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Introduction to Calculus
Course-2
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Limit of Trigonometric Functions:
We know how sin x and cos x vary with x in the range between 0 and 2π (=360 0 ):
π = 180 o .
0o 30 0 45 o 60 o 90 o
sin 0 1 1 3 1
2 2 2
cos 1 3 1 1 0
2 2 2
cosec ∞ 2 2 2 1
3
sec 1 2 2 2 ∞
3
tan 0 1 1 3 ∞
3
cot ∞ 3 1 1 0
3
.
To obtain the above table, take 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 corresponding to 0 o , 30 o , 45 o , 60 o and
90 o respectively, divide each by 4 and then take square roots. Thus you get the values of
sine-function for different angles. To obtain the values of cosine, take the reverse order.
Lim cos x = 1
x →0
The following Limit can be shown to be (this is not proved here):
sin x
Lim =1
x →0 x
1
By Dr. Abhijit Kar Gupta E-mail; kg.abhi@gmail.com
sin y
= Lim ⋅ k [Assume y = kx . As x → 0 , y → 0 ]
y →0 y
= 1. k = k.
2
3
1
1 + = (1.33...) ≅ 2.35.. (approximate value)
3
3
4
1
1 + = (1.25) = 2.44140625.
4
4
n
1
In this way, if we go on calculating 1 + for the higher and higher values of n starting
n
from 1, 2, 3, 4…..to any number, we see that the value of the above expression is
something between the numbers 2 and 3.
n
1
Therefore, we can say that the value of the expression 1 + , as n → ∞ , has a limiting
n
value between the numbers 2 and 3. It is seen that this ‘limiting value’ is an irrational
number, we call it e .
e = 2.7182818284 ....
2
By Dr. Abhijit Kar Gupta E-mail; kg.abhi@gmail.com
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Note:
Irrational numbers are those which can not be expressed as ratio of two integer numbers.
22
Example: 5 , π etc. ( π is only approximated as a rational number = .)
7
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n
1
We have now Lim1 + = e
n →∞
n
In place of the integer number n we can also take any variable x and show that
x
1
Lim1 + = e .
x →∞
x
1
Also suppose, y = . Then as x → ∞ we have y → 0 . Therefore, we can now write
x
1
Lim(1 + y ) y = e
y →0
n +5 n 5 n 5
1 1 1 1 1
#1. Lim 1 + = Lim 1 + 1 + = Lim 1 + Lim 1 + = e .1 = e .
n →∞
n n →∞
n n n →∞
n n →∞ n