scatter (R
2
~0.7). On the contrary, discontinuous consumption clusters lie above a
separation line that can be drawn at 3.5 kg/MWh, with no clear relationship with the electrical energy. The
higher discontinuous values correspond to stub end losses, which can account for an increase in graphite
consumption up to 300 kg/basket (corresponding to a graphite ring of about 40cm length).
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Electrical energy (MWhr)
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
k
g
)
charges
baskets 2
baskets 1

Figure 40: Electrode consumption vs electric energy input consumption per basket and per heat
(APLDi dataset)
42

Figure 41: Electrode consumption vs electrical energy classification in three categories, for basket 1
and 2 (APLDi dataset)
The detailed results of this analysis are given in Table 4. The first column gives the number of values
on which the averaging is performed. Results are presented in mm and kg of electrode per basket or
per charge, except for the last column which gives consumptions in kg per tonne of liquid steel. It
must be made clear that the consumption values for the crack losses and stub end losses
categories is the total (gross) consumption, that includes the discontinuous loss(es) and the baseline
continuous consumption that occurs during each and every melt. The gross consumption per charge
is 163.5 kg of electrode (1.07 kg/tls or 2.57 kg/MWh) but it reduces to 142 kg (0.93 kg/tls or
2.23 kg/MWh) when charges with only continuous consumption are considered. The overall fraction of
electrode consumption due to discontinuous events is thus about 13%. Charges with discontinuous
event(s) taking place (crack losses + stub end losses categories) show an average graphite
consumption of 331 kg of electrode (2.17 kg/tls), more than two times higher than charges with only
continuous consumption. Expressed another way, on complete charges, crack losses and stub-end
losses induce an extra graphite consumption of 108 and 232 kg, respectively. It can also be seen that
the average wear rate for the first basket (2.9 kg/MWh) is higher than for the second basket
(2.5 kg/MWh) and that it is mainly due to discontinuous events.
Table 4: Electrode consumption for APLDi data set
43

consumption consumption stdev consumption rate
mm kg kg kg/MWhr
global 439 79,0 58,7 50,1 2,906
continuous 376 59,2 44,0 14,4 2,175
crack losses 45 136,4 101,2 33,5 5,062
stub-end losses 18 349,1 259,1 71,0 13,041
mm kg kg kg/MWhr
global 458 146,5 108,7 62,4 2,498
continuous 410 124,6 92,5 22,9 2,120
crack losses 24 272,4 202,2 106,3 4,790
stub-end losses 24 395,4 293,5 85,3 6,755
consumption consumption stdev consumption rate consumption rate
mm kg kg kg/MWhr kg/tls
global 377 220,3 163,5 77,4 2,573 1,072
continuous 334 191,2 142,0 32,5 2,232 0,931
crack losses 15 336,6 249,8 36,0 3,971 1,633
stub-end losses 28 504,3 374,3 116,8 5,929 2,458
number of
baskets
number of
baskets
number of
charges
basket 1
basket 2
charge

Prediction of continuous consumption (relationship with operating parameters)
The measured values for electrode consumption were compared to the values predicted by the
original BFI formulas (see section 2.3.3.2), for complete charges with continuous consumption only.
These formulas take into account operating parameters such as power-on time, current, some
geometrical electrode parameters (tip width and oxidized length), etc. Figure 42 shows the results of
this comparison for the APLDi data set.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Measured electrode consumption (kg/tls)
"
B
F
I
"

e
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
k
g
/
t
l
s
)

Figure 42: Comparison between the measured and calculated values for electrode consumption for
APLDi dataset
Although the average measured and calculated values are in relatively good agreement (measured
0.93 kg/tls - BFI 1.00 kg/tls), there is no correlation between measured and predicted values.
This result can be explained: the original BFI formulas are not very well suited to a heat-by-heat
analysis on a given furnace. The model indeed takes into account two terms of consumption, the tip
consumption which depends on the power-on and the current elevated to the second power and the
44

side consumption, which depends on the tap-to-tap time but also on geometrical parameters such
as the tip width and the oxidized length. The main term is the tip consumption, which accounts for
about 82% of the predicted consumption, and this term is roughly constant in a heat-by-heat analysis,
as the current is kept as constant as possible (120 kA) by furnace regulation system. BFI formulas
thus had to be modified, as detailed in section 2.3.3.2.
Influence of average current
The measured 13% of discontinuous consumption can be compared with the existing literature. In
1995, SGL published a paper illustrating the effect of the average current level on the overall
electrode consumption [
11
]. They showed that the contribution of discontinuous wear (expressed in %
of gross consumption) is severely increasing with increasing average current levels above 100 kA, as
illustrated at Figure 43. We added on this figure the value obtained for APLDi in February 2004
(average current level of 115 kA, 30 electrode size); it very neatly fit on SGL curve.
"24
"28
"28
"28
"28-29
"28-30
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Average curent level (kA)
D
i
s
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
o
u
s

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
%
)
1995 SGL paper (DC furnaces in the USA)
PADI 30"

Figure 43: Discontinuous proportion of the overall electrode wear vs the average current level
(APLDi dataset)
Electrode shape parameters
Despite the relatively low resolution of the camera installed in APLDi, some electrode shape
parameters were monitored (see section 2.3.1.3.1, summarised at Figure 44): tip width, side angles
and crack size. Side angles can also be expressed as oxidised length. A sequence of consecutive
melts / pictures has first been selected to illustrate the calculation of these parameters (Figure 45). It
can readily be seen that a severe stub end loss occurred during the last melt of the sequence (before
the fourth picture). Consistent shape values are obtained for the first and fourth images. On the
second picture, a lifting hook was awkwardly positioned between the camera and the electrode.
Because of the very unusual tip shape seen by the image analysis software, invalid values (red
numbers in the table) were obtained for most parameters. On the third image, some invalid values
were also obtained, even if the image appears regular. This is due to the unusual shape of the tip,
leading to an incorrect localisation of the low tip position. Although some improvements have been
made regarding the localisation of low tip position, a general conclusion is that the image analysis
software in APLDi gives good results when the electrode shape is customary, but its robustness for
unusual shapes or unexpected pictures should be improved.
45

Side angles
Tip width
Crack size

Figure 44: Main parameters of the electrode tip determined by the image analysis (APLDi)
basket 1077-1-F2 1078-1-F1 1077-2-F2 1078-2-F1
Right angle -3.2 -2.7 -2.7 -2
Left angle 4.4 90 128.5 3
Tip width m 0.65 -1.12 0 0.71
Crack size m 0.64 4.96 1.77 0
mm 41 117 489
kg 32 92 383
kg/MWh 1.7 2.2 10
Electrode
consumption

Figure 45: Sequence of consecutive electrode tip images (APLDi)
A detailed analysis of the evolution of shape parameters was then carried-out. Figure 46 shows the
evolution of the oxidized length during J anuary 2004. Values range from 0.1 to 1.7 m, with an average
of 0.588 m. Generally speaking, oxidised length increases more or less steadily with the utilisation
time of each electrode segment, then sharply decreases when switching to a new electrode segment,
as shown by the three straight red lines plotted over the data points, each of them indicating the
consumption of one complete electrode segment.
Similar plots have been generated for the evolution of tip width and crack size (Figure 47 and Figure
48). The evolution of tip width is essentially opposite to oxidised length: the longer the oxidised length,
the smaller the tip width. Tip width thus resets to a maximum value when a new electrode segment
reaches the tip of the electrode, then reduces progressively during the use of the segment. The
evolution of the crack size parameter is more erratic, but it was observed (as already shown at
Figure 45) that it generally decreases when switching to a new electrode segment.
46

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Heats for January 2004
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

o
x
i
d
i
z
e
d

l
e
n
g
t
h

[
m
]

Figure 46: Oxidized length of the graphite electrodes during one month - APLDi
0.62
0.64
0.66
0.68
0.7
0.72
0.74
0.76
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Heats for January 2004
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

t
i
p

w
i
d
t
h

[
m
]

Figure 47: Evolution of the graphite electrode tip during one month - APLDi
47

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Haets for January 2004
L
e
n
g
t
h

o
f

t
h
e

e
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
r
a
c
k
s

[
m
]

Figure 48: Length of electrode cracks during one month - APLDi
Arc deflection
If we now consider the two vessels of the twin-shell plant separately, the average values of
continuous consumption for first baskets are 40.4 kg at vessel 1 and 48.2 kg at vessel 2,
corresponding to a stunning difference of about 20%. A difference also exists for second baskets, but
at a lower level (7%). It was checked that no significant variation in process parameters (O
2
lances,
coal, O
2
PC, etc) can explain such a variation between the two furnaces.
The image analysis software in APLDi computes the MAXheat parameter, which calculates the
distribution of image brightness relative to the longitudinal axis of the electrode column (see Figure
17). It thus gives an indication on the distribution of heat across the electrode rod at the end of a melt,
which may be uneven because of a persistent deflection of the electric arc. A Maxheat value of 50%
indicates a balanced distribution of heat across the electrode tip, while lower and higher percentages
correspond to deviations on left and right sides, respectively. Figure 49 shows typical values for both
furnaces: about 50% (no deflection) for vessel 1 and a strong deflected value for vessel 2.
Maxheat 18 % Maxheat 46 %
Vessel 1 Vessel 2
Electrode
Deviated arc
Non -deviated
arc
camera

Figure 49: Measurement of the heat distribution at the tip of the electrode (APLDI furnace)
48

Figure 50 shows the range of values measured for the parameter Maxheat for the two vessels. The
average value for vessel 1 is very close to 50%, but significantly lower for vessel 2, confirming
frequent arc deflection problems on that furnace. This most probably explains the large difference in
average continuous consumption between the two vessels.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 1 2 3
Number of the vessel
M
a
x
h
e
a
t

(
%
)
average values

Figure 50: Maxheat parameter vs the vessel (APLDi data set)
2.3.2.2.6. Analysis of the first APLBe data set
CRM compiled and processed the APLBe files covering October 2004 to May 2005 (see section
2.3.2.1.2). Thanks to an improved preparation of databases and logging system by APLCSE R&D, the
compilation work was by far less time-consuming than for the first APLDi set. CRM also applied the
corrective post-treatment to account for parallax deviation (see section 2.3.2.2.4) and calculated some
complementary operating parameters such as the average current.
The data file, that originally contained 2060 basket recordings, led to 1470 valid baskets (766 first
baskets and 704 second baskets) and 531 complete charges (with two valid baskets).
average values over the whole year 2005. The energy consumption values in the data set are
somewhat lower than yearly averages. The average electrode consumption values computed from
image analysis (1.09 kg/tls with the 1 component procedure) is about 5% lower than the yearly
average given in the table (1.15 kg/tls).
led to the same general conclusions than for the APLDi data set, as shown hereunder.
A first analysis performed by APLCSE R&D is illustrated at Figure 51, which gives the relationship
between electrode consumption and electrical energy during both basket-melting phases (1
st
and 2
nd

baskets) and for whole charges. The consumption is expressed in mm of electrode length. As already
shown for the APLDi data set, two clearly different wear behaviours, i.e. the continuous consumption
(in blue on the figure) and the stub end losses (in red) are separated by an intermediate mode where
crack generation and propagation induce extra electrode consumption (in yellow). The average
measured wear is 220 mm per charge, which corresponds to 1.087 kg/t liquid steel. This value is in
quite good agreement with the figures reported by the plant for the corresponding months.
49

Table 5: Comparison between average values (yearly and data set) - first APLBe data set
2005
data
average stdev
Number of basket per heat 2 2
tap weight (steel in ladle per heat) t 157 157.2 6.0
remaining hot heel t
steel temperature before tapping C 1619 1620.4 18.8
tap-to-tap time (incl. Unplanned delays) min 70.3
power-on time min 40.6 41.7 2.4
total scrap charge kg/t 1115.4 1109.4 26.6
recycled dust kg/t
lime kg/t 24 22.2 1.9
other slag formers kg/t
eletric energy kWhr/t 375.9 368.8 12.9
natural gas consumption of burners Nm3/t 8.9 8.5 0.9
oxygen consumption of burners Nm3/t 17.1 1.8
oxygen consumption of lances Nm3/t 9.1 1.0
oxygen for post-combustion Nm3/t 8.5 0.8
coal/coke charged with basket kg/t 2.4 1.1
injected coal kg/t 12.9 10.1 1.6
total electrode consumption kg/t 1.217
consumption without breakage kg/t 1.154 1.087 0.507
41.3
Oct 2004-May 2005
(531 charges)

0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Electric energy input: end of first and second basket-melting phase, total
energy (MWhr)
C
h
a
n
g
e

i
n

e
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

l
e
n
g
t
h

(
m
m
)
tip losses
induced by
cracks
tip losses at
nipple transition

Figure 51: Electrode wear rates as function of electrical energy input (first APLBe data set)
The same data is then presented a slightly different way at Figure 52, where electrode consumption is
given as kg/MWh. Electrode wear rates are found to be almost identical for the two melting phases, as
in the APLDi case. Average values are about 2.5 kg/MWh for baskets with only continuous
consumption, about 5 kg/MWh when crack loss occurs and above 7.5 kg/MWh in case of stub end
loss. The energetic criterion that can be used to separate continuous from discontinuous consumption
values is about 3.8 kg/MWh.
50

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Electric energy (MWhr)
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

w
e
a
r

r
a
t
e

(
k
g
/
M
W
h
r
)
Stub end losses rate
Crack losses rate
Continuous consumption rate
basket 1
basket 2

Figure 52: Electrode consumption rate function of electrical energy input (first APLBe data set)
The next table gives the detailed consumption values corresponding to the different wear
mechanisms. The gross consumption per charge is 170.9 kg of electrode (1.09 kg/tls or 2.95 kg/MWh)
but it reduces to 151 kg (0.96 kg/tls or 2.61 kg/MWh) when charges with only continuous consumption
are considered. The overall fraction of electrode consumption due to discontinuous events is thus
about 12%, very similar to the value found for APLDi. On complete charges, crack losses and stub-
end losses induce an extra graphite consumption of 89 and 196 kg, respectively. Another common
conclusion with APLDi is that the average wear rate for the first basket (3.2 kg/MWh) is higher than for
the second basket (3.0 kg/MWh) and that it is mainly due to discontinuous events.
Table 6: Electrode consumption first APLBe data set
mm kg kg kg/MWhr
global 766 84.3 65.4 34.1 3.155
continuous 590 68.2 52.9 11.0 2.546
crack losses 164 129.6 100.5 39.3 4.908
stub-end losses 12 257.0 199.3 71.7 9.380
mm kg kg kg/MWhr
global 704 144.7 112.2 59.6 2.991
continuous 593 118.7 92.0 17.3 2.458
crack losses 72 236.1 183.0 43.6 4.861
stub-end losses 39 371.0 287.6 100.0 7.526
global 531 220.4 170.9 77.4 2.948 1.087
continuous 446 194.8 151.0 32.5 2.606 0.961
crack losses 57 309.4 239.9 36.0 4.147 1.528
stub-end losses 28 447.3 346.8 116.8 5.938 2.205
charge
basket 2
basket 1
number of
charges
number of
baskets
number of
baskets

Comparison with APLDi results
The electrode consumption per ton of liquid steel is almost the same on both steel plants, with
1.087 kg/tls for APLBe and 1.072 for APLDi. However, as the specific electrical energy consumption is
51

much lower in APLBe (-12%), the electrode consumption per unit of electrical input is much higher in
that plant: 2.948 kg/MWh (about 15% higher).
Discontinuous consumption events (crack losses and stub end losses) occur more frequently in
APLBe: during about 16% of charges, against 11% in APLDi. In fact, only the frequency of crack
losses increases significantly: during 4% of the charges in APLDi and 11% in APLBe. However,
discontinuous events occur with less consequence: on the average, the extra consumption is about
275 151 =124 kg in APLBe, against 331 142 =189 kg in APLDi. Finally, the overall fraction of
electrode consumption due these events is about the same in both plants (12% in APLBe and 13% in
APLDi).
Other elements for comparison are given hereunder.
Influence of electrical current
Figure 53 gives the electrode wear as function of the average and peak electrical current during the
melting of 2
nd
baskets, for charges with continuous consumption only. This figure suggests a direct
influence of average and maximum currents on continuous electrode wear. It also shows that
maximum current values up to 160 kA can be reached during melting.
Average and peak current during 2nd basket melting phase (kA)
C
h
a
n
g
e

i
n

e
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

l
e
n
g
t
h

(
m
m
)
100
20
110 120 130 140 150 160
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
0
average peaks

Figure 53: Electrode consumption as function of current (2
nd
baskets, continuous consumption only)
first APLBe data set
The influence of electrical current can be more precisely quantified using the current density variable,
computed by taking into account the real (measured) size of the electrode tip. Smaller tip sizes lead to
higher current densities, higher temperature of the graphite, higher stress in the tip and thus higher
continuous electrode consumption. Figure 54 gives the relationship between continuous consumption
and current density. The correlation results are clearly better than with the average or peak current
variables. The average value of the current density was 37.3 A/cm
2
with a standard deviation of
3.4 A/cm
2
.
The higher level of crack losses in APLBe was also investigated. As already mentioned, the electrical
energy input is lower in APLBe; this is compensated by higher coal injection and post-combustion
levels. However, these factors should influence continuous consumption much more than
discontinuous events. The average current is also almost the same on both sites (about 115 kA), but
a noticeable difference can be found in current peaks. Values observed at APLBe (average =140 kA,
with a standard deviation of 6.6 kA) are higher and fluctuate more than in APLDi (130 kA, with
standard deviation of 3.4 kA).
52

Another possible explanation for higher crack losses in APLBe is the erratic operation of the furnace
during the recording period (see section 2.3.2.1.2). Frequent shut down and start-up phases have
certainly enhanced transient effects (thermal shocks), which are detrimental to the electrode integrity.
0
50
100
150
200
250
25 30 35 40 45 50
Current density (A/cm2)
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
k
g
)

Figure 54: Influence of current density on electrode continuous consumption - first APLBe data set
Influence of nipple transition on crack losses
In order to highlight the effect of nipple transitions on crack losses, we performed an analysis,
considering each connecting pin (nipple) as a central element acting on half of the electrode segment
on both of its sides, as illustrated on Figure 55.
Area of
influence of the
connecting pin 1
Connecting
pin 1
Connecting
pin 2
Area of
influence of the
connecting pin 2
-50% +50% -50% +50%

Figure 55: Area of influence of each nipple
The results of this analysis are presented at Figure 56 (first basket) and Figure 57 (second basket).
Obviously, stub end losses (red triangles on the figure) only occur at position =0 on the abscissa. As
expected, continuous consumption (blue squares) constitutes a steady baseline. Focusing on crack
53

losses (yellow marks), we can observe higher values around the nipple transition: some before the
transition (especially for basket 1) and most of them after the nippling section.
This behaviour highlights the fact that the nipple area acts both as crack generator and propagator:
The thermal pattern inside the electrode is disturbed by the material discontinuity at the nippling
section.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
" position" of the electrode tip relative to the nipple
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
k
g
)
Continuous consumption
Crack losses
Stub end losses

Figure 56: Influence of nipple transition on electrode consumption basket 1 (first APLBe data set)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
" position" of the electrode tip relative to the nipple
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
k
g
)
Crack losses
Stub end losses

Figure 57: Influence of nipple transition on electrode consumption basket 2 (first APLBe data set)
54

Electrode shape parameters: oxidised length
The evolution of shape parameters was monitored using the image analysis system and generally
follows the same rules as presented for APLDi. However, the values of the oxidised length in APLBe
are much higher and the link with the utilisation time of the electrode segment is not as clear: while for
APLDi the oxidized length ranges from 0.1 to 1.7 m with an average value of 0.588 m, it fluctuates in
APLBe from 0.5 to about 2.5 m (and even up to 4 m) with an average at 1.06 m (see Figure 58). This
difference is most probably due to the much higher post-combustion injections (air and oxygen) in the
furnace, leading to more side wear.
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
8200 8400 8600 8800 9000 9200 9400 9600 9800 10000
Heats from October 2004 to May 2005
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

o
x
i
d
i
z
e
d

l
e
n
g
t
h

(
m
)

Figure 58: Oxidized length measured during data collection in APLBe (first data set)
2.3.2.2.7. Analysis of the second APLBe data set
CRM compiled and processed the APLBe files covering J anuary to J une 2006 (see section 2.3.2.1.3).
After re-computing some missing operating data from APLBe dynamic files, CRM applied the
corrective post-treatment to account for parallax deviation (see section 2.3.2.2.4). The data file, which
originally included 4032 basket recordings, is finally composed of 2747 valid baskets (1328 first
baskets and 1419 second baskets) and 1132 complete charges (with two valid baskets).
average values over the whole year 2006 and to their values in the two other data sets. The average
electrical energy consumption in the data set is somewhat lower than the yearly average of the plant,
but this compensated by higher natural gas and oxygen injections. The average power-on value is not
consistent with annual average or normal plant standards; the logging of power-on values was most
probably erroneous. The average electrode consumption values computed from image analysis
(1.03 kg/tls) is about 4% lower than the plant average value for the same 6-months period, as shown
in Table 8.
55

Table 7: Comparison between average values (yearly and data set) - all data sets
2004 2005 2006
data data data
average stdev average stdev average stdev
Number of basket per heat 2 2 2 2 2 2
tap weight t 147.4 152.5 7.9 157 157.2 6.0 155 156.8 5.7
remaining hot heel t 30
steel temperature before tapping C 1625 1623.3 25.5 1619 1620.4 18.8 1630
tap-to-tap time min 58.45 70.3 71.45
power-on time min 43.12 42.5 3.8 40.6 41.7 2.4 39.87 53.6 3.9
total scrap charge kg/t 1112 1105.2 109.1 1115.4 1109.4 26.6 1107.7 1035.2 202.9
recycled dust kg/t 6
lime kg/t 29.3 17.9 6.9 24 22.2 1.9 24.6
other slag formers kg/t 4
eletric energy kWhr/t 434 416.5 29.6 375.9 368.8 12.9 384.58 371.3 18.7
natural gas - burners Nm3/t 11.9 8.6 0.8 8.9 8.5 0.9 8.2 11.8 1.7
oxygen - burners Nm3/t 17.4 1.7 17.1 1.8 24.0 3.3
oxygen - lances Nm3/t 8.4 2.6 9.1 1.0 4.6 0.9
oxygen - post-combustion Nm3/t 2.7 0.8 8.5 0.8 12.9 1.8
coal/coke charged with basket kg/t 11.1 2.4 1.1
injected coal kg/t 5.7 4.6 3.7 12.9 10.1 1.6 13
total electrode consumption kg/t 1.37 1.217 1.21
consumption without breakage kg/t 1.2 1.072 0.507 1.154 1.087 0.507 1.034 0.466
APLDi APLBe
(377 baskets)
Jan 06/June 06
(1132 charges)
36.8 41.3 37.6
Oct 04/ May 05
(531 charges)
Feb 04

Table 8: Electrode consumption: comparison between average values - APLBe 2
nd
data set
annual (2006) period (jan-june) measured by camera
total electrode consumption kg/tls 1.198 1.107
consumption without breakage kg/tls 1.113 1.071 1.034

leads to the same general conclusions than for the other data sets. Figure 59 gives the relationship
between the electrode consumption and the electric energy during both basket-melting phases, with
the usual split between charge with only continuous electrode consumption (in blue), with continuous
+crack losses (in yellow) and with continuous +stub-end losses (in red).
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
14 19 24 29 34 39 44 49
Electrical energy input : end of first basket and after the second basket (MWhr)
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)

56

Figure 59: Electrode consumption as function of electric energy input - APLBe 2
nd
data set
Table 9 gives the detailed consumption values corresponding to the different wear mechanisms. The
gross consumption per charge is 162.2 kg of electrode (1.03 kg/tls or 2.80 kg/MWh) but it reduces to
137.3 kg (0.88 kg/tls or 2.36 kg/MWh) when charges with only continuous consumption are
considered. The overall fraction of electrode consumption due to discontinuous events is thus about
15%, slightly higher than for the other data sets. This is not due to an increase in frequency of
discontinuous events. It may be partly explained by the higher consequences of discontinuous events
(slightly higher extra graphite consumption: +30 kg/charge on the average). However, the main factor
to explain the increased proportion of discontinuous consumption is the lower continuous
consumption rate, which is about 7% lower than for the other data sets (0.88 kg/tls against 0.93 and
0.96 kg/tls). This can probably be explained by the steadier process operation and by an improved
current control, as shown below.
Table 9: Electrode consumption - APLBe 2
nd
data set
mm kg kg kg/MWhr
global 1328 77,9 60,4 39,4 2,905
continuous 1113 63,3 49,1 14,0 2,357
crack losses 172 134,2 104,1 39,3 5,080
stub-end losses 43 227,9 176,7 111,9 8,609
mm kg kg kg/MWhr
global 1419 132,5 102,7 57,9 2,742
continuous 1208 107,9 83,6 18,6 2,236
crack losses 134 235,0 182,2 47,5 4,804
stub-end losses 77 340,8 264,2 98,5 7,002
global 1132 209,2 162,2 73,1 2,789 1,034
continuous 949 177,2 137,3 24,9 2,363 0,876
crack losses 88 313,4 242,9 48,7 4,178 1,557
stub-end losses 95 433,0 335,7 114,3 5,748 2,133
number of
charges
number of
baskets
number of
baskets
basket 1
basket 2
charge

Once again, the average wear rate for the first basket (2.9 kg/MWh) is higher than for the second
basket (2.7 kg/MWh) and that it is mainly due to discontinuous events. Comparing the two steps of the
process, the second melting phase involves a phase on flat bath which is steadier (stable current,
very little electrode movements, etc) and should thus be far less stringent for the electrode, causing
less discontinuous event per kWh of electrical energy.
Influence of average and peak current
Figure 60 gives the electrode wear as function of the average and peak current during the melting of
2
nd
baskets, for charges with continuous consumption only. This figure can be compared with Figure
53 for the first APLBe data set. The scatter of the average current is here much lower: there was a
clear improvement in the regulation of the current between the two recording periods, leading to a
more stable melting process. However, there was no clear improvement in the fluctuations of
maximum current: values up to 160 kA can still be reached during melting. Figure 60 also suggests a
direct influence of average current on continuous electrode wear, but no influence of maximum
current.
57

0
50
100
150
200
250
100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Average and peak current during 2nd basket melting phase (kA)
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nd
APLBe 2
nd
data set
2.3.2.2.8. Statistical analysis of industrial data
APLDi data set
The APLDi data set, corrected for luminosity was first processed by CRM using a statistical analysis
software (STATISTICA, developed by StatSoft) with the objective to evaluate the main parameters
influencing the continuous electrode wear.
A set of 218 complete charges with only continuous consumption was considered to perform the
correlation analysis. The most relevant parameter influencing the electrode consumption was found to
be the electrical energy input (correlation factor R =0.47). The other expected parameters as the
power-on time, the slag composition and the oxygen inputs (lances, PC or over-stoechiometric
oxygen from burners) were not found statistically relevant in that analysis.
Statistical investigation was then led on a basket basis, over 268 available first baskets and 283
second baskets. Using the data set with only first baskets, the statistical evaluation gave poor
correlations with all process parameters. With second baskets data, several relevant parameters were
found. They were taken into account for adjusting a multi-linear regression model. Several attempts
were required in order to pool the redundant variables and to find a satisfactory relationship with the
total electrical energy input and the iron oxide content in the slag:
Electrode consumption = - 32.6 + 2.27 x EnEltot (MWh) + 0.85 x Feslag (%)
However, the final correlation coefficient is relatively poor (R
2
= 0.257), as illustrated by the
confidence interval drawn in red on Figure 61, where the consumption values predicted by the above
relationship are plotted as a function of the observed value.
58

Figure 61: Plot of the predicted consumption values vs the observed values - APLDi data set
BFI carried-out alternative investigations on the APLDi data set, analysing a refined data set prepared
by CRM, which included 2 components consumption values (distinguishing tip and side wear, see
section 2.3.2.2.3) and a flag indicating the type of consumption mechanism (continuous /
discontinuous). Moreover, statistical analyses were performed for first and second baskets separately.
The data set included 229 first baskets and 340 second baskets with continuous consumption only,
then 49 first and 25 second baskets during which discontinuous events occurred. Detailed correlation
analyses revealed the operational parameters which have an effect on the two different wear
mechanisms.
In Table 10, the relevant operational parameters for continuous wear mechanisms are listed. It is also
indicated if they influence only the tip wear or both tip and side consumptions (indicated as total). No
parameter was found that influence only the side wear. As expected, electrical parameters such as
power-on time, total electrical energy and the average arc current have a significant influence on the
continuous electrode tip consumption, for both baskets. The oxygen input (via door burner and lance
and via the oxygen and air injections for post-combustion) influences both tip and side consumptions.
For the second basket, it can be found that the electrode tip consumption also increases with the FeO
content of the slag. The correlation with steel chemical composition is weak and not easy to explain; it
might simply be caused by a statistical bias due to non-Gaussian distribution of these variables.
Table 10: Correlation analysis for influence of operational parameters on continuous wear (APLDi)
Slag analysis Oxygen and carbon input
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Unit min min MWh kA kA min % % % % % % % % Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t kg/t kg/t
PADI Basket 1 Tip Tip Ti p Tip Total Tip Total
PADI Basket 2 Tip Tip Tip Ti p Tip Tip Tip Tip Tip Tip Ti p
Tip correlation >0.12 Tip correlation <-0.12 Tip correlation >0.20
Electrical parameters Steel analysis at tapping

59

Regarding discontinuous wear mechanisms, Table 11 gives the results of the correlation analysis.
Most of the operational parameters which were identified for the continuous wear show a similar effect
on discontinuous wear. Exceptions are the oxygen input via the wall burners, which seems to reduce
discontinuous consumption, and the foam coal and lime injection, which both lead to a higher
discontinuous consumption. These effects cannot be readily explained: these correlations may again
be due to statistical bias.
Table 11: Correlation analysis for influence of operational parameters on wear mechanisms (APLDi)
Slag analysis
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Unit min min MWh kA kA min % % % % % % % % Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t kg/t kg/t
PADI Basket 1 Tip Tip Tip Tip Total Tip Total
Discont Discont Discont Discont Discont Discont Discont Discont
PADI Basket 2 Tip Tip Tip Tip Tip Tip Tip Tip Tip Tip Tip
Discont Discont Discont Discont Discont Discont Discont Discont Discont
Electrical parameters Steel analysis at tapping Oxygen and carbon input

Basically, it should be reminded that two elements combine to make statistical analyses of the APLDi
data very difficult:
Because of the twin-shell configuration of the APLDi plant, the electrode switches from one vessel
to the other after each basket melting. Therefore, any event happening during a melt (crack
formation, uneven wear of the electrode, etc) does influence the consumption of the next melt,
which is part of another charge in the other vessel.
Due to arc deflection problems (see Figure 49), large differences exist between the electrode
consumption values of the two vessels. The data from these two furnaces are combined in the
processed data sets.
These elements probably explain the difficulties encountered in the statistical analysis and the low
correlation coefficients obtained.
APLBe data sets
Again, CRM processed the first APLBe data set (corrected for parallax deviation) using the
STATISTICA software with the objective to evaluate the main parameters influencing the continuous
electrode wear.
A set of 201 complete charges from the first APLBe data set was considered. The most relevant
parameter were found to be the electrical energy input (correlation factor R =0.22), the tip width
(correlation factor R =-0.41), the iron oxide content of the slag (correlation factor R =0.16) and the
parameter SonicSup20 (correlation factor R =0.34), which corresponds to the time during which the
sonic-meter signal is higher than a given threshold. The other expected parameters, such as the
power-on time or the oxygen input (via lances, PC or burners) were not statistically relevant in this
analysis.
Both the electrical energy input and the iron oxide content of slag have already been identified in the
APLDi case. Tip width, measured after each basket melting, has a significant effect on the electrode
continuous consumption because it has a direct influence on current density, as already shown in
60

Figure 54. A high value of the SonicSup20 parameter means a deteriorated slag foaming. It can be
understood that such deterioration decreases arc stability and reduces the protection of electrode tip
against oxygen, both effects leading to a higher electrode consumption.
These parameters were then used to adjust a multi-linear regression model (R
2
adjusted
=0.395):
Electrode consumption = 275.03 0.43 x Tiwidth (mm) + 1.23 x EnEltot (MWh)
+ 0.023 x SonicSup20 (sec) + 0.7 x Feslag (%)
As in the APLDi case, BFI then carried-out alternative investigations on the first APLBe data set,
analysing a refined data set prepared by CRM, which included 2 components consumption values
(distinguishing tip and side wear, see section 2.3.2.2.3) and a flag indicating the type of consumption
mechanism (continuous / discontinuous). Statistical analyses were performed for first and second
baskets separately. The data set included 181 first baskets and 137 second baskets with continuous
consumption only, then 69 first and 29 second baskets during which discontinuous events occurred.
Detailed correlation analyses revealed the operational parameters which have an effect on the two
different wear mechanisms.
Table 12 shows the results of the correlation analysis for the continuous wear, with indication on the
concerned wear mechanism (tip, side or total). The parameters which influence continuous
consumption are very much the same than for the APLDi furnace: electrical parameters such as the
power-on time and total electrical energy (for both baskets), the oxygen input (via burners, lances and
post-combustion injectors) and the FeO content of the slag, for the second basket. The sonic signal,
which is only recorded at the APLBe furnace and which indicates slag foaming performances, has to
be added to the list of relevant parameters, as already shown by CRM analysis above. Furthermore,
the Cr content of the liquid steel also appears to reduce electrode consumption. This effect is not easy
to explain. Again, it might simply be caused by a statistical bias.
Table 12: Correlation analyses for the continuous electrode wear (APLBe)
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Unit min min MWh kA kA min % % % % % - % % % % Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t kg/t kg/t
PAEB Basket 1 Tip Tip Tip Total Tip
PAEB Basket 2 Total Total Total Total Total Total Total Tip Side
Electrical parameters Slag anal ysis Steel analysis at tapping Oxygen and carbon input
Si de

The results of the correlation analysis for the discontinuous wear are shown in Table 13. The relevant
operating parameters appear essentially the same for continuous and discontinuous wear.
Data from the second APLBe data set came late in the project (2006), had to be extensively pre-
processed (recalculation of some missing values: tip width, etc, as described at section 2.3.2.1.3) and
did not include some important parameters (such as sonic meter signal). This data file could thus not
be analysed in details. However, the main statistical results were found very similar to those from the
first data set.
The databases for the APLDi and APLBe furnace, and the results of the correlation analysis were
used to verify and to extend the BFI model for the electrode consumption, as described in section
2.3.3.
61

Table 13 : Correlation analyses for discontinuous and continuous wear mechanisms (APLBe)
PAEB 1
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Unit min min MWh kA kA min % % % % % - % % % % Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t Nm/t kg/t kg/t
PAEB Basket 1 Tip Tip Tip Total Tip
Discont Discont Discont Discont Discont
PAEB Basket 2 Total Total Total Total Total Total Total Tip Side
Discont N.a. Discont Discont Discont Discont Discont Discont Discont
Si de
Oxygen and carbon input Electrical parameters Slag anal ysis Steel analysis at tapping

Conclusions
Statistical analyses of relationships between electrode consumption and furnace operating
parameters were carried-out for the two plants, for complete charges and for baskets data, for
continuous consumption (separately for tip and side wear mechanisms) and for discontinuous
consumption events.
Generally, correlations are weak, due to artificial scatter from several sources:
APLDi is a twin-shell plant: 2 furnaces with alternate baskets operation and with different arc
deflection problems
There is an intrinsic error on consumption measurements (esp. in APLDi), see section 2.3.2.2.4
The quality of electrode is not constant (different electrode lots +switch between suppliers during
some of the recording periods)
The operation of EAF plant was not regular (especially the first data set from APLBe)
The main factor influencing continuous tip consumption was found to be the electrical energy (total
electrical energy, power-on time, average current, etc). It was suggested that the best way to take this
parameter into account is probably to calculate an average current density, on the basis of real
electrode tip width.
The oxygen injected in burners, lances and post-combustion injectors also plays a significant role,
both on tip and side continuous wear. Finally, the iron oxide content in the slag and the extent of slag
foaming (measured by means of a sonic-meter) also exhibits an influence on continuous
consumption. Other correlations established with steel composition (Cr for both plants, Cu for APLDi
only) could not be readily explained and may be due to statistical bias.
Regarding discontinuous consumption events, the operating parameters identified as relevant were
essentially the same as for continuous wear. However, the number of recordings was rather low
(<100 in all data sets); these results can thus be questioned.
2.3.2.3. Task 2.3: Analysis of the results (tip drops, breakage)
Discontinuous consumption events, tip drops (or stub end losses) and crack losses, have already
been extensively described, analysed and studied in the previous section (2.3.2.2), especially when
reviewing the three data sets.
62

Table 14 summarises the consumption data related to the various mechanisms (see section 2.3.2.2.2)
for the three data sets. It is worthy to remind that electrode breakages are not included in the present
analysis because they are not recorded by the camera-based electrode monitoring system: they lead
to full electrode replacement and thus reset the consumption calculation.
Table 14: Summary table of electrode consumption values for complete charges, for the different wear
mechanisms and the three data sets
APLDi 02/2004
charge number of charges consumption consumption consumption rate consumption rate
mm kg kg/MWhr kg/tls
global 377 220.3 163.5 2.573 1.072
continuous 334 191.2 142.0 2.232 0.931
crack losses 15 336.6 249.8 3.971 1.633
stub-end losses 28 504.3 374.3 5.929 2.458
APLBe - 1 10/2004 -05/2005
global 531 220.4 170.9 2.948 1.087
continuous 446 194.8 151.0 2.606 0.961
crack losses 57 309.4 239.9 4.147 1.528
stub-end losses 28 447.3 346.8 5.938 2.205
APLBe - 2 1/2006 - 06/2006
global 1132 209.2 162.2 2.789 1.034
continuous 949 177.2 137.3 2.363 0.876
crack losses 88 313.4 242.9 4.178 1.557
stub-end losses 95 433.0 335.7 5.748 2.133

It can be noticed that the total electrode consumption per ton of liquid steel is very similar on all steel
plants: 1.03 to 1.09 kg/tls. On complete charges, crack losses and stub-end losses induce extra
graphite consumptions of 100 kg and 200 to 230 kg, respectively. The next table then summarises the
elements used to compare the results between plants and data sets.
Table 15: Comparison table between plants and data sets
APLDi APLBe 1st APLBe 2nd
2004 2004/2005 2006
Electrode size inch / mm 30 / 762 30 / 762 30 / 762
Twin-shell furnace Y or N Y N N
Nippling robot Y or N N Y Y
Average current kA 115 115 118
Current peaks kA 130 3.4 140 6.6
Electrode consumption (average) kg/tls 1.07 1.09 1.03
Continuous electrode consumption (average on
charges with only continuous consumption) kg/tls 0.93 0.96 0.88
% of consumption due to discontinuous
mechanisms (crack + stub end losses) % 13 12 15
% of charges with discontinuous events % 11 16 16
Continuous electrode consumption (average on
charges with only continuous consumption) kg/charge 142 151 137
Additional electrode consumption induced by
discontinuous events (average) kg/charge +189 +124 +154
Average oxidised length m 0.6 1.1 1.3

The overall fraction of electrode consumption due to discontinuous events is very similar in APLDi and
APLBe (1
st
data set only): 12 to 13%. Indeed, although discontinuous consumption events (crack
losses and stub end losses) occur more frequently in APLBe (during about 16% of charges against
63

11% in APLDi), these events occur with less consequence: on the average, the extra consumption is
only 124 kg in APLBe against 189 kg in APLDi.
The fraction of electrode consumption due to discontinuous events then increases to 15% for the
second data set of APLBe. The main explanation is a sensible reduction in continuous consumption
(by 7%). Moreover, the consequence of discontinuous events also increased (+30 kg/charge on the
average). As already mentioned, the reduction of continuous consumption is probably due to an
improved current regulation system and a steadier furnace operation. However, the values for the
three data sets (12 to 15% of discontinuous consumption) remain very consistent with the values from
the literature (see Figure 43).
The values of the oxidised length in APLBe are much higher than in APLDi. This difference is most
probably due to the much higher post-combustion injections (air and oxygen) in the furnace, leading
to more side wear.
Influence of the nipple: stub-end losses and associated crack losses
By definition, stub-end losses occur at the end of an electrode segment, when the remaining of the
electrode cannot be held by the nipple and falls in the furnace (section 2.3.2.2.2). Practically, the
electrode images have shown that this mechanism can occur in one or several steps due to the
development of cracks, as shown at the next figure (Figure 62). It is worthy to note that, in our
analyses of data sets using electrode images, the first of the two-steps loss mechanism shown on the
figure has always been classified as crack loss, although it is clearly linked to the end of the electrode
segment.
64

Figure 62: One step (top) and two-steps (bottom) stub-end losses APLBe furnace
More generally, it has been shown for the APLBe furnace that crack losses occur more frequently
around the junction between two electrode segments (Figure 56 and Figure 57). As already
mentioned, this behaviour highlights the fact that the nipple area acts both as crack generator and
propagator:
The thermal pattern inside the electrode is disturbed by the material discontinuity in the nippling
section.
Figure 63 presents the same APLBe data a different way: electrode wear is plotted against the
number of heats after adding a new electrode segment on the top of the electrode mast. Again, it can
be observed that the frequency and severity of crack losses is higher just before of after stub-end
losses, although several cases are also encountered during the first half of the service life of electrode
segments.
65

0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
number of heats
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
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n

(
k
g
)
Crack losses
Stub end losses

Figure 63: Electrode consumption vs the number of heats after electrode re-lengthening (first APLBe
data set Oct 2004 to May 2005)
In APLDi, the phenomenon is even stronger, as shown at Figure 64. It can be seen that crack losses
only occur in the nipple area, mainly before the transition between electrode segments. As already
shown for this furnace (Figure 45), the crack length measured by image analysis strongly decreases
(often to zero) when switching to a new electrode segment.
The explanation of this difference between APLBe and APLDi probably lies in the twin-shell
configuration of the APLDi furnace, where the electrode quickly switches from one vessel to the other
between melts and has thus little time for cooling (reduction of thermal shocks).
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
number of heats
E
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(
k
g
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Crack losses
Stub end losses

Figure 64: Electrode consumption vs the number of heats after electrode re-lengthening (APLDi data
set Feb 2004)
66

Crack analysis
Graphite electrodes are ceramic materials and exhibit a fragile behaviour when submitted to tensile
stresses. They are not able to absorb the stress energy by means of a plastic strain and the rupture
arises without any large elongation. Customary value of tensile strength is 10 Mpa, to compare with a
classical 250 Mpa or higher for steels. However, it must be mentioned that the tensile strength
increase as the temperature rises (+100% at 2500C) up to 2500 C but deteriorates beyond that
temperature.
Figure 65 illustrates the tri-dimensional state of stress in a cylinder. The Hoop stress (also called the
transversal stress or tangential column stress) is a mechanical stress applied in a direction
perpendicular to the radius of the cylinder. Along with axial stress and radial stress, it is a
component of the stress tensor in cylindrical co-ordinates.
Top view of the
cylinder
t
r
z
r
t
r
z
cylinder

Figure 65: View of the stress tensor in a cylinder where t =hoop stress, r =radial stress and
z =axial stress
The terminology used to describe the cracks [
12
] that are generated on the electrode column is
illustrated at Figure 66: transversal cracks are circumferencial cracks, developing in a plane parallel
to the tip surface, while longitudinal cracks are oriented in the axial direction of the electrode.
Transversal crack
Longitudinal crack
A
B

Figure 66: Transversal and longitudinal cracks
As shown on Figure 67, numerous examples of these cracks were observed on the electrodes in
APLDi and APLBe. The picture on the left-hand side illustrates a crack that starts at the tip and is 80
to 90 cm long. The middle picture shows a transversal crack that interacts with several longitudinal
cracks. The picture on the right-hand side shows a longitudinal crack going from the tip to the end of
67

the segment (at the nipple junction) and which is crossed by a transversal crack that seems to skirt
round the tip of electrode.

Figure 67: Pictures of electrode cracks - APLBe
As schematically illustrated at Figure 68, longitudinal cracks are generated and propagate due to
hoop (transversal) stress, while transversal cracks are created by axial stress. Longitudinal cracks can
result in loosening of graphite parts, especially at the end of electrode segments (opening and falling-
off of complete electrode rings =stub-end losses). The effect of transversal cracks can even be more
detrimental to graphite consumption: apart from loosening graphite parts, they also impair the flow of
current by reducing the well-structured conductive section and thus increase current density in the
remaining graphite section.
Hoop
stress
Hoop
stress
Longitudinal
crack

Transversal
crack
Axial
stress
Axial
stress

Figure 68: longitudinal cracks are generated by hoop stress and transversal cracks by axial stress
SGL Carbon corp [
13
,
14
] compared the distribution of the current, the temperature and the hoop
stresses (also named the tangential column stresses). It led to Figure 69, schematically representing
the current distribution across the electrode, the temperature distribution and the corresponding stress
distribution. This figure presents a comparison of AC and DC furnaces. In AC furnaces, the current
flows mainly at the surface of the electrode, generating heat which can be released easily. In DC
furnaces, as the current flow is homogeneous, a strong gradient of temperature is created in the
electrode column and results in a corresponding stress state: the core is in compression, while the
surface is in tension.
The temperature profile given on the figure has been calculated at steady state. The stress is even
enhanced once the electrode cools down (i.e. when the current is stopped): the core is hotter than the
68

surface that cools down quickly (thermal shock). The tensile stress strongly increases at the surface,
leading to a critical stress state.
The same reasoning can be applied to the tip of the electrode. The arc that is fixed to the cathode
(electrode) can reach a temperature higher than 3500C (sublimation temperature of the graphite). An
axial thermal gradient is thus generated due to the extremely hot surface, generating a high stress
state. The tip is thus submitted to what is called the thermal spalling.
The real stress state in the electrode is a complex combination of the various thermal effects, plus the
mechanical effects of vibrations, mechanical shocks, etc. Once a crack has been generated, it can
thus easily propagate through the core of the electrode.
AC AC AC DC DC DC
Current density
(A/in
2
)
Temperature
distribution
(C)
Hoop stress
(%)
0
84
370
30
2000
1650
0
100%
160%
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
t
e
n
s
i
o
n

Figure 69: Current density, temperature distribution and hoop stresses in the electrode column for AC
and DC furnaces
The presence of the nipples, as already discussed above, introduces a geometrical heterogeneity in
the electrode column that modifies the current and thermal patterns, therefore acting on the stress
state of the electrode [
2
,
3
,
15
]. SGL performed numerical simulation on an electrode column with the
presence of nipples [
16
]. These simulations were performed by considering an electrode of 750-mm
diameter and a current level of 110 kA.
The gradient of temperature in the electrode, as illustrated in Figure 70, is perturbed by the nipples.
The lower nipple, the nearest from the steel bath, is submitted to the highest thermal charges (up to
2300C). In consequence, the ring of graphite matter in the horizontal plan of that nipple is submitted
to the highest tensile stresses. Levels of 16.8 MPa are reached, well above the graphite strength limit.
69

Figure 70: Finite Element simulation of an electrode column with nipples (lefthand side: temperature
distribution, right-hand side: tangential stress distribution)
Detailed crack investigation
To have a better understanding of crack wear, it was decided to investigate cracks formation and
propagation by means of observation on an electrode section.
With the help of APLCSE R&D, CRM collected two electrode sections at APLBe (Figure 71): a used
electrode segment (including the tip) and a virgin sample (in fact, a part of a segment from an
electrode breakage that did not enter into the furnace).
Electrode cut-off for tomography analysis
Used electrode
Virgin electrode

Figure 71: Electrode cuts for tomography analysis
As illustrated on the Figure 72, the sections were cut-off by means of chain saw for concrete.
70

Figure 72: Cut of a section of electrode segment at APLBe
Regarding the used electrode sample, it can be seen on the Figure 72 that a side of the tip had been
eroded mechanically when pulling it to the stocking yard. We could not find any evidence of this
erosion influencing the internal structure of the sample. As observed on the following pictures (Figure
73), the tip presents several cracks, the main one being a longitudinal crack with a length of about 50
cm and propagating through the whole electrode tip.

Figure 73: Main longitudinal crack
Investigation on the most appropriate technique for observing the internal structure of electrodes
pointed out the ultrasonic wave analyse technique and X-Ray scanning (Tomography). Contact was
taken with specialists in these fields.
A preliminary test with ultrasonic waves was organised at CRM. Because of electrode absorbance, it
was necessary to use low frequency emitter and receptor. The frequency of waves used for that test
was MHz. Unfortunately, no signal could be detected: even near a visible crack, no echo could be
obtained. It seems that the structure of the electrode scatters the signal without any chance to recover
the signal.
Concerning X-ray scanning, contact was taken with the manager of the department of image analysis
at the C.H.U (Centre Hospitalier Universitaire) of Lige. He kindly agreed to carry-out tests on some
electrode sections. The used electrode sample was obviously selected, considering the objective of
studying the cracking mechanism.
71

Due to the size limitations of the X-ray equipment, it has first been necessary to cut the electrode into
four quarters. Due to the heavy weight of the electrode quarters (average weight of 140 kg), it has
also been necessary to build-up a support in order to avoid any critical bending of the scanner table.
The tomography analysis is schematically described on the Figure 74. The subject to be analysed is
placed on a moving table that passes trough the tomographic equipment at a controlled speed. An X-
ray cell turns around the subject and emits x-rays that are detected by a multi-cells detector. These
signals are then transmitted to powerful software for a 3D-image treatment.
X-ray cell
Multi-slice detector
display
Software
treatment

Figure 74: Principle of the tomographic analysis
The scanner that has been used is a Siemens - sensation 16. The electrode was laid on the scanner
table (Figure 75). Table speed was set at 48 mm/s. One complete scan took only 20 seconds with the
X-ray scanner operating a set of 5-mm cuts. In order to completely scan the electrode, the scanner
was operated at its maximum power (140 kV).

Figure 75: X-ray scanning of an electrode segment
Examples of the images generated by the scanner are illustrated hereafter (Figure 76). It can be
observed on the left-hand side picture that a crack starts from the surface and propagates trough the
core via the centre. A small crater is observable at the surface where the crack emerges, suggesting a
preferential attack and/or oxidation at the crack location. The small bright dots along the cracks (near
the surface) are due to steel droplets. It shows that liquid steel has penetrated the electrode up to
10 cm depth. The longitudinal cut in Figure 76 illustrates the existence of a small network of cracks
that are mostly localised at the tip of the electrode.
72

Figure 76: Axial cut of an electrode part with visible crack (left) and longitudinal cut with crack network
(right)
Complete sections of the electrode were then reconstituted by combining the images coming from the
four quarters. Figure 77 shows sections at 50 mm and 200 mm from the tip. As shown on the left
picture, steel droplets are present in the whole crack network. The cracks are joining (quarter on the
top right), making the loss of quite large parts of the electrode very likely during the next melt. The cut
at 200 mm of the tip illustrates that the crack going trough the electrode separates it into two quite
independent tips.

Figure 77: Reconstitution of complete electrode sections at 50 mm and 200 mm from the tip
The next sequence of cuts illustrates the propagation of cracks into the electrode (Figure 78). It can
be observed that the major crack initiates at the surface, then propagates trough the core of the
electrode. Various secondary cracks can be observed, reflecting a complex stress pattern in the
electrode. The main crack also bifurcates in the electrode, probably due to structural defects in the
electrode. No more cracks are visible with the tomography analysis above 35 cm from the tip: the
cracked area thus seems to be very localised near the tip. However, as already mentioned, a crack
can be observed at the electrode surface over 50 cm long, confirming that the area submitted to the
higher detrimental stresses is the surface.
Figure 79 shows other reconstituted images in 3 dimensions. The same elements can be clearly seen:
the propagation of cracks from the surface (especially the tip), the network of cracks, the opening of
cracks at the surface and the penetration of steel.
73

Figure 78: Sequence of axial cuts illustrating the crack evolution in the electrode tip

Figure 79: Reconstituted 3D views of the electrode tip
Metallographic analyses
To have a closer look at the microscopic structure of graphite electrodes, CRM then performed
qualitative metallographic analyses on various electrode samples, both from the used and virgin
sections. The objective was obviously to check for any modification in microstructure during electrode
usage.
74

A small part (+10 cm) of the virgin electrode was cut-off in the core of the electrode and analysed.
Internal defects such as voids and cracks can be observed at Figure 80. The defect size goes from
0.01 to 1 mm for the voids and 2 to 3 mm for the cracks. An average percentage of cracks and voids
was found to be equal to 8%. Each of these cracks and voids can act as stress concentrator and can
locally dramatically increase the stress state, helping the crack to propagate.

Figure 80: Metallography analysis of virgin areas in the electrode
For comparison, Figure 81 shows the microstructure of a part of the used electrode. The part has
been selected near the tip, in a zone exempt from macro-cracks. Although the size of voids and
cracks is quite the same as for the virgin material, the number of these defects has been severely
increased: the percentage of voids and cracks is now 19%, twice the value in the virgin material.
Such damaging effect is called cavitation and is macroscopically related to the deterioration of the
elastic properties of the material, such as the Young modulus. That phenomenon is encountered for
steel and is generated by the presence of small particles in the steel matrix.

Figure 81: Metallography analysis of the used electrode sample
The next metallographic analysis was performed on a cracked area in the used electrode (Figure 82).
It shows that the crack has a winding way of propagation, around the graphite grains (inter-granular
propagation). This mechanism of propagation, together with the increase of defects seems to point to
creep phenomenon as driver of the electrode wear (damaging process at very high temperature).
75

Figure 82: Metallography analysis of damaged areas of the used electrode sample (near the tip, in a
macro-crack zone)
The final metallographic analysis was centred on a steel droplet at the surface of the electrode tip
(Figure 83). It can be seen on the figure that the steel droplet penetrates the graphite at the point
where a small crack initiates at the surface and propagates trough the core. One possibility is that the
steel droplet has generated the crack: after being projected on the electrode, it started reacting with
the graphite (carbon dissolution and possibly some FeO reduction), creating a surface defect and
initiating the start of a crack. Alternately, the steel droplet may have played a role of crack propagator:
after projection, it may have anchored on the electrode surface by penetrating and freezing in an
existing crack. When the electrode then cools down at the end of the melt, the solid steel droplet
impedes the closing of the crack and generates more stress that propagates the crack in the core of
the electrode.

Figure 83: Metallography analysis of damaged areas of the used electrode sample (steel droplet at
electrode surface)
These investigations led to the following conclusions:
cracks initiate mostly at the electrode surface as a result of a complex thermal and mechanical
stress pattern;
cracks then propagate trough the core of the graphite electrode by inter-granular progression,
using micro-cracks and voids in the graphite structure;
the amount of such defects increase significantly in the lower part of the electrode (close to the
tip);
a network of cracks is thus created at the electrode tip, the most fragile and most stressed zone,
resulting in thermal spalling at a macroscopic scale;
76

steel droplets were observed at the surface of the electrode and deep in some cracks (10 to
15 cm deep); they may also play a role of crack generator and/or propagator.

2.3.2.4. Task 2.4: Influence of mechanical solicitations
As described in previous sections, discontinuous electrode consumption events during melting mainly
result from thermo-mechanical solicitations. Breakage or loss of matter occurs once the strength limits
have been reached.
Additional mechanical solicitations of the electrode mast are created by:
shocks / collisions / impacts, either because of bad handling operations or because of unusual
events during the melt (e.g. falling of scrap pile or big scrap piece on the electrode); as illustrated
at Figure 24, these events sometimes result in severe electrode breakage, which are out of the
scope of this project;
normal electrode movements during melting operations (vertical movements to follow the
progress of the process), in-between melts (withdrawal from furnace when roof has to be opened)
and during transportation to the electrode stand for adding a new electrode segment (nippling
operation).
Several visits at industrial plants (APLBe and APLDi) and discussions with plant engineers and
electrode operators have allowed checking the successive electrode handling operations, with a
special focus on the nippling procedure. Indeed, one of the main elements regarding the mechanical
strength of the mast is obviously the junction between successive segments (nippling section).
The quality of the nipple (strength) and the design of the junction (size of the nipple, threads, etc) are
both very important. Regarding the design, a gap notably has to be maintained between the tip of the
nipple and the electrode to avoid the development of hoop stress that could be sufficient to split the
surrounding electrode.
From the operational point of view, the nippling operation must be realised very neatly (without
damaging electrode or nipple), controlling clamping torque and correctly joining electrode segments.
According to Beghein [
17
], the join between segments is indeed of outermost importance. In case of
bad joint, the current carried by the electrode would mainly flow trough the nipple. The coefficients of
thermal expansion of the nipple and the electrode being different, very high stress would then develop
in the nipple: up to 40 Mpa tensile stress (for a 700mm electrode in a DC furnace, 25 A/cm
2
or
100 kA). Comparing this value to the maximum strength of graphite (10 Mpa / 20 Mpa at 2500C), it is
clear that the induced stress would probably lead to breakage.
Apart from the mechanical importance of the nippling operation, a severe thermo-mechanical stress is
also induced when the electrode is removed from the furnace: it cools down very quickly, especially at
its surface (thermal shock). That period is very critical for the electrode, because its surface is then
submitted to maximum traction stress (which is more critical than compression). Cracks may then
propagate or even be initiated at locations of lowest resistance.
Interesting data was obtained from the APLDi plant to illustrate the influence of mechanical
solicitations, thermal shocks and nippling procedure. In 2005, the electrode diameter in APLDi was
increased from 760 to 800 mm and a nippling robot was installed. Such robot allows nippling new
electrode segments on the electrode mast while the electrode remains in the furnace, thus avoiding
the strong cooling of the electrode and the associated build-up of thermal stress. Table 16 and
Erreur ! Source du renvoi introuvable. both present the consumption results for the APLDi plant
with the initial electrode size, with the larger electrodes and with larger electrodes +nippling robot. For
the sake of comparison, results of the APLBe are also included. It has to be mentioned that the
APLBe plant is equipped with a similar nippling robot since the beginning of the project.
Table 16: Average electrode consumptions - APLDi and APLBe (various plant configurations)
77

Continuous and crack losses
(mm and kg of graphite)
Stub-end losses
(mm and kg of graphite)
APLBe (760mm electrodes) Basket 1: 77 mm or 59 kg
Basket 2: 131 mm or 101 kg
APLDi (760mm electrodes) Basket 1: 65 mm or 50.1 kg
Basket 2:133 mm or 102.5 kg
APLDi (800mm electrodes) Basket 1: 58 mm or 49.5 kg
Charge: 396 mm or 338 kg
APLDi (800mm electrodes,
with use of robot)
Basket 1: 56 mm or 47.8 kg
Charge: 189 mm or 161 kg
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
1 2 3 4
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
APLBe single shell
760 mm +robot
APLDi Twin Shell
760 mm
APLDi Twin Shell
800 mm
APLDi Twin Shell
800 mm +robot
Continuous consumption and crack losses Stub end l osses
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
1 2 3 4
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
APLBe single shell
760 mm +robot
APLDi Twin Shell
760 mm
APLDi Twin Shell
800 mm
APLDi Twin Shell
800 mm +robot
Continuous consumption and crack losses Stub end l osses

Figure 84: Average electrode consumptions - APLDi and APLBe (various plant configurations)
The conclusions from this comparison are as follows:
In APLDi, the change from 762 to 800 mm electrodes had a positive effect on all types of
consumption. Although larger electrodes induce higher mechanical solicitations, this effect was
more than compensated by the reduction in current density (+11% in electrode section).
The installation of the nippling robot induced additional gains in electrode consumption. The effect
on stub-end losses is especially convincing (-52 %). This huge reduction illustrates the
detrimental effect of thermal shocks on all consumption mechanisms, although the automatic
control of the nippling torque by the robot may also contribute.
Based on APLDi data, lower consumption values would be expected from the APLBe plant,
because of the use of a nippling robot. This can probably be explained by the single shell
configuration of APLBe: electrode badly cools down between heats (during the charging of the
next basket), thus causing frequent thermal shocks. This is clearly an advantage of twin-shell
furnaces such as APLDi: the electrode quickly switches from one vessel to the other, with only
limited time for cooling.
2.3.3. WP3: Extension of the Calculation Model for Electrode Consumption
2.3.3.1. Task 3.1: Information about industrial results
The datasets from APLDi and APLBe were collected by APLCE R&D and compiled by CRM before
being transferred to the BFI for exploitation. This information was completed during technical
78

meetings: plant practices were described and a detailed review of parameters and values was carried-
out.
2.3.3.2. Task 3.2: Extension of the Calculation Model
Basis for calculation of the continuous electrode wear is an existing model developed by BFI [
18
] (see
Table 17) which distinguishes between tip and side wear. In a first step, the results of this standard
model were compared to the consumption figures determined by image analysis at the APLDi and the
APLBe furnace. Then the model was extended to take into account the additional operational
parameters that were identified to influence the continuous wear mechanisms, see the correlation
analysis in section 2.3.2.2.8.
Table 17: Standard formulas for graphite electrode consumption of arc furnaces
electrode tip consumption:
A
S
T
2
E
E T
G
t
F I N E =
electrode side consumption:
A
N S
S
T E
S E S
G
t t
F
2
D D
L N E
+

+
=
oxidising electrode surface
total continuous consumption:
S T R
E E E + =
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__
N
E
number of electrodes L
S
oxidising electrode length (3 m)
I
E
electrode current D
E
electrode nominal diameter
F
T
tip factor (0.013 kg/h/kA) D
T
electrode tip diameter
t
S
power-on time D D
T E
/ = 0.68 for AC; 0.82 for DC
t
N
power-off time F
S
side factor (6 kg/h/m)
G
A
furnace tap weight
Estimation for oxidising electrode length:
3
A S
t 100 / G m 8 . 2 L =

Model calculations for APLDi data
For the calculations with the standard model for the APLDI furnace, the following assumptions were
made:
The electrode nominal diameter D
E
is 760 mm
The electrode tip diameter D
T
was on the one hand fixed to 660 mm, resulting in a factor D
T
/ D
E
=
0.868. On the other hand the tip diameter identified from the image analysis for each electrode
individually was used for the calculations.
The oxidized electrode length L
S
was on the one hand estimated from the tap weight G
A
, resulting
in an average value of 3.22 m. On the other hand, the oxidized electrode length determined from
the image analysis for each electrode individually was used for the model calculation, which is
with an average value of about 0.7 m much lower.
The tip factor F
T
and the side factor F
S
were set to the constant values indicated in [
18
], which
result from previous evaluations at AC and DC EAFs.
In Figure 85 the calculated values for tip, side and total consumption are plotted versus the results of
the image analysis for the evaluated APLDi heats, i.e. 174 first and 302 second baskets with
indication of only continuous electrode wear.
79

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Electrode consumption from image analysis in kg / t
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

f
r
o
m

B
F
I

m
o
d
e
l

i
n

k
g

/

t
Tip consumption
Side cons. meas. Ox length
Side cons. estim. Ox length
Total cons. meas. Ox length
Total cons. estim. Ox length
First basket

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Electrode consumption from image anal ysis i n kg / t
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

f
r
o
m

B
F
I

m
o
d
e
l

i
n

k
g

/

t
Tip consumption
Second basket

Figure 85: Calculated electrode consumption vs. results from image analysis for first and second
basket of APLDi heats (standard modelling approach)
As can be seen, the correspondence between standard model calculation and image analysis is weak
for the first basket, and slightly better for the second basket. For the electrode side wear and also for
the resulting total consumption, the results of two calculation methods are shown, one with estimated
tip width and oxidized length, the other one with both values coming from the individual image
analysis. As already mentioned in section 2.3.2.2.5 (Figure 42), the mathematical form of the model is
not very well suited to a heat-by-heat analysis on a given furnace.
To improve the correlation between calculated and observed electrode consumption, the tip factor F
T

and the side factor F
S
were adapted to the conditions at the APLDI furnace. The relevant operation
parameters that were found to influence the tip and the side consumption (see Table 10 and Table
11) were taken into account to modify the tip and the side factor (individually for the first and the
second basket), according to the following formula:
.......
3 3 2 2 1 1 / /
+ + + + = V P V P V P F F
const S T S T

With: F
T/S const
constant part of factor F
T
resp. F
S
P
N
model parameter for influence of operational parameter V
N
V
N
value of operational parameter V
N

As can be seen in Figure 86, the correspondence between the modelling result and the electrode
consumption from image analysis is improved significantly by taking into account the additional
influence parameters. As already indicated in Table 10, the most important additional operational
parameters are for the first basket the oxygen input by burners and lances, and the supply of oxygen
and air for post-combustion purposes. For the second basket, additionally the steel composition
(mainly Cu and Cr) and the slag FeO content are considered.
80

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

f
r
o
m

B
F
I

m
o
d
e
l

i
n

k
g

/

t
Tip consumption
First basket

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

f
r
o
m

B
F
I

m
o
d
e
l

i
n

k
g

/

t
Tip consumption
Second basket

basket of APLDi heats (extended modelling approach)
Model calculations for APLBe data
For the calculations with the standard model for the APLBe furnace, a nominal electrode diameter of
762 mm and a tip diameter of 680 mm were assumed. Similar to the calculations for the APLDi
furnace, the oxidized length was on the one hand estimated from the tap weight, on the other hand an
individual value provided from the image analysis was used. For the factors F
T
and F
S
, in a first step
standard values were chosen.
In Figure 87 the standard model calculation results for the continuous tip and side consumption are
plotted versus the results from the image analysis for the first (84 heats) and the second basket (97
heats) of selected APLBe heats from the first data set. For validation of the model calculations, the
heats with discontinuous wear, 69 heats for the first basket and 29 heats for the second basket, were
excluded.

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

f
r
o
m

B
F
I

m
o
d
e
l

i
n

k
g

/

t
Total cons. estim. Ox. length
Total cons. meas. Ox. length
Tip consumption
Side cons. estim. Ox. length
Side cons. meas. Ox. length
First basket

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

f
r
o
m

B
F
I

m
o
d
e
l

i
n

k
g

/

t

.
Tip Consumption
Second basket

basket of APLBe heats (standard modelling approach)
81

Similar to the evaluation for the APLDi furnace, the correspondence between the model calculation
and the electrode consumption from image analysis is not very good. This is true for the tip
consumption and both methods to calculate the electrode side consumption, and also for both
baskets.
Similar to the above-described modification for the APLDi furnace, the tip factor F
T
and the side factor
F
S
were adapted to the conditions at the APLBe furnace. The relevant additional operation
parameters that were found to influence the continuous electrode consumption (see Table 12 and
Table 13) were taken into account to modify the factors. In Figure 88 the result of the so modified
model for the electrode consumption is compare to the consumption figures derived from image
analysis.

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

f
r
o
m

B
F
I

m
o
d
e
l

i
n

k
g

/

t
Tip consumption
First basket

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
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i
o
n

f
r
o
m

B
F
I

m
o
d
e
l

i
n

k
g

/

t

.
Tip consumption
Second basket

basket of APLBe heats (extended modelling approach)
The correlation between the electrode consumption calculated by the extended model and the one
from the image analysis has improved by taking into account the operational parameters indicated in
Table 12 and Table 13. For the first basket, the oxygen input via burners and for post-combustion
increases the electrode consumption. The oxygen lances are mainly operated during meltdown of the
second basket. The foaming efficiency seems to influence electrode consumption as well, however
this might be for the first basket an artefact of statistical analysis. For the second basket, similar to the
APLDi furnace, the FeO content of the slag and the Cr content of the melt play an important role.
The extended model for continuous electrode consumption was validated with the process and
electrode consumption data of the second data set recorded at the APLBe furnace. The same
operational influence parameters were considered in calculating the tip and the side loss parameters.
The modelling result is shown in Figure 89 for the first (194 heats) and the second basket (306 heats).
Similar to the evaluation of the first APLBe data set, the correlation between calculated consumption
values and the ones observed by image analysis is quite good, confirming the results of the extended
model for continuous electrode consumption.
82

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

f
r
o
m

B
F
I

m
o
d
e
l

i
n

k
g

/

t
Tip consumption
First basket

0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
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s
u
m
p
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i
o
n

f
r
o
m

B
F
I

m
o
d
e
l

i
n

k
g

/

t

.
Tip consumption
Second basket

basket of APLBe heats (2
nd
data set, extended modelling approach)
2.3.4. WP4: Pilot Scale Simulations
2.3.4.1. Task 4.1: Preparation and Modifications of Pilot Plant
2.3.4.1.1. Description of the pilot plant
The pilot plant is a 1t DC electrical arc furnace installed at CSM. It is equipped with a single nippled
graphite electrode of 250mm diameter (Figure 90); its electrical characteristics are:
Transformer power: 1.9 MVA
Maximum current intensity: 6 kA
Maximum active power: 1.5 MW
The working limits of the pilot plant are the following:
maximum temperature of the gas outlet the reactor: 1600 C
maximum off gas flow rate of the reactor : 95 Nm
3
/h
maximum working temperature of post-combust or: 1200 C
maximum off gas flow rate of the post-combustor: 7000 Nm
3
/h
maximum temperature of off gas of the post-combustor: 130 C
83

Figure 90: CSM Pilot Plant
The plant is fully equipped with devices for gas analysis, materials injection and control.
Off-gas is analysed at the exit of the furnace and near the stack; analysers include: H
2
, CO
2
/CO, O
2,
NO
x
and SO
x
.
Various materials can be injected:
powder coal can be injected in the liquid bath with a probe,
fluids can be injected in the plasma-arc area with a hollow electrode,
lump materials can be dropped into the furnace by a screw feeder or conveyor belt
During each test, the electrical parameter, electrode position, temperature and gas analysis are
collected and recorded.
2.3.4.1.2. Pilot testing program
The basic pilot tests program, as agreed between project partners, is the following:
Test with high current intensity;
Test to investigate the cracking mechanism(s) of the electrodes;
Test with different composition of slag and metal bath.
2.3.4.1.3. Revamping of the plant
Due to the specific condition related to this testing program, studies have first been carried out in
order to optimise the furnace configuration (refractory types, electrode shape, etc.), and the
measurement equipments (off-gas analysis, sampling lines, temperature measurements, etc), as
described hereunder.
The plant was then revamped. The refractory of the inner walls of the furnace and the bottom
electrode were replaced. All equipment and auxiliaries, including the control and analysis system
were checked and calibrated.
Refractory lining of the furnace
84

Besides the usual refractory lining used in this type of the furnace (MgO and SiC based refractory),
other refractory materials have been considered for furnace revamping, as shown in Table 18.
Table 18: Refractory materials considered to revamp the pilot furnace
Refractory Bulk density (kg/m
3
)
at 100-200 C
Bulk density (kg/m
3
)
at 1400 C
Thermal conductivity
(W/m K) >600C
Red cast special 8004 CR 3150-3250 3120-3200 2.34
Promalight 1100 S 300 (*) 0.053
Green light K 32 1460 1350 0.8
GD 28 C 890-1000 (*) 0.39
Fibreboard S 260-320 (*) 0.18
(*) temperature not defined
The selection of refractory materials also had to take into account interactions that may occur with
copper during the tests with different composition of slag and metal bath. This aspect was evaluated
mainly on the basis of CSM experience and led to the rejection of all the materials in the table,
because of risks of copper infiltrations. For this reason, it has finally been decided to revamp the
furnace (Figure 91) with the standard refractory materials (MgO and SiC-based).

Figure 91: Internal sketch of the pilot furnace
Off-gas analysis
On the top of the gas analyses mentioned above for process control and safety aspect, because of
the long test durations (up to 8 hours), it has been necessary to take into account environmental
aspects, including the monitoring of the off-gases at stack. In particular, the analysis of HCl, dusts,
heavy metals and PCDD/PCDF is required by Italian legislation. In order to satisfy that requirement, a
technical/economical study has been carried out in the mainframe of the actual duration and
85

experimental character of the tests. The following figure shows the arrangement of the designed
analysis system. It can be noticed that the HCl and dusts are not made continuously, but respectively
by an appropriate bubbling system and by weighing a filter each 1-3 hours (Figure 92).
Electric Arc
Furnace
Pump
Cooler
CO
2
CO
O
2
NO
x
SO
x
Hydrogen Chloride
water bubbling system
Pump
Filter
Powders filter
Total
Organic
Carbon
PCDD
PCDF
Stack

Figure 92: Gas analysis in the stack of the pilot plant
Other measuring devices
The pilot furnace was originally equipped with a video camera on the roof in order to control the
melting operations. The lenses of the camera have been changed to try using it for monitoring the
cracking of the electrode.
In order to precisely follow-up the electrode wear during the tests, a dedicated stand was built close to
the furnace to measure the electrode consumption and take pictures of its tip (Figure 93). It was
decided to withdraw the electrode from the furnace every 30 minutes for such measurement. It must
be noted that the measured electrode consumption is called linear because only the length of the
electrode is measured.
86

Figure 93: Measurements apparatus for electrode consumption at the pilot plant
2.3.4.2. Task 4.2: First Series of Tests
During the first series of tests, all the experiments of the basic pilot tests program defined above were
conducted. The start-up practice was as follows:
charging of 500 kg of scrap and 150 kg of a mixture of slag and scales;
sampling and analysis of mixture of slag and scales;
installation of standard electrode (to be used during the heating phase only);
heating for approximately 9 h;
sampling of metal and slag;
assembling of a new electrode column (2 elements of 250 mm diameter) to replace the standard
electrode used for the heating;
start of the test.

Table 19 shows the metal bath and slag chemical analyses measured on samples collected at the
end of the start-up phase, with IB2 =Basicity index (CaO/SiO
2
).
Table 19: Metal and slag compositions at the end of start-up phase
Metal bath Slag
C 1,33 % Al2O3 8,4 %
Si 1,67 % SiO2 53,1 %
S 0,07 % Fetot 2,19 %
Mn 0,12 % CaO 22,7 %
Cr 1,87 % MgO 9,41 %
Ni 0,52 % TiO2 0,54 %
87

Cr2O3 0,86 %
MnO 1,1 %
K2O 0,14 %
Na2O 0,13 %
IB2 0,43 %
2.3.4.2.1. Test with high current intensity
Three steps of intensity current (3000, 3500, 2500 A) were tested at the same voltage level (100 V).
The images of the electrode tip, taken each 30 minutes, are shown in Figure 94. Measurements of
surface temperature of the electrode tip were also carried-out with a thermovision camera system, as
showed in Figure 95. The measured electrode consumption is given in Figure 96.
In the first part of the test, with 3000 A of intensity current, no real linear consumption was observed.
The low surface temperature of the electrode can probably explain that fact. At the beginning of the
test, the furnace stopped due to a safety thermocouple signal. The layer of slag on the top of the steel
bath then started to freeze and 15 minutes were necessary to remelt the surrounding slag. The first
time the electrode was withdrawn from the furnace, it could not enter into the measurement device
and it was necessary to machine it. This phase took 30 min, leading to a high cooling down of the
electrode. The second time the electrode was removed, a light erosion of the borders was observed.
Due to these transient phenomena, the first phase of the test is not relevant and should not be
considered.

30 min

60 min

90 min
3000 A 3500 A 2500 A
Figure 94: Pictures of the electrode tip, during the test with high current intensity
88

Figure 95: Measurements of surface temperature of the electrode tip (test with high current intensity)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Time [min]
c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

[
m
m
]
3000 A
3500 A
2500 A
- 2 mm
- 4 mm
- 5 mm
- 3 mm
- 4 mm

Figure 96: Linear consumption of the electrode during test with high current intensity
It should be advised not to consider the first 30 min of each test phase (at 3500 A and 2500 A), as the
electrode change took 15 minutes each time, leading to a cooling down of the steel and slag bath and
the start with a cold electrode. After the first 30 min, an erosion of the borders that is not measured by
the measurement device was also observed. That erosion is logically explained by the fact that the
arc first wears the tip (initially flat) into a chamfered edge in order to stabilise, as observed on
industrial furnaces.
During the phases at 3500 A and 2500 A, the linear average consumptions were very similar,
respectively 0.15 mm/min and 0.13 mm/min. Table 20 gives the detailed results in term of
consumption and current density. Considering the low accuracy of the measurement of electrode
consumption (1 mm =20 to 50% of measured value), consumption rates (2.2 to 2.7 kg/MWh) can
be considered as equivalent; they are also very similar to industrial values, as shown at Table 21.
Table 20: Electrode consumption results Influence of the current
IB2 (Cr
2
O
3
) Electrode
consumption (mm)
Electrode
consumption (kg)
Consumption
rate (kg/MWh)
Current density
(A/cm)
3500 A 0.43 (0.86) 9 0,75 2,2 7,1
2500 A 0.43 (0.86) 4 0,33 2,7 5,1
89

Table 21: Continuous consumption values from APLDi and APLBe
Diameter
(mm)
Electrode
consumption (kg)
Consumption
rate (kg/MWh)
Electrical energy
(MWh)
Current density
(A/cm)
APLDi 762 142 2.2 63.5 26.2
APLBe 762 145 2.5 58.0 25.1
Although current density at pilot plant is about 4 times lower than industrial values, the specific
electrode consumption values are similar. This implies that larger electrodes are much more resistant.
This conclusion is confirmed by data provided by electrode suppliers, illustrating that higher electrode
diameters correspond to better thermal and electrical properties (Table 22).
Table 22: Physical properties of graphite electrodes as a function of diameter

400 mm 600 mm 750 mm
Specific electrical resistance (m) 5-5.75 4.5-6.5 4-5.5
Thermal conductivity (W/(K.m)) 220-270 230-280 250-300
Coefficient of thermal expansion (m/(K.m) 0.5-1.5 0.4-1.2 0.3-0.9
2.3.4.2.2. Test to investigate the cracking mechanism(s) of the electrodes
Cracks in the electrode have been shown to be an important factor for discontinuous wear. In order to
investigate the cracking mechanism(s) of the electrode, a new electrode column was assembled and
an horizontal notch cut was made on the side of the electrode to simulate a surface defect (Figure
97). The location for that notch was just in the middle of a segment of electrode, far enough from the
nipples. The distance from the electrode tip was 180 mm and the crack dimension was 43 mm in
depth and 140 mm in width. This electrode column was introduced in the furnace after the same start-
up procedure than for the previous test, at 3000 A of current intensity and 100 V.
The pictures on Figure 98 were taken after 45 and 75 minutes of operation, respectively. The notch
was unchanged. Nor opening neither propagation of the crack had happened. The electrode was then
further operated at 2000 A, but the dimension of the artificial crack remained unchanged. . It must be
noted that, in these pilot tests, the electrode is not submitted to any mechanical solicitations
(vibrations, shocks), is operated at a low current density (4 A/cm
2
) and in flat bath conditions only.

Figure 97: Artificial crack made on the electrode surface
90

After 45 min After 75 min
Figure 98: Electrode tip pictures, showing the artificial crack during test
2.3.4.2.3. Test with different compositions of slag and metal bath
In this test, the influence of composition of slag in terms of basicity (IB2) and the influence of
Chromium were studied. After start-up, the test procedure was as follows:
installation of the electrode column used in the current intensity tests;
starting at 2000 A and 100 V;
charging of 49 kg of CaO (Phase 1);
three measurements of consumption (every 30 minutes);
charging of 90 kg of scales (Phase 2);
three measurements of consumption (every 30 minutes).
The aim of Phase 1 was to increase the basicity of the slag, while the aim of the second phase was to
study the influence of Cr. Figure 99 shows the picture of the electrode tip, taken every 30 minutes
during Phase 1 and 2 and Figure 100 shows the measurements of its surface temperature. In Figure
101, the measured linear electrode consumption is given.
Table 23 and Table 24 show respectively the compositions of the metal bath and slag in Phase 1 and
in Phase 2.
Figure 99 shows the picture of the electrode tip, taken every 30 minutes during Phase 1 and 2 and
Figure 100 shows the measurements of its surface temperature. In Figure 101, the measured linear
electrode consumption is given.
91

Table 23: Metal bath and slag composition in phase 1
Metal Slag
C 2,26 % Al2O3 6,3 %
Si 3,06 % SiO2 42,3 %
S 0,03 % Fetot 1,06 %
Mn 0,19 % CaO 40,5 %
Cr 1,76 % MgO 7,26 %
Ni 0,48 % TiO2 0,43 %
Cr2O3 0,58 %
MnO 0,69 %
K2O 0,08 %
Na2O 0,03 %
IB2 0,96 %
Table 24: Metal bath and slag composition in phase 2
Metal Slag
C 2,47 % Al2O3 5,5 %
Si 2,71 % SiO2 46,5 %
S 0,02 % Fetot 2,94 %
Mn 0,19 % CaO 34,4 %
Cr 2,06 % MgO 6,14 %
Ni 0,67 % TiO2 0,39 %
Cr2O3 1,57 %
MnO 0,94 %
K2O 0,07 %
Na2O 0,1 %
IB2 0,74 %
92

30 min

60 min

90 min
Phase 1 Phase 2
Figure 99: Trend of electrode consumption during Phase 1 and 2

Figure 100: Measurements of surface temperature of the electrode tip
93

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time [min]
c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

[
m
m
]
Phase 1
Phase 2
- 1 mm
- 3 mm
- 2 mm
- 8 mm
- 13 mm
- 10 mm

Figure 101: Linear electrode consumption (test with different compositions of slag and metal bath)
In Phase 1, carried out after addition of CaO, the linear consumption was 0.07 mm/min. The slag
height on the steel bath was about 16 cm. In Phase 2 with high level of Cr, the linear consumption
was 0.34 mm/min. That last result is very astonishing, and is not explainable only by the effect of the
chromium. Considering the steel and slag baths analyses, a mass balance can be approximated,
indicating that only 0,4 kg of C should be necessary to reduce the remaining Cr
2
O
3
in the slag. It is far
from the 1.3 kg (1.75 0.42) that should come from other phenomena than electrical wear. In fact, by
introducing scale into the bath, a very high content of FeO is also added to the slag. That oxide, easily
reducible should be a more convincing candidate as oxidant agent of the electrode. These results are
expressed in term of weight of electrode consumed in Table 25.
Table 25: Electrode consumption results test with different compositions of slag and metal bath
IB2 (Cr
2
O
3
) Electrode
consumption (mm)
Electrode
consumption (kg)
Consumption rate
(kg/MWhr)
Current density
(A/cm)
0.96 (0.58) 5 0.42 2.1 4.1
0.74 (1.57) 21 1.75 8.8 4.1
This experimentation showed a high effect of the slag composition on the electrode consumption. The
increased electrode consumption is due to both the chromium and iron oxides, which were both
introduced by means of scale addition. The measured effect of the oxidation by slag on the
consumption was three to four times higher than the effect of the electric current.
2.3.4.3. Task 4.3: Second Series of Tests
During the first series of tests, the test with the artificial crack did not lead to any useful conclusion
regarding the behaviour of cracks. It was therefore decided with the other project partners that CSM
would repeat this test with other crack shapes and locations, as shown at Figure 102 and Figure 103.
94

Cut realised in the electrode -
longitudinal cut (10 cm length and
10 cm depth) crossed by a
tangential cut (10cm depth at
the middle )
Tip of
electrode
10 cm
5

c
m
1
0

c
m
1
0

c
m
10 cm
Cut realised in the electrode -
longitudinal cut (10 cm length and
10 cm depth) crossed by a
tangential cut (10cm depth at
the middle )
Tip of
electrode
10 cm
5

c
m
1
0

c
m
1
0

c
m
10 cm

Figure 102: Second test with artificial crack
Cut realised in the electrode, that goes
trough the electrode -
Tip of
electrode
5

c
m
Cut realised in the electrode, that goes
trough the electrode -
Tip of
electrode
5

c
m

Figure 103: Third test with artificial crack
The operating practice for these tests was slightly modified:
charging of 550 kg of scrap and 230 kg of a mixture of slag and scales;
installation of standard electrode (to be used during the heating phase only);
heating for approximately 9 h;
charging of 52 kg of CaO;
replacing of the standard electrode with the electrode prepared for the test;
start of the test at voltage =100 V and current intensity =3500 A.
Table 26 shows the metal and slag analyses measured after the start-up phase.
95

Table 26: Metal and slag analyses after start-up
Metal Slag
C 0,04 % Al2O3 12,59 %
Si 0,01 % SiO2 30,42 %
S 0,08 % Fetot 4,45 %
Mn 0,03 % CaO 20,16 %
Cr 1,47 % MgO 24,47 %
Ni 1,31 % NiO 0,03 %
Cr2O3 4,15 %
MnO 1,25 %
S 0,02 %

IB2 0,66 %
2.3.4.3.1. Second test with artificial crack
An artificial notch cut in the tip electrode was prepared as described above (Figure 104). The
electrode column length and tip diameter were respectively 4440 mm and 241 mm. The bath
temperature after str-up was 1765 C.

Figure 104: Second artificial crack made on tip electrode
Figure 105 shows the images of the electrode tip during the test, taken every 30 minutes. The test
went on for 3 hours.
During the test, it was noticed with the video camera looking inside the reactor that the electric arc
was concentrated preferentially on the side of the crack (arc anchoring), as shown at Figure 106. The
images of the electrode tip show a higher consumption just inside the area of the artificial crack, thus
confirming the anchoring of the electric arc.
Measurements of surface temperature of the electrode tip were also carried-out with the thermovision
camera system. Again, as shown in Figure 107, it can be seen that the crack zone is the hottest zone
of the electrode surface.
Finally, Figure 108 shows the tip electrode after cooling. At the end of the Test 1, the electrode
column length and tip diameters were respectively 4400 mm and 219 mm with a conic height of
174 mm.
96



After 180 min
Figure 105: Electrode tip during the second test with artificial crack
97

Figure 106: Picture from the video recording during the second test with artificial crack

Figure 107: Measurements of surface temperature of the electrode tip during the second test with
artificial crack

Figure 108: Electrode tip after the second test with artificial crack
98

2.3.4.3.2. Third test with artificial crack
For this test, a new electrode column was used. Figure 109 shows the artificial notch cut prepared in
the tip of the electrode; its location and dimension being those indicated in Figure 103. The electrode
length and the tip diameter were respectively 4500 mm and 245 mm. The bath temperature at start-up
was 1605C.
Figure 110 shows the images of the electrode tip during the test, taken every 30 minutes. Test
duration was 2.5 hours. Figure 111 shows the measurements of surface temperature of the electrode
tip with the thermovision camera system.
Figure 112 shows the tip electrode after cooling. At the end of the tes, the electrode column length
and tip diameters were respectively 4500 mm and 230 mm with a conic height of 213 mm.

Figure 109: Third artificial crack, on electrode tip


99

Figure 110: Pictures of the electrode tip during the third test with artificial crack

Figure 111: Measurements of surface temperature of the electrode tip during the third test with
artificial crack

Figure 112: Electrode tip after the third test with artificial crack
2.3.4.3.3. Discussion
The first conclusion that can be reached from the electrode pictures of the three tests with artificial
cracks is that artificial cracks do not propagate in the graphite structure, whatever their position on the
electrode (side, tip, etc). Again, it must be noted that, in these pilot tests, the electrode is not
submitted to any mechanical solicitations (vibrations, shocks), is operated at a low current density
and in flat bath conditions only.
In order to measure more accurately the volume of graphite consumed, the electrode tips of the
second and third tests with artificial cracks were cut-off. Volumes were determined by dipping the cut
tips into a determined volume of water. Table 27 reports the detailed consumption values. It can
clearly be concluded that the consumption rate was the same for both tests. However, in the second
test, the non-symmetrical notch on the side of the tip led to a clear arc anchoring phenomenon, which
resulted in a strong opening of the crack. 90% of the graphite consumption took place by that
mechanism. On the contrary, during the third test, the symmetrical notch in the tip led to very limited
crack opening, which is confirmed by the low percentage of consumption in the crack (about 10%).
100

Table 27: Electrode and energy consumption after the tests
Second test Third test
Time duration [h] 3 2.5
Crack volume after trials [dm
3
] 0.097 0.012
Total electrode volume consumption [dm
3
] 1.08 0.89
Total electrode weight consumption [kg] 1.74 1.43
Hourly electrode weight consumption [kg/h] 0.58 0.57
Power [kWh] 1050 875
Rate of electrode consumption [kg/MWh] 1.66 1.63
2.3.5. WP5: Definition of Guidelines for Reducing Electrode Consumption
Thanks to the experience gained on electrode consumption with the developed camera-based
monitoring system and with the pilot tests, some guidelines can be proposed in order to reduce the
electrode consumption in DC EAF plants. However, the applicability and effect of these guidelines will
obviously be influenced by the configuration and current practices in each steel plant. Should the
objective be a dedicated evaluation and a detailed follow-up of progress in a given steel plant, the
installation of a camera-based system similar to those developed in the current project is a must.
Generally speaking, in order to reduce electrode consumption:
Continuous consumption can be reduced by limiting the effect of post-combustion and slag;
Mechanical and thermo-mechanical solicitations must be reduced as much as possible by
changing plant configuration and practices in order to limit discontinuous consumption events;
Electrode quality must be optimised and regularly controlled.
These different elements are detailed hereunder.
2.3.5.1. Task 5.1: Modification of furnace operation
2.3.5.1.1. Continuous consumption
Although the contribution of electrical current on continuous consumption cannot be avoided, the
contributions of oxygen (from lances, burners and post-combustion injectors) and oxides in slag (FeO,
Cr
2
O
3
, etc) can often be reduced.
Notably, post-combustion injections in the furnace (air and/or oxygen) have to be carefully evaluated,
considering their positive effect on electrical energy and the negative effect on electrode consumption
(especially side wear) that was demonstrated by the statistical analysis of our industrial data sets.
Indeed, depending on furnace configuration and practice, the energetic efficiency of post-combustion
injections often decreases rapidly with injected flow and also strongly depends on the progress of
scrap melting. It is thus important to limit these injections in the window (in terms of flow and time)
where they are very efficient.
The negative effect of metallic oxides in slag has also been pointed-out during statistical analyses of
industrial data. Metallic oxides (FeO, Cr
2
O
3
, etc) have a direct detrimental effect on electrode
consumption, due to graphite oxidation by direct contact. Moreover, these oxides are also detrimental
to slag foaming, which produces an insulating layer that limits reaction between electrode graphite
and oxygen in the furnace. In APLDi, the average value of FeO is around 29% (standard deviation of
8 %) in a slag presenting an average basicity index of 2.0, and the average O
2
lance flow rate is about
37 Nm
3
/min. From Figure 113, it can be seen that the basicity index is optimal regarding slag foaming,
101

but that the FeO content of slag is too high. By reducing it to 20%, the theoretical height of slag foam
could be more than doubled.
In APLBe, where a sonic meter is installed to monitor slag foaming, the sonic level (time during which
the sonic meter signal was above a certain threshold, indicating a low foaming situation) and the iron
oxide content of the slag were both pointed out to be detrimental to the electrode continuous
consumption during the second basket. The average iron oxide content of the slag is 31% and the
same conclusions as for the APLDi case can be made: a better control of the slag foaming with a
decrease of the FeO content will lead to a less aggressive slag and a higher insulating layer of slag,
reducing graphite consumption. Better slag foaming also induces a better covering of the arc and an
improved efficiency of the heat transfer to the bath.
CaO/SiO2
1600 C
FeO = 20%
F
o
a
m

h
e
i
g
h
t

(
c
m
)
100
50
0 1.0 4.0 3.0 2.0
Oxygen flow: 50 Nm3/min
EAF diameter: 5.5m (18 ft.)
Oxygen flow (Nm/min)
20% FeO
30% FeO
40% FeO
1600 C
CaO/SiO2 = 3.0
EAF diam = 5.5m (18 ft.)
F
o
a
m

h
e
i
g
h
t

(
c
m
)
100
50
50 100 0
Figure 113: Slag foam height vs oxygen injection rate for various FeO levels in the slag [
19
]
2.3.5.1.2. Discontinuous events
Several furnace operating parameters influencing discontinuous consumption rate were also
identified. The general principle is to reduce mechanical and thermo-mechanical solicitations as much
as possible, in order to limit the cracking mechanism (generation and propagation of cracks).
First, thermal shocks must be limited. A steady operation of the furnace, with reduced power-off time,
is of first importance on that regard. The use of a nippling robot, which allows adding a new electrode
segment on the top of the electrode mast without removing it from the furnace, was also shown to be
very beneficial. It was finally shown that the twin-shell EAF configuration is very positive on this
respect, because it reduces the waiting time (power-off time) during which the electrode cools down
rapidly.
Second, considering that the electrode size (diameter) was optimised as a function of the nominal
current of the plant (see next section, 0), higher density values at the electrode tip must be avoided.
Increases in current density lead to higher temperatures and increased thermo-mechanical stress;
they may arise from:
reduced tip diameter, when severe electrode side consumption takes place; this phenomenon
was discussed in the previous section and leads again to limiting post-combustion injections to
their very efficient fraction and to reducing the iron oxide content of slag;
current peaks; these may be very much limited by installing an efficient electrode regulation
system;
arc deflection problems, which concentrate the arc on one side/spot of the electrode tip; the very
negative effect of such deflection was clearly demonstrated in the analysis of the APLDi results.
Finally, electrode breakages must - of course - be avoided. Electrode handling during power-off
periods must be carried-out very carefully, avoiding any strong mechanical shock on the mast. During
102

melting operations, the falling of scrap piles or big scrap pieces (massive girders) on the electrode
must also be avoided; a strict monitoring of scrap charging may greatly limit the occurrence of such
events.
2.3.5.2. Task 5.2: Electrode Grade, nippling
Electrode suppliers provide the consumers with some rules in order help them choosing the electrode
that best fits their need. The very first rule is illustrated on the following figure, so called the load
diagram (Figure 114). It links the current capacity of the electrode to its nominal diameter. The area
in blue specifies limits for DC EAF and the area in red the limits for AC furnaces. Exceeding these
limits would lead to increased consumption, especially via discontinuous wear events.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
Electrode diameter (mm)
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
k
A
)
Initial situation in
APLDi and APLBe
DC
AC
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
Electrode diameter (mm)
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
k
A
)
Initial situation in
APLDi and APLBe
DC
AC

Figure 114: Current capacity of an electrode as a function of its diameter
The initial situation of the two steel plants (APLDi and APLBe) is illustrated on the figure, with 762 mm
electrodes and about 115-120 kA average current. At this current level, it can be seen that the
nominal electrode diameter should not be lower than 720 mm.
As discussed in section 2.3.2.4, APLDi operators decided in 2005 to increase the nominal electrode
diameter of the plant to 800 mm, displacing the corresponding point on the load diagram in the lower
part of the blue area. One of the elements that led to this decision is the extent of side wear, which
was shown to reduce electrode tip diameter well below 720 mm (down to 630mm, especially when
reaching the end of electrode segments, as shown at Figure 47). The change in nominal diameter had
a positive effect on all types of consumption (Figure 84): although larger electrodes induce higher
mechanical solicitations, this effect was more than compensated by the reduction in current density
(+11% in electrode section).
Apart from the basic selection of nominal electrode diameter, it is of first importance to control and
improve the quality of electrodes, regarding graphite grade, nipple design, etc. This obviously requires
a common work with suppliers.
Investigations on the cracking process (section 2.3.2.3) evidenced a damage process that implying
the coalescence of voids and micro-cracks in the graphite structure, leading to the appearance and
propagation of cracks when the stress state is locally higher than the tensile strength limit. Improving
the electrode grade thus first requires reducing the amount of voids and micro-cracks and increasing
103

the tensile strength of the electrode material. Other very important characteristics are the thermal
conductivity of the electrode and its coefficient of thermal dilatation. Increasing the thermal
conductivity would reduce thermal gradients in the electrode. Such reduction, completed with a
reduction in the thermal dilatation coefficient could greatly decrease thermo-mechanical solicitations,
which are the first cause of stress and cracking.
The monitoring system developed for both steel plants highlighted the key role of the connecting pin,
as it introduces heterogeneity in the electrode column (see mainly section 2.3.2.3): the nippling
section is especially fragile and has an outermost importance in the occurrence of discontinuous
consumption events. The design of the nipple (size, angle, threads, etc) thus has to be carefully
optimised. Moreover, the nippling operation is particularly delicate and must be realised very neatly
(without damaging electrode or nipple), controlling clamping torque and correctly joining electrode
segments. In case of bad joint, the current carried by the electrode would mainly flow trough the
nipple, creating a strong temperature gradient and associated stress, possibly leading to nipple
breakage. The use of a nippling robot, further to reducing thermal shocks as mentioned above, is also
beneficial in realising the nippling operation in a controlled and reproducible manner.
reports from the camera-based electrode monitoring systems and allowed starting a dynamic
exchange process in view of developing new solutions (electrode grade, design, etc). One of the
suppliers notably decided to initiate the development of a completely new concept for electrode
nippling, which should avoid most of the drawbacks of the current connecting pins.
2.4. CONCLUSIONS
Camera-based systems allowing monitoring the state of the electrode after the melting of each scrap
basket were developed and installed in APLDi (Differdange) and APLBe (Esch-Belval). In APLDi, an
existing low-resolution camera was used, whereas in APLBe, a new high-resolution camera with
additional control features was fitted.
Dedicated image analysis and processing routines were developed on both plants for detecting the
position of the electrode tip, determining the precise shape of the lower part of the electrode (including
the measurement of the oxidised length), following-up crack formation (length and size) and detecting
crack losses and graphite chunks drop-offs (stub-end losses). In twin-shell plants such as APLDi,
where the pictures of the electrode have to be taken when the electrode passes in front of the
camera, a large scatter in image brightness is observed. Only a very high speed camera capable of
taking a series of images using different apertures or exposure times may allow avoiding luminosity
problems and extracting all wear features of the electrode tip.
Three industrial measurement campaigns were carried-out. Electrode consumption was calculated on
a basket-by-basket basis and the accuracy of the measurement method was evaluated. Industrial
results were studied in details, splitting electrode consumption into three main mechanisms:
continuous consumption, crack losses and stub end losses. Statistical analyses were also carried-out.
The main operating parameters influencing the different modes of consumption were identified.
An extended version of the BFI electrode consumption model was proposed and validated. Additional
investigations (using X-ray scanning and metallographic analyses) were carried-out on industrial
electrode samples to study the generation and propagation of cracks in the electrode material. CSM
also carried-out dedicated pilot-scale tests in order to evaluate the influence of several process
parameters on electrode consumption and to study the behaviour of artificially cracked electrodes was
also studied.
Finally, guidelines to reduce the electrode consumption in DC plants were proposed, including the
following suggestions:
limit post combustion injections to the window (in terms of flow and time) where they are very
efficient;
104

reduce the oxide content of slags (mainly FeO) and maximise slag foaming;
avoid thermal shock on the electrode column by achieving a regular furnace operation, with
reduced power-off time, and by using a nippling robot;
avoid strong mechanical solicitations leading to breakages, through a careful handling of
electrode and a strict monitoring of scrap charging;
limit current density by selecting a suitable electrode size, avoiding severe side consumption,
limiting current peaks (efficient electrode regulation) and reducing / avoiding arc deflection;
improve electrode quality (graphite grade, design of the nipple, etc) in collaboration with electrode
supplier.
reports from the camera-based electrode monitoring systems. One of the suppliers notably decided to
initiate the development of a completely new concept for electrode nippling.
2.5. EXPLOITATION AND IMPACT OF THE RESEARCH RESULTS
2.5.1. Current applications + Technical and economic potential for the use of the results
A full package of the camera-based system to monitor electrode consumption in EAF plants includes:
a camera with protecting enclosure and cleaning accessories, encoders / laser distance-meters for
recording the position of the electrode arm, a calibration panel, transmission cables, a dedicated data
logging system, image processing and calculation softwares and a display screen to be fitted in the
control room for operators. In the frame of the project, two such systems were installed in APLDi
(Differdange) and APLBe (Esch-Belval) steel plants. Later on, two more industrial systems were
installed: first in APLSc (Schifflange), a twin-shell AC furnace plant, then in Stahlwerke Thringen, a
mono-shell DC furnace plant. Other plants, such as CORUS Aldwarke, have now shown interest in
installing similar camera-based systems.
Such monitoring systems can be used both on-line and off-line. Regarding on-line (direct) use by furnace
operators, electrode images are first displayed in furnace control room to assist the operator in the
decision to screw a new electrode segment or to change the clamping position of the electrode. This
application forces a standardisation of procedures between operators and shifts; it is illustrated at
Figure 115, where the red line indicates the level where an action is required.
Electrode images (before and after melting), completed with tip parameters and values of electrode
consumption (from basket to basket +trend) are also displayed in the control room. This allows
attracting the attention of operators towards the problem of electrode consumption. It also allows a
quick (visual) detection of electrode quality problems. Finally, the system can also be used on-line for
the direct measurement of the level of the hot heel between heats (short-circuit measurement).
105

Figure 115: Electrode-monitoring system available in the operating room
The electrode pictures, with the main plant operating data and the results of the image analysis software,
are then recorded in a dedicated database in order to allow off-line uses by plant managers. First, the
monitoring system can be used as a support for negotiations with electrode suppliers. In APLDi and
APLBe, discussions with the electrode suppliers are now taking place on a monthly basis. Electrodes
from different lots and different suppliers are compared. Second, off-line reports can be used as a
support for improvement in electrode design: in APLDi and APLBe, a dynamic exchange process was
initiated with suppliers in view of developing new solutions for electrode grade, nipple design, etc.
One of the suppliers notably decided to initiate the development of a completely new concept for
electrode nippling, which should avoid most of the drawbacks of the current connecting pins.
Finally, another important result of the project can be found in the building of knowledge regarding
electrode consumption phenomenon. The main elements are as follows:
A precise classification of consumption mechanisms was validated.
Pictures and relationships were provided to link the various consumption mechanisms to
operating parameters.
Differences (in terms of electrode consumption) between single and twin shell plants were
pointed-out.
The mechanisms of crack formation and propagation in the micro-structure of the graphite matrix
were highlighted.
The model for electrode consumption was extended and gives reasonable predictions.
Guidelines to reduce the electrode consumption in DC plants were proposed.
2.5.2. Any possible patent filing;
No
2.5.3. Publications / conference presentations resulting from the project;
Continuous monitoring of graphite electrode wear at the electric arc furnace, J .-C. Baumert, J .-C.
Thibaut, C. Weiler, M. Picco, G. Houtmann, Proceedings of the 8
th
European Electric Steelmaking
Conference, Birmingham, UK, 9-12 May 2005
Continuous monitoring of graphite electrode wear at the electric arc furnace, J .-C. Baumert, J .-C.
Thibaut, C. Weiler, M. Picco, G. Houtmann, La revue de Mtallurgie-CIT, J uin 2006, pg 266-274
106

2.5.4. Any other aspects concerning the dissemination of results
Information delivered to the industrial contacts of the project partners
107

ANNEX A - DESCRIPTION OF THE IMAGE PROCESSING ROUTINES
Figure 116 shows an example of an electrode image with a graphical representation of the results of
the image processing. The contours of the electrode (red dots) are used to calculate the oxidized
length and the volume of the electrode, the lowest point of the electrode tip is used to calculate the
graphite consumption after each scrap basket melting phase. The values displayed on the left-hand
side and on right hand side of the electrode tip (red values) represent the slop of the electrode tip
sides. The yellow horizontal dashed line indicates the lowest point of the electrode tip (X-point) and
the green dashed line represents the oxidized length (OL-value) of the electrode column.

Figure 116: APLBe EAF- Image of the tip of the electrode
The extraction of the various electrode features out of the electrode image is realised in different
processing functions:
Image processing:
In a first step the electrode image taken at the EAF at the end of a first or second basket is scanned in
X and Y direction to analyse the distribution of intensities in the image. The intensity of each tenth
pixel (value between: 0-255) is summoned over the complete image surface. The obtained global
intensity value gives an indication on the overall image exposure. If the value is out of a predefined
range then the image is too bright or too dark and in this case no further image processing is done
and a new picture is taken by adapting the exposure time.
If the calculated intensity value is situated in-between the two prefixed values then the features
extraction routines, starting with the electrode tip detection will be launched.
OL 516
X 776 3,61 2,86
109

Electrode tip detection

Figure 117: APLBe EAF- Image of the electrode for calculating the co-ordinates of the tip
The tip or lowest point of the electrode is calculated by scanning line by line the electrode image from
right to left in X direction. The pixel values of each line are analyzed and if at least 10 consecutive
pixels in one line exceed an intensity value of 80, then this line is considered to be the lowest limit of
the electrode, as shown in Figure 117. The X value of the line is then converted into millimeters by
applying the conversion factor from pixel to millimeters, which has been determined during the
calibration of the measuring system.
Electrode contours
To determine the contour plot of the electrode tip, the image is first scanned in steps of 20 pixels in X-
direction and the mean intensity value of each scanned line is calculated. This calculation is
necessary because the intensity distribution on the electrode rod is not constant over the total
electrode surface but strongly decreases when moving from the tip of the electrode, which is very
bright, to the upper part of the column which is almost black. For the same line, the offset value of the
intensity, which is defined as the mean value of the pixels near the boundary of the image, is
calculated. Finally a threshold limit for each line is calculated at the object boundaries:
Limit[x] = Offset[x] + ((Mean[x] - Offset[x]) * 0.7)
Figure 118 shows the evolution of the intensity and the calculated detection limit along the side of the
electrode tip.

intensity
Detection
limit
110

Figure 118: Adaptive threshold limit for electrode edge detection
In the following step of the image processing, the total line in Y-direction is scanned to find the first
and the last point that exceeds the defined threshold limit.
The result of the edge detection function, after applying the adaptive threshold, is shown in the
following Figure 119 where the red and green dots represent the contour of the electrode sides:

Figure 119: Edge detection after applying adaptive threshold limit
In a last operation a filter function is applied, aiming to remove all the points which do not belong to
the edges of the electrode. The final result of the filtering is shown below (Figure 120).

Figure 120: Final result of the edge detection function
Finally all the co-ordinates of the detected boundary points are copied into an array with the following
structure (Table 28).
Left edge
points
Right edge
points
Right edge
points
Left edge
points
111

Table 28: Co-ordinates of the electrode boundary points
x-position
y-position
right edge
y-position
left edge
Angle
right edge
Angle
left edge
Diameter
20 118 566 0 0 448
40 118 563 0 0 445
60 118 562 0 8.53 444
80 119 561 0 2.86 442
100 120 560 0 2.86 440
120 120 559 0 2.86 439
....

1280 0 0 0 0 0

If a point is missing, it is interpolated if its neighbour points can be found. The angles in-between the
different points are calculated if possible, otherwise the angle is set to 0. Also an electrode diameter is
calculated for each line, where the points of the upper and lower edges are known.
The next operation consists in finding the angles of the right and the left edges that are used to
calculate the oxidized length. Normally the angles are not constant, their value increase near the end
of the electrode. The co-ordinates of the first and the sixth point from the sides of the electrodes are
used to calculate the angles. If the sixth point is not available, the next point is used. If there are not
enough points available to determine the value of the angle, then the value is set to 0.
The two calculated angles are now used to interpolate those missing points on the left and especially
on the right side of the electrode in Figure 121 until we reach the nominal electrode diameter, which is
762 mm in the case of Belval.
Finally the oxidized length of the electrode, which is the distance from the electrode tip to the nominal
electrode diameter, is calculated.
112

ANNEX B - REVIEW AND VALIDATION OF THE DATA FILE FROM APLDI
A complete review of the process data was realised before the statistical treatment. The following
developments describe the investigation led on the APLDi data set. The same treatment was carried out
on the data sets of APLBe.
That review was necessary in order to highlight uncommon values of the operating data, helping to
understand how they are measured and treated before being stored in the dedicated data file. That step
is important in order to identify if they are artefacts or really representative of the process. It is then
possible to decide to remove them or to keep them for further data treatment.
First analysis concerned the powerON time. The Figure 122 represents the power-on time computed for
each basket. It is given in minutes of process.
PO B1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
5
,
8
7
,
1
8
,
5
9
,
9
1
1
,
2
1
2
,
6
1
4
,
0
1
5
,
3
1
6
,
7
1
8
,
1
PO B2
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
2
1
,
5
2
4
,
0
2
6
,
6
2
9
,
1
3
1
,
7
3
4
,
3
3
6
,
8
3
9
,
4
4
1
,
9
4
4
,
5

Figure 121: Left-hand side: distribution of the PON time for the first basket right-hand side:
distribution of the PON time for the second basket.
The graph concerning the first basket presents two-shifted points compared to the main distribution (5.8
minutes and 9.9 minutes of Power-on time). Further investigations couldnt explain that result. Care must
be taken before removing out of range points. In this case, while the Power-on time of the first basket is
very short, the electrical energy provided to the whole charge is situated in the main distribution. We
decided to keep these points in the compiled file.
The electric energy (for baskets) has been plotted against the Power-on time (Figure 122). An upper-
bond line, corresponding to the level of energy that would be provided if the furnace worked at the
maximum of active power (120 MW). The two clusters that appear on the graphic correspond to the
values of energy for the first and for the second basket. Four points were found out of range (circled in
red in the Figure 122)
113

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 10 20 30 40 50
Power-on time (min)
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c

e
n
e
r
g
y

(
M
W
h
)
120 MW max active power

Figure 122: Comparison between the electric energy input and the maximum possible energy input -
basket 1 and basket 2
By plotting the electric energy for the whole charges, only two of the four points remained out-of range
(Figure 123). These two points were removed from the data file.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Power-on time per charge (min)
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c

e
n
e
r
g
y

p
e
r

c
h
a
r
g
e

(
M
W
h
)
120 MW max active power

charge
Parameters that should be of main importance for the electrode consumption are the volumes of gas
and oxygen injected in the furnace and their related energy. These data have also been evaluated.
While the energy from the burners presented quite good clusters for each basket (Figure 124), the
results were more widespread for oxygen lancing, especially for the second basket and for the
phoenix lance (Figure 125).
114

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Power-on time (min)
E
n
e
r
g
y

f
r
o
m

b
u
r
n
e
r
s

(
M
W
h
)

Figure 124: energy injected by burners during the melting phases.
The distribution of the weight at the tapping is illustrated at the following picture (Figure 126) Two
great rectangles point out values of tap weight that seem unusual, but possible for the EAF managers.
The small rectangle points out values that are impossible, the steel ladles having a capacity limited to
170 tls. The temperature of the tapped steel presents also some disparities that must be removed to
facilitate the statistical treatment of the data.

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Power-on time (min)
E
n
e
r
g
y

f
r
o
m

o
x
y
g
e
n

l
a
n
c
e
s

(
M
W
h
)
EnO2Ph
EnO2Ab

Figure 125: Energy injected by means of oxygen lances phoenix lance (red), abside lance (blue)
115

StWeight
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1
2
1
1
2
7
1
3
3
1
4
0
1
4
6
1
5
2
1
5
8
1
6
5
1
7
1
1
7
7
Ttap
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1
5
4
3
1
5
6
9
1
5
9
5
1
6
2
1
1
6
4
8
1
6
7
4
1
7
0
0
1
7
2
6
1
7
5
2
1
7
7
8

Figure 126: Left-hand side: distribution of the steel weight tapped right-hand side: distribution of the
final steel bath temperature
Validation was led also on chemical parameters such as the steel carbon content and the Fe content of
the slag (Figure 127)
Some values of C content were found to be out of range. That fact was confirmed by considering the
equilibrium curve hereafter (Figure 128), illustrating a relationship between Ctap concentration and Fe in
the slag.

Ctap
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
,
0
2
0
,
0
4
0
,
0
5
0
,
0
7
0
,
0
9
0
,
1
0
0
,
1
2
0
,
1
4
0
,
1
5
0
,
1
7
Feslag
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1
6
,
1
1
9
,
0
2
2
,
0
2
4
,
9
2
7
,
8
3
0
,
8
3
3
,
7
3
6
,
7
3
9
,
6
4
2
,
5

Figure 127: Left-hand side: distribution of the Carbon content of the steel bath right-hand side:
distribution of the Iron oxide content of the slag
116

0
0,02
0,04
0,06
0,08
0,1
0,12
0,14
0,16
0,18
0,2
0 10 20 30 40 50
Fe slag (%)
C

t
a
p

(
%
)
equilibrium for 1620C
and slag basicity =2.2

Figure 128: Comparison of the carbon content of the steel bath with the equilibrium at 1620C
The analysis of the slag basicity shows a quite good distribution, centred at a value of 2.2 (Figure 129).
Basicity
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1
,
7
7
1
,
9
1
2
,
0
4
2
,
1
8
2
,
3
1
2
,
4
4
2
,
5
8
2
,
7
1
2
,
8
5
2
,
9
8

Figure 129: slag phase basicity distribution
117

ANNEX C - ACCURACY OF THE ELECTRODE CONSUMPTION MEASUREMENT
Several considerations during our data treatments posed the question of the accuracy of the
developed method to measure the electrode wear by means of cameras. Investigation was initiated in
that direction before going further in the treatment and the exploitation of the data sets.
THEORICAL CONSIDERATIONS
It is important to recall here some concept about the errors and accuracy.
We speak about error when we are able to compare a measurement with the exact value of the
considered parameter. It supposed to know that exact value.
Let us consider Y (the electrode consumption in our case) as a function of several independent
variables X
i
, as expressed here after:
Y= )
~
(X Y
where ( )
n
X X X X
~
,...,
~
,
~ ~
2 1
= , approached values of the exact values ( )
n
X X X X ,..., ,
2 1
=
i i i
X X X =
~
=absolute error on the variable Xi
) ( )
~
( X Y X Y Y = =absolute error on the function Y
After having developed the previous equation and supposing that
i
X is small, we obtain the
following approximation [
20
]:

n
i
Xi
Xi
Xi Y
Y
1
.
) (

where Y represents the maximum error of the measure and covers the worse cases
when all the individual errors are added,

Xi
Xi Yi
) (
is the partial derivative of Y
I
with respect to X
I,

and Xi the error on the variable X
I
.
Practically, that upper bond limit is too pessimist, especially if the number of variables is high.
A standard error may be defined, based on probabilistic concepts: the law of errors propagation [
21
].
119

That laws statutes that, if each error X
I
is random, independent from each other, with an average null
value and with a standard deviation equal to
I
, a standard error for Y may be computed and its
formulation is expressed as follows:
=
n
i i
Xi
Xi Y
1
2
2
.
) (

There is a high probability for the error to be lower than but it could nevertheless be higher, up to
Y .
In our application, the exact values of the several parameters Xi is not known. The accuracy of the
measurement method is linked to uncertainties on the measurements. The objective critic of the
means used to measure the electrode consumption should allow determining the maximum
uncertainty we are submitted to [
22
].
In the case of our uncertainties, the maximum uncertainty of the method may be characterised by the
equation:

n
i
Xi
Xi
Xi Y
Y
1
.
) (

It corresponds, as already mentioned, to an upper bond limit.
The remark formulated for the error is also valuable for the uncertainty and a standard uncertainty will
provide, on a statistical point of view, a better indicator of the accuracy of the method. The error
propagation law is not correct anymore but provide a good approximation for that standard
uncertainty:
=
n
i dard s
Xi
Xi
Xi Y
Y
1
2
tan
.
) (

These parameters will be evaluated through the next coming developments.
APPLICATION TO THE ELECTRODE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
A detailed review of the different possible sources of inaccuracy was then realised. That investigation
was led for both steelplants APLDi and APLBe.
The electrode consumption depends on the electrode tip length measured with the help of the
pictures taken by the camera, and on the electrode arm height. The consumption is summarised by
the following equation:
Electrode consumption =k
0
. Length
=k
0
. (Length
i
Length
I+1
)
=k
0
.(( AHi Y
i
) - ( AH
I+1
Y
I+1
))
where AH is the measured electrode arm height, Y
i
the position of the electrode tip on the picture
taken by the camera and k
0
= . . . /4; is the bulk density of the electrode and its diameter, the
indexes i and i+1 refer to the pictures taken respectively before and after the basket melting.
120

The precision of the electrode consumption measurements is influenced by the three terms AH, Y and
k
0
, as described on the following graphic (Figure 130).
Electrode consumption = k0 x length
k0 = . . /4
=1680 kg/m or 1700 kg/m
Fluctuation of Arm Height
Measurement of Arm
Height
Bending of electrode arm
Camera precision
Luminosity
Vertical position - parallax deviation
Dilatation
length =Length1 - Length 2
=( ( AH1 - Y1 ) - ( AH2 - Y2 ) )

Figure 130: View of the various parameters involved in the calculation of electrode consumption
Each of these potential sources of inaccuracy was investigated and evaluated.
The electrode arm height AH is influenced by :
a) the fluctuation of the arm height at the stand-by position:
That fluctuation may occur at the side of the mast (and detected by the measurement device) and/or
at the side of the electrode (detected or not by the measurement device). The fluctuation should not
be detrimental if both measurements (electrode arm height and picture) were synchrone; it is the case
at APLBe but not at APLDi. In the dynamic data logging, the process parameters are recorded each 5
seconds. The moment at which the picture is taken is given with a precision of 1 second, and
therefore a desynchronisation of maximum 3 seconds can be recorded between the picture and the
electrode arm height measurement. As illustrated on the Figure 131, the high fluctuation encountered
at APLDi should come from an unusual working of the hydraulic control system. An increase of the
acquisition rate should help to reduce that incertitude.
121

12830
12835
12840
12845
12850
12855
12860
2:52:31 2:52:48 2:53:05 2:53:23 2:53:40 2:53:57 2:54:14 2:54:32 2:54:49 2:55:06 2:55:24 2:55:41
time (hh:mm:ss)
a
r
m

h
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
m
)

Figure 131 : Variation of the electrode arm height - APLDi
An industrial test was carried out at APLBe in order to evaluate a possible fluctuation of the electrode
arm at the side of the electrode and not detected by the measurement device. No fluctuation was
observed during that test.
A summary on the effect of fluctuation of the electrode arm height is found hereafter.
APLDi APLBe
Fluctuation of about 1 mm to 15 mm
observed between two measurements (1
recording each 5 seconds
Desynchronisation between the moments of
arm height measurement and picture of the
electrode - maximum 3 seconds

maximum incertitude of 9 mm on the electrode
arm height

possible to reduce the incertitude with a better
control of the hydraulic system and by increasing
the acquisition
No De-synchronisation between the
moments of arm height measurement and
picture of the electrode
Industrial test carried out to evaluate the
fluctuation of the electrode arm height

no fluctuation of the arm height nor at the
mast side neither at the electrode side
b) the precision on the measurement of the arm height
APLDi APLBe
By laser : precision of 0,01%

For an average arm height value of 12850
mm, that means : 1.285 mm x 2 =2,57 mm
By laser : precision of +- 2 mm

inaccuracy of 2 mm x 2 =4 mm
c) the bending of the electrode arm
122

Under the effect of the electrode weight, the electrode arm bends. The deviation due to the bending
effect is obtained by computing the difference of bending before melting a basket and after the
melting phase. A rough estimation of the bending effect has been carried out by considering the
electrode arm as an embed beam (at the mast position) with a constant section. The results are
summarised in the following table.
APLDi APLBe
P
L =8800 mm
l =440 mm
e =5 mm
h =1380 mm
e =7 mm

highest error observed for a tip loss
deviation of 0,75 mm (or 0,16 %)
effect negligible
P
L =9728 mm
l =620 mm
e =5 mm
h =1560 mm
e =7 mm

highest error observed for a tip loss
deviation of 0,515 mm (or 0,15 %)
effect negligible
The position of the electrode tip on the picture (Y1) is influenced by :
a) the camera precision
The cameras that were installed in APLDI and APLBE are not similar. At APLDI, the CCD
camera has a resolution of 640x480 pixels, while the CCD camera at Belval has a resolution of
1280x1024 pixels, also with a higher dynamic range able to minimise the effect of luminosity. The
precision of the measurements linked to the resolution of the cameras is given in the following table.
APLDi APLBe
1 pixel =2,78 mm
Error of consumption : 2x2,78mm =5,56 mm
1 pixel =1,617 mm
Error of consumption : 2x1,61mm =3,23 mm
b) the luminosity of the electrode that provokes some saturation on the picture taken by the
camera
In APLDi, a picture of the electrode is taken when the electrode passes in front of the camera,
between the two vessels. Usually, only one picture is available after each melt, as the electrode must
go from one vessel to the other, without being stopped. Nevertheless, several couples of consecutive
pictures were available, these two pictures being taken after a melt and before the next one. A hot
picture and a cold picture compose each of them, with an electrode edge detected by the image
analysis software. The following sequence of pictures (Figure 132) illustrates the difference of length
measurement between the hot and the cold pictures. The first picture shows the hot tip. The
second one is a superimposition of the hot and the cold picture, showing clearly the difference of
electrode length. The last one quantifies the error due to luminosity.
Deviation
123

Figure 132: imprecision induced by luminosity sequence of two consecutive pictures
Table 29 includes the 27 couples of consecutive pictures for which the effect of luminosity was
computable.
The first column in the table represents the measured electrode consumption, on the basis of the
picture taken before the melting phase and the hot picture taken just after the melting phase. The
second column summarises the length variation computed between the hot picture and the cold
one. It can be seen that the length variation, or the error of measurement, has an average value of 20
mm, which means, in term of electrode weight, an error of 15 kg. If the error is ratioed by the weight of
electrode consumed during the melt preceding the two pictures, an average error of 30% is done on
the measured weight. The last column represents the difference of pixel 255 counts; the pixels 255
are characterised by the highest level of white in the picture.
Hot
picture
Measurement
of the gap
between the
two tips
Superimposition
of the Hot and
the cold
pictures
124

Table 29: Luminosity quantification and linked error evaluation
Electrode
consumption
Length variation weight error deltaP255
(mm) (mm) (kg) (%) nb
65 21 15.6 32.3 5765
110 6 4.5 5.5 6069
85 2 1.5 2.4 6887
93 7 5.2 7.5 4039
30 31 23.0 103.3 8589
81 33 24.5 40.7 7985
54 46 34.1 85.2 6388
75 29 21.5 38.7 9069
535 22 16.3 4.1 4680
52 26 19.3 50.0 9384
not available 18 13.4 - 5799
not available 8 5.9 - 3804
71 5 3.7 7.0 5438
34 30 22.3 88.2 8306
91 22 16.3 24.2 6965
460 14 10.4 3.0 1798
119 20 14.8 16.8 8813
100 9 6.7 9.0 6515
89 29 21.5 32.6 8567
30 22 16.3 73.3 6117
71 5 3.7 7.0 3644
76 51 37.9 67.1 13009
87 17 12.6 19.5 4056
67 12 8.9 17.9 2019
219 37 27.5 16.9 7312
86 16 11.9 18.6 6202
168 10 7.4 6.0 6248
average 118 20 15 31 6425
stdev 122 13 9 30 2428
max 535 51 38 103 13009

The next diagram (Figure 133) shows the relationship that exists between the error of measurement
and the difference of luminosity between the two consecutive pictures. As observed, the trendline that
comprises the origin of the axes (no difference of pixels, no error detected) presents a not so bad
correlation value of R (0,4334).
125

y =0,0032x
R
2
=0,4334
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
deltaP255 (counts)
E
r
r
o
r

(
m
m
)

Figure 133: Error on the electrode length measurement versus the difference of luminosity
A correction of luminosity was then applied to the whole set of data, considering the following
relationship between error and luminosity: Error (mm) =0.003193 x P255 (counts)
More or less 1100 pictures were processed in order to compute the P255 values, necessary for the
evaluation of the correction for each length of electrode. The Figure 134 illustrates the evolution of the
electrode consumption according to the electrical energy input. It compares the old electrode
continuous consumption and the corrected values (no tip losses and consumption <3.5 kg / MWhr).
It can be observed that the corrected values (Table 30) are somewhat better correlated than the old
set of values. On a global point of view, the correction does not appear as important as expected.
This can be explain by the fact that the correction is applied to every picture, before the melt and after
the melt. By this way, some corrections may be reduced or annihilated. It becomes meaningful at the
level of one basket (Table 31).
y =2,129x
R
2
=0,6235
y =2,193x
R
2
=0,6951
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Electrical energy (MWhr)
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
k
g
)
Continuous consumption -before correction
Continuous consumption - after correction

126

Figure 134: Plot of the continuous electrode consumption vs the PowerON time comparison
between before and after correction
As already said, the low difference in the continuous wear means that the corrections on pictures
taken before and after melting a basket are quite well balanced. There is a low difference between the
global consumption before and after correction (less than 1%), the global consumption being the sum
of the continuous consumption, the discontinuous consumption and the tip losses.
The difference observed for the discontinuous wear is in agreement with the error that could be
encountered, as the electrode is luminous. It could mean that the electrode is brighter than usual, the
electrode having worked maybe in arsher conditions. The difference in the tip losses could be
explained by the fact that the area of the nipple is extremely hot during the melting phase. As the
electrode tip falls down, the nipple becomes visible and appears extremely brighter due to its high
temperature. The induced correction is therefore also important.
Table 30: Global values of electrode consumption comparison between values before and after
correction
Continuous stdev Discontinuous stdev Tip loss stdev All stdev
First basket 43,8 16,6 93,6 29,5 276,6 77,9 62,2 53,8
Second basket 92,1 26,5 205,7 101,9 320,2 76,1 110,2 67,4
Sum 135,9 172,4
charge 148,2 68,9 177,1 70,4 311,6 170,8 166,3 91,2
kg/tls 0,974 1,169 1,999 1,091
% Cons 63,9 22,3 13,8
Continuous stdev Discontinuous stdev Tip loss stdev All stdev
First basket 44,9 14,3 98,8 32,9 269,4 73,8 60,9 51,7
Second basket 95,2 23,9 203,4 104,8 315,9 75,7 112,8 65,4
Sum 140,1 173,7
charge 139,6 29,6 205,5 41,4 383,6 116,9 168,5 78,8
kg/tls 0,918 1,355 2,469 1,104
% Cons 63,1 20,2 16,8
Electrode consumption before correction (kg)
Electrode consumption after correction (kg)

Table 31: Difference in % of consumption computed basket per basket in the first column, the
values into brackets are the average consumption
Global consumption
Average (%) Stdev (%) Minimum (%) Maximum (%)
1
st
basket + 2
nd
basket 0,6 19,6 -140,5 86,1
1
st
basket (45,1 kg) -2,3 27,3 -140,5 86,1
2
nd
basket (95,4 kg) 3,9 11,8 -43,1 45,6
Crack losses
1
st
basket (98,2 kg) -2 10,4 -29,4 18,4
2
nd
basket (204,4 kg) 0,8 5,4 -12 11,4
127

Stub end losses
1
st
basket (269,2 kg) -2,6 3,5 -8,3 3,7
2
nd
basket (314,9 kg) -1,7 2,1 -4,9 2,6
c) the parallax deviation of the electrode.
As illustrated on the following picture (Figure 135), that error depends among other things to the angle
between the horizontal optical axe and the line that joins the camera and the tip of the electrode (the
yellow lines on the figure. Moreover, the electrode consumption depends on the difference of angles
( - ).
The parallax deviation is a geometrical error. It corresponds to a difference between the real height
of the electrode and the height of the electrode on the picture; that error is generated by the non-
correspondence between the distance from the camera to the calibration panel and the distance from
the camera to the electrode longitudinal axe.

Figure 135: Parallax deviation of the measurement method
The geometrical configuration at APLBe is a little bit different than the configuration at APLDi, with the
axe of the calibration panel being merged with the longitudinal axe of the electrode. The error that
results is therefore lower. The table hereafter summarises the generated error. A geometrical
correction has been proposed and applied to the sets of data from APLDi and APLBe.
APLDi APLBe
axe of
electrode
camera
Calibration panel
15620 mm
16610 mm
Gap =615 mm
Optical
axe

Error depends on the angle and
higher for high consumption
Error from 3 % to 8 %
axeof
electrode
camera
Calibration panel
17985 mm
Optical
axe

Error depends on the angle and
higher for high consumption
-
128

Error <=2 %
d) the effect of dilatation
The Influence of the contraction of the electrode as it cools down was investigated. A rough
estimation of electrode contraction was made, using electrode temperatures measured during first
pilot test. Difference of less than 0,05 mm was found, leading to the conclusion that the dilatation
generates a negligible error on the electrode consumption measurements.
The parameter k
0
depends on :
a) , the diameter of the electrode (762 mm at APLBE and 800 mm at APLDI)
The suppliers of electrode rods guarantee diameters within a given range (upper and lower
tolerances). Electrodes of 30 inch (electrodes 750) have a usual tolerance of 2 mm to 3mm for an
average diameter of 762 mm. The value of 2mm has been kept here for our computation.
b) , the bulk density of the graphite electrode
The bulk density of the electrode is problematically not constant (1680 kg/m to 1720 kg/m),
depending on the supplier and moreover on the batch of electrodes. The electrode consumption for
the data set from APLDi and APLBe were computed by using a bulk density of 1700 kg/m, deduced
from packing lists provided by the suppliers. A tolerance of 0,2 kg/cm3 is considered in our
computation.
RESULTS FOR APLDI AND APLBE
It must be specified that the uncertainty (standard or maximum) on the weight depends not only on
the uncertainties but also on the measured electrode length. This is the reason why, in the case of
APLBe, the maximum and standard uncertainty was computed for both data sets.
The evaluation of the measurement accuracy was carried out, in terms of maximum uncertainty and
standard uncertainty. The results for both steelplants are summarised in the following tables.
The Table 32 lists the most relevant sources of imprecision coming from our investigation and is
expressed as absolute values. Remark: The luminosity and geometrical corrections are supposed to
have solved their linked inaccuracy
Table 32: Maximum and standard uncertainty of the measurement method
APLDI APLBE
CCD resolution 2,78 mm x 2 =5,78 mm 1,617 mm x 2 =3,234mm
Arm height precision (laser
measurement)
1,285 mm x 2 =2, 57 mm 2 x 2 =4 mm
Luminosity Supposed corrected -
Parallax deviation corrected corrected
Arm height fluctuation 2 * 9 mm = 18 mm -
MAXIMUM absolute
uncertainty
26,4 mm 7,2 mm
STANDARD uncertainty 13,44 mm 3,64 mm
129

The resulting uncertainties for the data sets are then listed on Table 33, Table 34 and Table 35. As it
can be observed, the precision of the electrode measurements at APLBe is higher than at APLDi, due
firstly to the estimated desynchronisation between the time at which the electrode arm height is
measured and the time at which the picture is taken. An increase of the acquisition rate (1 Hz) should
reduced by two the standard uncertainty in APLDi, from 13,4 mm to 6 mm. The resolution of the
camera plays also a non negligible role in the accuracy. A high-resolution camera as the one installed
at APLBe should reduce the uncertainty by 12%, from 6 mm to 5 mm.
Table 33: Maximum and standard uncertainties (relative values) for the data set of APLDi
mm % % kg % %
basket1 59.2 44.1 22.7 44 47.8 23.7
basket2 124.6 21.0 10.8 92.5 23.7 11.3
charge 191.2 13.7 7.0 142 16.0 7.5
basket1 136.4 19.2 9.9 101.2 21.8 10.4
basket2 272.4 9.6 4.9 202.2 11.8 5.3
charge 336.6 7.8 4.0 249.8 9.9 4.4
basket1 349.1 7.5 3.9 259.1 9.6 4.2
basket2 395.4 6.6 3.4 293.5 8.7 3.8
charge 504.3 5.2 2.7 374.3 7.2 3.1
APLDi data set
standard
uncertainty
weight length
maximum
uncertainty
standard
uncertainty
maximum
uncertainty
stub end losses
crack losses

Table 34: Maximum and standard uncertainties (relative values) for the first data set of APLBe
mm % % kg % %
basket1 66.4 10.9 5.5 52.9 12.0 5.5
basket2 118.7 6.1 3.1 92 7.5 3.3
charge 194.8 3.7 1.9 151 5.2 2.2
basket1 129.6 5.6 2.8 100.5 7.0 3.1
basket2 234.6 3.1 1.6 183 4.5 2.0
charge 309.9 2.3 1.2 239.9 3.8 1.7
basket1 257 2.8 1.4 199.3 4.3 1.9
basket2 371 1.9 1.0 287.6 3.4 1.6
charge 447.3 1.6 0.8 346.8 3.1 1.5
standard
uncertainty
weight
maximum
uncertainty
standard
uncertainty
maximum
uncertainty
length
crack losses
stub end losses
APLBe data set 1

Table 35: Maximum and standard uncertainties (relative values) for the second data set of APLBe
130

mm % % kg % %
basket1 63.3 11.4 5.7 49.1 13.1 5.9
basket2 107.9 6.7 3.4 83.6 8.4 3.6
charge 177.2 4.1 2.1 137.3 5.8 2.4
basket1 134.2 5.4 2.7 104.1 7.1 3.0
basket2 235 3.1 1.5 182.2 4.8 2.0
charge 313.4 2.3 1.2 242.9 4.0 1.7
basket1 227.9 3.2 1.6 176.7 4.9 2.1
basket2 340.8 2.1 1.1 264.2 3.8 1.7
charge 433 1.7 0.8 335.7 3.4 1.5
maximum
uncertainty
standard
uncertainty
length
maximum
uncertainty
standard
uncertainty
weight
crack losses
stub end losses
APLBe data set 2

131

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: View of the EAF furnace of APLDi.........................................................................................17
Figure 2: Top view of the layout at APLDi camera fixed next to the rear wall ...................................18
Figure 3: Left hand-side: camera and its protective housing right-hand side: injection of cooling air in
the protective housing..................................................................................................................18
calibration target...........................................................................................................................19
Figure 5: Camera calibration panel.......................................................................................................20
Figure 6: View of the EAF furnace of APLBe........................................................................................21
Figure 7: Top view of the layout in APLBe camera fixed next to the rear wall ..................................21
Figure 8: Camera in protective housing with heat exchanger...............................................................21
Figure 9: Tent-shaped camera housing with window purge nozzles....................................................21
Figure 10: Camera on platform during alignment.................................................................................22
calibration target...........................................................................................................................23
Figure 12: Set of successive electrode tip image recordings at the APLDi EAF..................................24
Figure 13: Electrode tip positions (X and Y) and electrode arm angular positions at APLDi EAF .......25
Figure 14: Sequence of processing steps - APLDi ...............................................................................25
Figure 15: Calculation of tip shape, sides of cone (oxidized length) and cracks size - APLDi.............25
Figure 16: Cracks near tip and tip fall-off at stub end, with visible nipple APLDi...............................25
Figure 17: Colouring of the luminosity distribution - APLDi ..................................................................26
Figure 18: APLBe electrode image with primary processing................................................................26
Figure 19: Picture of tip of electrode and automated crack detection - APLBe....................................26
Figure 20: Schematic view of an electrode column in a DC EAF .........................................................29
Figure 21: Schematic subdivision of electrode consumption mechanisms ..........................................29
Figure 22: a) Continuous wear, b) Tip spalling, c) Stub end loss, d) Breakage...................................30
Figure 23: a) Continuous consumption, d) Tip wear, e) Side wear.......................................................31
Figure 24: Main causes of electrode breakage occurrences ...............................................................31
Figure 25: continuous consumption......................................................................................................32
Figure 26: electrode crack loss induced by a circumferential macro-crack..........................................32
Figure 27: Electrode stub end loss .......................................................................................................33
Figure 28: Sequence of melting phases leading to a stub en loss .......................................................33
Figure 29: Principle used to measure the electrode consumption........................................................34
Figure 30: Modelling of the tip width by means of a tip width and an oxidized length..........................34
Figure 31: APLDi - Improvement in the computation of electrode consumption..................................35
Figure 32: Comparison between the two procedures for calculating electrode consumption
(APLDi dataset Feb 2004)..........................................................................................................36
Figure 33: Comparison between the two procedures for calculating electrode consumption side and
tip contributions (APLDi dataset Feb 2004) ...............................................................................36
Figure 34: Different cases of measurement incompatibilities ...............................................................37
Figure 35: Schematic view of the various parameters involved in the determination of electrode
consumption.................................................................................................................................38
Figure 36: Electrode tip detection customary tip shape.....................................................................39
Figure 37: Electrode tip detection apparent connecting pin...............................................................40
Figure 38: Electrode tip detection unusual tip shape.........................................................................40
Figure 39: Electrode tip detection tip partly hidden............................................................................41
Figure 40: Electrode consumption vs electric energy input consumption per basket and per heat
(APLDi dataset) ............................................................................................................................42
Figure 41: Electrode consumption vs electrical energy classification in three categories, for basket 1
and 2 (APLDi dataset)..................................................................................................................43
Figure 42: Comparison between the measured and calculated values for electrode consumption for
APLDi dataset...............................................................................................................................44
Figure 43: Discontinuous proportion of the overall electrode wear vs the average current level
(APLDi dataset) ............................................................................................................................45
Figure 44: Main parameters of the electrode tip determined by the image analysis (APLDi) ..............46
133

Figure 45: Sequence of consecutive electrode tip images (APLDi)......................................................46
Figure 46: Oxidized length of the graphite electrodes during one month - APLDi................................47
Figure 47: Evolution of the graphite electrode tip during one month - APLDi.......................................47
Figure 48: Length of electrode cracks during one month - APLDi........................................................48
Figure 49: Measurement of the heat distribution at the tip of the electrode (APLDI furnace) ..............48
Figure 50: Maxheat parameter vs the vessel (APLDi data set)............................................................49
Figure 51: Electrode wear rates as function of electrical energy input (first APLBe data set)..............50
Figure 52: Electrode consumption rate function of electrical energy input (first APLBe data set)........51
nd
first APLBe data set......................................................................................................................52
Figure 54: Influence of current density on electrode continuous consumption - first APLBe data set.53
Figure 55: Area of influence of each nipple..........................................................................................53
Figure 56: Influence of nipple transition on electrode consumption basket 1 (first APLBe data set) 54
Figure 57: Influence of nipple transition on electrode consumption basket 2 (first APLBe data set) 54
Figure 58: Oxidized length measured during data collection in APLBe (first data set) ........................55
Figure 59: Electrode consumption as function of electric energy input - APLBe 2
nd
data set..............57
nd
APLBe 2
nd
data set.......................................................................................................................58
Figure 61: Plot of the predicted consumption values vs the observed values - APLDi data set ..........59
Figure 62: One step (top) and two-steps (bottom) stub-end losses APLBe furnace.........................65
Figure 63: Electrode consumption vs the number of heats after electrode re-lengthening (first APLBe
data set Oct 2004 to May 2005)................................................................................................66
Figure 64: Electrode consumption vs the number of heats after electrode re-lengthening (APLDi data
set Feb 2004) ............................................................................................................................66
Figure 65: View of the stress tensor in a cylinder where t =hoop stress, r =radial stress and
z =axial stress ...........................................................................................................................67
Figure 66: Transversal and longitudinal cracks ....................................................................................67
Figure 67: Pictures of electrode cracks - APLBe..................................................................................68
Figure 68: longitudinal cracks are generated by hoop stress and transversal cracks by axial stress..68
Figure 69: Current density, temperature distribution and hoop stresses in the electrode column for AC
and DC furnaces...........................................................................................................................69
Figure 70: Finite Element simulation of an electrode column with nipples (lefthand side: temperature
distribution, right-hand side: tangential stress distribution)..........................................................70
Figure 71: Electrode cuts for tomography analysis...............................................................................70
Figure 72: Cut of a section of electrode segment at APLBe.................................................................71
Figure 73: Main longitudinal crack........................................................................................................71
Figure 74: Principle of the tomographic analysis..................................................................................72
Figure 75: X-ray scanning of an electrode segment.............................................................................72
Figure 76: Axial cut of an electrode part with visible crack (left) and longitudinal cut with crack network
(right) ............................................................................................................................................73
Figure 77: Reconstitution of complete electrode sections at 50 mm and 200 mm from the tip............73
Figure 78: Sequence of axial cuts illustrating the crack evolution in the electrode tip .........................74
Figure 79: Reconstituted 3D views of the electrode tip........................................................................74
Figure 80: Metallography analysis of virgin areas in the electrode....................................................75
Figure 81: Metallography analysis of the used electrode sample......................................................75
Figure 82: Metallography analysis of damaged areas of the used electrode sample (near the tip, in a
macro-crack zone)........................................................................................................................76
Figure 83: Metallography analysis of damaged areas of the used electrode sample (steel droplet at
electrode surface).........................................................................................................................76
Figure 84: Average electrode consumptions - APLDi and APLBe (various plant configurations)........78
basket of APLDi heats (standard modelling approach)................................................................80
basket of APLDi heats (extended modelling approach)...............................................................81
basket of APLBe heats (standard modelling approach)...............................................................81
basket of APLBe heats (extended modelling approach)..............................................................82
134

basket of APLBe heats (2
nd
data set, extended modelling approach) .........................................83
Figure 90: CSM Pilot Plant....................................................................................................................84
Figure 91: Internal sketch of the pilot furnace.......................................................................................85
Figure 92: Gas analysis in the stack of the pilot plant ..........................................................................86
Figure 93: Measurements apparatus for electrode consumption at the pilot plant...............................87
Figure 94: Pictures of the electrode tip, during the test with high current intensity..............................88
Figure 95: Measurements of surface temperature of the electrode tip (test with high current intensity)
......................................................................................................................................................89
Figure 96: Linear consumption of the electrode during test with high current intensity........................89
Figure 97: Artificial crack made on the electrode surface.....................................................................90
Figure 98: Electrode tip pictures, showing the artificial crack during test.............................................91
Figure 99: Trend of electrode consumption during Phase 1 and 2.......................................................93
Figure 100: Measurements of surface temperature of the electrode tip...............................................93
Figure 101: Linear electrode consumption (test with different compositions of slag and metal bath)..94
Figure 102: Second test with artificial crack..........................................................................................95
Figure 103: Third test with artificial crack..............................................................................................95
Figure 104: Second artificial crack made on tip electrode....................................................................96
Figure 105: Electrode tip during the second test with artificial crack....................................................97
Figure 106: Picture from the video recording during the second test with artificial crack.....................98
Figure 107: Measurements of surface temperature of the electrode tip during the second test with
artificial crack................................................................................................................................98
Figure 108: Electrode tip after the second test with artificial crack.......................................................98
Figure 109: Third artificial crack, on electrode tip.................................................................................99
Figure 110: Pictures of the electrode tip during the third test with artificial crack...............................100
Figure 111: Measurements of surface temperature of the electrode tip during the third test with
artificial crack..............................................................................................................................100
Figure 112: Electrode tip after the third test with artificial crack.........................................................100
Figure 113: Slag foam height vs oxygen injection rate for various FeO levels in the slag []..............102
Figure 114: Current capacity of an electrode as a function of its diameter ........................................103
Figure 115: Electrode-monitoring system available in the operating room.........................................106
Figure 116: APLBe EAF- Image of the tip of the electrode.................................................................109
Figure 117: APLBe EAF- Image of the electrode for calculating the co-ordinates of the tip..............110
Figure 118: Adaptive threshold limit for electrode edge detection......................................................111
Figure 119: Edge detection after applying adaptive threshold limit....................................................111
Figure 120: Final result of the edge detection function.......................................................................111
Figure 121: Left-hand side: distribution of the PON time for the first basket right-hand side:
distribution of the PON time for the second basket....................................................................113
basket 1 and basket 2................................................................................................................114
charge.........................................................................................................................................114
Figure 124: energy injected by burners during the melting phases....................................................115
Figure 125: Energy injected by means of oxygen lances phoenix lance (red), abside lance (blue).115
Figure 126: Left-hand side: distribution of the steel weight tapped right-hand side: distribution of the
final steel bath temperature........................................................................................................116
Figure 127: Left-hand side: distribution of the Carbon content of the steel bath right-hand side:
distribution of the Iron oxide content of the slag.........................................................................116
Figure 128: Comparison of the carbon content of the steel bath with the equilibrium at 1620C.......117
Figure 129: slag phase basicity distribution........................................................................................117
Figure 130: View of the various parameters involved in the calculation of electrode consumption...121
Figure 131 : Variation of the electrode arm height - APLDi ................................................................122
Figure 132: imprecision induced by luminosity sequence of two consecutive pictures...................124
Figure 133: Error on the electrode length measurement versus the difference of luminosity............126
Figure 134: Plot of the continuous electrode consumption vs the PowerON time comparison
between before and after correction......................................................................................127
Figure 135: Parallax deviation of the measurement method............................................................128

135

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Comparison between number of valid data for 1 component and 2 components
calculations...................................................................................................................................36
Table 2: Residual standard uncertainties on the measured electrode consumption values ................38
Table 3: Comparison between average values (yearly and data set), APLDi ......................................41
Table 4: Electrode consumption for APLDi data set.............................................................................43
Table 5: Comparison between average values (yearly and data set) - first APLBe data set...............50
Table 6: Electrode consumption first APLBe data set .......................................................................51
Table 7: Comparison between average values (yearly and data set) - all data sets............................56
Table 8: Electrode consumption: comparison between average values - APLBe 2
nd
data set ............56
Table 9: Electrode consumption - APLBe 2
nd
data set .........................................................................57
Table 10: Correlation analysis for influence of operational parameters on continuous wear (APLDi) .59
Table 11: Correlation analysis for influence of operational parameters on wear mechanisms (APLDi)
......................................................................................................................................................60
Table 12: Correlation analyses for the continuous electrode wear (APLBe)........................................61
Table 13 : Correlation analyses for discontinuous and continuous wear mechanisms (APLBe) .........62
Table 14: Summary table of electrode consumption values for complete charges, for the different wear
mechanisms and the three data sets ...........................................................................................63
Table 15: Comparison table between plants and data sets..................................................................63
Table 16: Average electrode consumptions - APLDi and APLBe (various plant configurations) .........77
Table 17: Standard formulas for graphite electrode consumption of arc furnaces...............................79
Table 18: Refractory materials considered to revamp the pilot furnace...............................................85
Table 19: Metal and slag compositions at the end of start-up phase...................................................87
Table 20: Electrode consumption results Influence of the current.....................................................89
Table 21: Continuous consumption values from APLDi and APLBe....................................................90
Table 22: Physical properties of graphite electrodes as a function of diameter...................................90
Table 23: Metal bath and slag composition in phase 1.........................................................................92
Table 24: Metal bath and slag composition in phase 2.........................................................................92
Table 25: Electrode consumption results test with different compositions of slag and metal bath....94
Table 26: Metal and slag analyses after start-up..................................................................................96
Table 27: Electrode and energy consumption after the tests .............................................................101
Table 28: Co-ordinates of the electrode boundary points...................................................................112
Table 29: Luminosity quantification and linked error evaluation.........................................................125
Table 30: Global values of electrode consumption comparison between values before and after
correction...................................................................................................................................127
Table 31: Difference in % of consumption computed basket per basket in the first column, the
values into brackets are the average consumption....................................................................127
Table 32: Maximum and standard uncertainty of the measurement method.....................................129
Table 33: Maximum and standard uncertainties (relative values) for the data set of APLDi..............130
Table 34: Maximum and standard uncertainties (relative values) for the first data set of APLBe......130
Table 35: Maximum and standard uncertainties (relative values) for the second data set of APLBe 130

137

LIST OF REFERENCES

[
1
] J .A.T. J ones, B. Bowman, P.A. Lefrank, The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, 11
th
Edition,
Steelmaking and Refining Volume, chapter 10, Electric Furnace Steelmaking.
[
2
] The Electric Arc Furnace, IISI, Committee on Technology, Brussels 1983.
[
3
] B. Bowman, UCAR publication, An Updated Model of Electrode Consumption, J une 1995.
[
4
] M. Gronau, R. Lichterbeck, Infield Investigation of Electrode Consumption at Electric Arc Furnaces
of Several Steel Shops,EEC Steelmaking Conference, Florence, Italy, 29 Sep to 1st Oct 1986,
pg1.2/1 pg1.2/16, The Electric Arc Furnace, IISI, Committee On Technology, Brussels 1990.
[
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[
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] P.A. Lefrank, M.F. Supon, T, J esberger, Stahl und Eisen 104 1984) Nr 16, Bestimmung des
Elektrodenverbrauches unter variierenden Einsatzbedinggungen in einem Elektrostahlwerk, pg
785 pg 792.
[
7
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Conference, Birmingham, 9 11 May 2005, pg 135-pg 143.
[
8
] F. Treppschuh, M. Schring, R. Pletzer, A. Arnold, Optimization of DC Graphite Electrode
Performance at the Georgsmarienhtte Steel Plant, EEC Steelmaking Conference, Dsseldorf, 13
15 J une 1999, pg 191 pg 195.
[
9
] Improving the productivity of Electric Arc Furnaces. Final report to ECSC project 7210-PR/132
(01.07.1999 - 30.06.2002). Report EUR 20803 EN.
[
10
] Handling of Graphite Electrodes, SGL Carbon Group
[
11
] P.A. Lefrank, W.J . J ones, R.G. Wetter ,1995, Electric Furnace Conference Proceedings, pg 337-
pg 347
[
12
] 2000 Blackwell Science Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 23, 467-476
[
13
] Steelmaking and Refining Volume, pg 570
[
14
] P.A. Lefrank, W.J . J ones, R.G.Wetter ,1995 Electric Furnace conference Proceedings DC
Steelmaking Conditions and electrode performance.
[
15
] P. Beghein, F. Cialti, 1992, 4
th
European Electric Steel Congress, thermal and electrical simulation
for a screwed graphite joining on EAF.
[
16
] News and Recommendations for AC and DC Arc furnace Applications, The CESO processing
chain for the optimization of the graphite electrode columns
[
17
] 4
th
European Electric Steel Congress, 11/1992, Thermal and electrical simulation for a screwed
graphite joining on EAF.
[
18
] Improving the productivity of Electric Arc Furnaces. Final report to ECSC project 7210-PR/132
(01.07.1999 - 30.06.2002). Report EUR 20803 EN
[
19
] The Making, Shaping, Treating of Steel, 11
th
edition, Steelmaking and Refining volume, pg 607
[
20
] M. LINSMAN, Analyse numrique, notes de cours, Universit de Lige, Facult des Sciences
appliques.
[
21
] M. LITT, Analyse numrique, notes de cours, Universit de Lige, Facult des Sciences
appliques.
[
22
] D. De Santa Ana , Groupe de physiques, 06/12/2004
139
European Commission
EUR 23889 Monitoring system for controlling and reducing the electrode consumption in DC
EAF plants
J. Borle, M. Wauters, C. Mathy, M. Weber, M. Picco, J-C. Baumert, B. Kleimt, L. Di Sante,
P. Frittella
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
2009 139 pp. 21 29.7 cm
Research Fund for Coal and Steel series
ISBN 978-92-79-11982-8
ISSN 1018-5593
Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg: EUR 20

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