Preface

Seldom does a manager go more than a month or two without employ-

ing the thinking patterns that are at the foundation of this book. In some
rapidly changing organizations, breakeven calculations will be used as
fodder for discussions, debates, and ultimately decisions on a daily or
weekly basis.
Todays managers are far more sophisticated than those of a generation
ago, but the need for cost-volume-prot thinking and breakeven decision-
making tools has not gone away. Advances in cost accounting; the use of
activity-based costing; the use of many performance-improvement tools
such as identifying and removing constraints, optimizing logistics, and
inventory management all lead down two interrelated pathways: value
improvement and cost reduction.
Many existing companies have already picked the low-hanging fruit
of performance improvement. With each passing year the gains from
squeezing costs out of current systems become more and more difcult to
achieve. These efforts have an impact on the breakeven point of the orga-
nization. New companies, their managers learning fast from competitors,
begin with the need to know where the breakeven point is. Breakeven
thinking becomes second nature to seasoned managers who are faced
with the ever-present need to fend off the onslaughts of competitors who
are nding more efcient ways of doing business.
Who This Book Is Designed For
We start with the assumption that the users of this book will vary in their
degrees of sophistication in terms of cost-volume-prot analysis. Some
readers will have no business school background but have worked their
way up to middle or senior management learning business concepts pri-
marily in the context of their organization and industry. We take these
readers from the basic concepts up through the advanced approaches.
Some of these managers work in nonprot organizations and government
x PREFACE
agencies, which may not be attempting to achieve a prot but are nev-
ertheless concerned about the prosperity of their organization. Many of
these readers will have had no formal training in managerial accounting.
We believe they will benet from seeing this collection of tools. Practice
and use of these tools will contribute toward these managers becoming
more useful to their organizations.
Another group of users is entrepreneurs who, if they have been suc-
cessful, have learned about breakeven thinking and analysis from their
own experience. Many entrepreneurs dont go to business school, pre-
ferring to learn from their experiences in the market. This simple tool
kit can bring into clear understanding much of what these entrepreneurs
have been thinking about for a long time but didnt have the range of
tools readily available to do what they know needs to be done. As their
enterprises grow and become more complex, they face the prospect of
helping their top-level and midlevel management teams improve their
thinking about the business. When dealing with suppliers and custom-
ers, many of these entrepreneurs will improve their negotiating abilities
by incorporating breakeven analysis into the negotiation process. Under-
standing the breakeven point of your supplier and your customer can
be just as valuable as knowing your own companys breakeven point.
In many negotiating situations the simple but effective tools discussed
here provide insight and clarity, which can, if effectively presented, cut
through the smoke and mirrors to the truth, revealing aws or strengths
in particular arguments.
Other users will have completed undergraduate business school and
followed a career track that nds them in managerial positions. Most of
these readers were exposed to one or two of the tools we present here.
Still other readers will be MBA graduates who are at or heading toward
senior-level leadership positions. Depending on the degree program they
completed, they were exposed to one or more breakeven analysis tools in
graduate school.
The last group of users will be undergraduate and graduate business
students whose professors see value in exposing them to more than just
one or two methods to calculate breakeven.
PREFACE xi
The Plan of the Book
Think of this book as a ready-to-use managerial tool kit, which if used fre-
quently will sharpen the managers ability to make decisions. We explain
the vocabulary of breakeven analysis, also known as cost-volume-prot
(CVP) analysis, explore the breadth of applications of CVP, and illustrate
the use of CVP concepts in a broad range of management and marketing
scenarios. While this book is not a comprehensive treatment of the topic,
we employ many examples from several different types of industries to
illustrate breakeven calculations.
The user of this book will nd here a wide range of interrelated tools,
from how to calculate basic breakeven to dealing with multiple products,
mixed costs, changing conditions, and conditions of uncertainty. After an
introductory chapter we present several commonly used breakeven analy-
sis tools. With each tool we present one or more examples showing how
the calculations work and the types of information needed for each one.
We hope this collection of practical tools will add value to your work
as a manager regardless of where in the world of commerce, nonprot,
and government organizations you serve others.
Michael E. Cafferky and Jon Wentworth
Southern Adventist University
Collegedale, Tennessee
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Since its introduction in the 19th century, the breakeven concept has
been used, enhanced, adjusted, and extended in an attempt to reduce
or correct for its limitations and make it applicable to more and more
business situations. In spite of its limitations and criticisms, detailed
in Appendix B, breakeven analysis (also known as cost-volume-prot
analysis) continues to be one of the best ways to focus on the relation-
ship between cost, volume, and protability. We present here the appli-
cations and approaches that we believe managers will nd most useful.
The Essence of Breakeven Analysis
Cost-volume-prot analysis is not just the mathematical result generated
by applying a particular math formula. It is not merely a single num-
ber used at a point in time, such as the number of units of a companys
products that it needs to produce and sell. In essence breakeven analy-
sis is a continual way of thinking used by people potentially everywhere
in the organization as they deal with a variety of decisions. As such it
embraces the common ground of thinking that is used in accounting and
economics.
1
Overall breakeven thinking is a way of comparing the amount of incom-
ing value that an organization needs in order to serve its customers by deliver-
ing outgoing value of an equal amount. When applied to specic situations
that might be changing, breakeven thinking is a way of comparing the
impact of an anticipated change with the current situation. When these
values can be quantied, a breakeven formula may be applied. But when
values are intangible or unquantiable, a mental comparison is still made.
2 BREAKEVEN ANALYSIS
The Traditional Breakeven Formula
Traditionally, breakeven has been expressed in one of two ways. If
the desired result is the quantity of units that must be sold to achieve
breakeven, the following formula is used:
Fixed Costs
= Breakeven in Units to Be Sold = BE
U
Contribution Margin per Unit
If, however, the desired result is the dollar amount of sales required to
reach breakeven, the following formula is used:
Fixed Costs
= Breakeven in Dollars to Be Sold = BE
$
Contribution Margin Ratio
per Unit
Business Situations Where
Breakeven Analysis Is Useful
You will nd in various accounting textbooks the traditional simple for-
mula for calculating breakeven for a company that produces and sells a
single product. Some texts offer breakeven formulas for multiple-product
companies. The simplicity of these formulas has opened breakeven analy-
sis to criticisms. The following list illustrates some of the ways in which
breakeven thinking and breakeven analysis can be used:
Deciding whether to quit your job and start new company
Deciding whether to outsource
Deciding whether to change capacity
Evaluating customer protability
Making capital budget decisions
Deciding whether to start selling products on
the Internet
Making changes to pricing policies
Evaluating how best to monitor operations on a daily, weekly,
or monthly basis
Calculating the impact of changing prices and costs
Developing sales incentive programs
INTRODUCTION 3
Determining the minimum number of transactions to com-
plete per day, per week, or per month
Deciding to modify the composition of a product
Expressing breakeven thinking in terms of value will naturally lead us to
consider the tangible, explicit values measured by cost and revenue. To
this we turn next.