Chapter 21 Thermal Analyses_____ __________________________________________

204

CHAPTER 21




THERMAL ANALYSES

The temperature variation induces supplementary stresses into civil
engineering structures with constrained displacements. The temperature
variation effect becomes more important for massive or long structures,
sometimes exceeding the payload effect. It is the case of hydraulic
structures, as concrete arch dams, subjected to season-depending ambient
temperatures. The concrete hydration is also a heat generation process
affecting the thermal field of massive structures after pouring.

The thermal analyses are usually applied to calculate the thermal field
distribution, as a preliminary step for structural analyses. In case of assigned
material properties that change with the temperature level, a thermal
analysis is also needed. The amount of heat lost, the thermal gradients or the
thermal flux assessments are less important in structural design, except the
case when the thermal insulation is the analysis object.

In order to perform a thermal analysis, the domain is mashed into 2D or 3D
thermal finite elements, which have a similar shape as 2D or 3D solids. In
case of thermal analysis, the primary unknowns of the problem (the nodal
degrees of freedom) are the nodal temperatures, which are scalar values
(with no oriented components). The other thermal quantities are derived
from the nodal temperatures.

The heat transfer is taken into account by means of conduction, convection
and radiation. The conduction properties of materials are defined by the
conductivity matrix K
q
. Depending on its definition, the materials may
exhibit isotropic or anisotropic properties. The convection is usually
specified as a surface load, but dedicated convection elements are also
available. The radiation heat transfer is solved by using radiation finite
elements, surface effect elements or by generating supplementary radiation
matrices.

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205

21.1 STEADY-STATE THERMAL ANALYSES

The steady-state thermal analysis is used to determine the temperature field,
heat flow rates and heat fluxes due to thermal loads that do not vary in time.
The thermal loads are applied as boundary conditions, such as specified
temperatures, convection, heat fluxes or heat flow rates. If the material
properties (thermal conductivities) are constant, the analysis is linear. If the
material properties are temperature-dependent, the analysis is nonlinear. If
the radiation effect is taken into account, the analysis also becomes
nonlinear.

The first step in performing a thermal analysis is to build the model. If the
thermal analysis is a precursory step of a stress analysis, it is recommended
to use the same mesh, only by changing the element type from structural to
thermal. Thus, the nodal points being the same, the calculated nodal
temperatures may be used directly in the stress analysis.

To apply the boundary conditions as prescribed nodal temperatures, all
nodes with similar temperature values should be selected at once. The
selection criteria are specified in chapter 26. If the prescribed temperatures
are different from node to node, they must be assigned manually.

The heat flow rate boundary conditions are concentrated nodal loads, used
in line-elements models where convection and heat fluxes can not be
specified. The convection boundary conditions are applied on exterior
element faces, as the amount of lost or gained heat from the surrounding
medium. They are available only for solid thermal elements. Similar
convection boundary conditions should be applied after a suitable element
face selection process (see chapter 26). The heat flux boundary condition is
used when the amount of heat transfer across a surface is known. It is also
interpreted as a surface load, applied on previously selected element faces.

The self generated heat due to internal chemical reactions can be
represented as a body load of selected thermal elements. The heat generation
rate has units of heat flow rate per unit volume.




Chapter 21 Thermal Analyses_____ __________________________________________


206
21.2 TRANSIENT THERMAL ANALYSES

The transient thermal analysis is used to determine the temperature field,
heat flow rates and heat fluxes due to time-varying thermal loads. The
calculated temperatures are used in structural analyses for thermal effects
evaluation. Generally, the transient analysis follows the same steps as a
steady-state analysis. The difference is due to the fact that thermal loads are
functions of time.

Unlike the steady-state analysis, the material properties that should be
assigned are the conductivity, the density and the specific heat. If they are
temperature-dependent, the analysis becomes nonlinear.

A transient analysis has always a multi-step solution phase. The loads
versus time functions should be divided into suitable load steps. For each
load step, the corresponding load and time values are assigned.

Before applying the transient loads the initial conditions should be set up.
These conditions may be the result of a steady-state analysis, or a uniform
assigned temperature in all nodal points of the model. The subsequent load
steps are usually written into a batch file, indicating the time interval, the
corresponding load value and the stepping option (ramped or stepped load).

21.3 FINITE ELEMENT EQUATIONS

The conduction and convection relationships are based on the general
energy conservation principle

q q L L v = +
|
.
|

\
|
+

T T
T
t
T
c (21.1)

where the materials density;
c the materials specific heat;
T the temperature;
t time


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207

=
z
y
x
L - the derivative operator;

=
z
y
x
v
v
v
v - the velocity vector of heat transport;

=
z
y
x
q
q
q
q - the heat flux vector;

q - the heat generation rate per unit volume.

The heat flux vector is related to the thermal gradients by the Fouriers law

T L K q
q
= (21.2)

with
(
(
(

=
zz
yy
xx
k
k
k
0 0
0 0
0 0
q
K - the conductivity matrix

By replacing equation (21.2) into (21.1) and expanding, yields

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

z
T
v
y
T
v
x
T
v
t
T
c
z y x

|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
z
T
k
z y
T
k
y x
T
k
x
zz yy xx
q (21.3)

The boundary conditions presumed to cover the element are:

Chapter 21 Thermal Analyses_____ __________________________________________


208
a. assigned temperatures acting on node-defined surfaces, T = T*;
b. assigned heat flow crossing element surface

= q
T
q (21.4)

where - the cosine orientation vector of the element face;

q* - the specified heat flow.
c. assigned convection acting over elements surface

( )
s m f
T
T T h = q (21.5)

where h
f
the film coefficient;
T
m
the temperature of the surrounding fluid;
T
s
the temperature of the element surface.

Combining equations (21.2) with (21.4) and (21.5)

= q T
T
L K
q
(21.6)
) (
q s m f
T
T T h T = L K (21.7)

Integrating equation (21.3) over the volume of the element and combining
with (21.6) and (21.7), yields:

=

+
|
.
|

\
|
+

V T T T
t
T
T c
Ve
T T
d
q
L K L L v

+

+ =
Ve e e s m f
V T T T Th Tq d d ) ( d q (21.8)

If radiation is also taken into account, the heat transfer rate between two
surfaces i and j, is

) (
j i i ij i i
T T A F Q = (21.9)

with Q
i
heat transfer rate from surface i;
Stefan-Boltzman constant

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209

i
effective emissivity
F
ij
view factor from i to j
A
i
area of surface i
T
i
, T
j
absolute temperatures at surfaces i and j


The temperature T inside the finite element, in a point located at coordinates
(x, y, z) and time t is expressed using the shape functions:

e
T
T T N = (21.10)

where N = N(x,y,z) element shape functions vector;
T
e
= T
e
(t) the nodal temperature vector

Thus, the time derivatives of equation (21.10) are:

e
T
t
T
T

=

= T N (21.11)
and
e e
T
T BT T LN L = = (21.12)

The variational equation (21.8) yields
=

e
Ve q
T
e
Ve
T
e
Ve
T
V V c V c T B K B T B Nv T NN d d d

+

+ =
Ve e e e e
T
f f m
V h h T q d d d d
*
N q T NN N N (21.13)
with
e
T and e

T constant nodal values that may be removed from the

integrals. Equation (21.13) can be rewritten as

e e e
e
e
Q T K T C = +

q
(21.14)

where C
e
element specific heat matrix;
K
qe
total element conductivity matrix;
Q
e
total element heat flow vector.

For steady-state thermal analyses, the equation (21.14) turns into

Chapter 21 Thermal Analyses_____ __________________________________________


210
e e e
Q T K =
q
(21.15)

After assembling the contribution of all elements in the mesh, by merging
the elemental conductivity matrices into the global conductivity matrix K
q
,
the global equation system is ready to receive the boundary conditions.
They are prescribed values of temperature and/or heat flow as it was shown
before. The solution of the algebraic system represents the nodal
temperature vector, as primary unknowns of the problem.


21.4 EXAMPLE OF USING THE THERMAL ANALYSIS

Finite element models are used for back-analyses of existing structures, in
order to explain some abnormal behavior attested by site measurements and
recordings. It is the case of massive hydraulic structures subjected to
simultaneous water pressure and temperature field effects, both variable in
time. Using the periodical records of reservoir level, as well as the
temperature records of air and water, the boundary condition of the problem
can be determined. The results of the numerical simulation (usually
displacements) are compared with the recordings of the monitoring system.

A numerical beck-analysis was performed for Acena arch-gravity dam in
Spain, on both 3D and 2D finite element models*. During the operation, the
records at the pendulums installed in the dam body pointed out a significant
and unexpected increase of displacements toward downstream. Some
aspects of the 2D analysis are presented below.

The finite element mesh used is illustrated in figure 21.1. It was developed
on the dam radial direction, crossing the pendulum position. For the
structural analysis, linear isoparametric structural solid elements were used,
with included incompatible modes. For the steady-state thermal analysis, the
element type was changed into thermal solids. Only elements of the dam
body were used.





* Popvici, A.; Sarghiu, R. Numerical simulation of an arch gravity dam
behavior during operation. The 9
th
ICOLD Benchmark Workshop on Numerical
Analysis of Dams, 2006

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211
In order to determine the interior temperature distribution corresponding to
various dates and operation conditions, the boundary conditions were
prescribed. The monthly average air temperature was applied on the dam
faces in contact with the atmosphere. The water temperature at the surface
of the reservoir generally follows the air temperature with some delay,
increasing with depth. At 60 m, it reaches a constant value of 4.5C, which
is also maintained below. For the dates taken into account (with water levels
of 30 and 58 m), the water temperature was considered constant and equal to
8C. They were applied on the upstream face of the dam, from the bottom to
the actual water level. The same temperature was applied on the dam-
foundation contact line.

Two sets of results were chosen, corresponding to the following conditions:

- October 1999, water level 30 m, average air temperature 3.7C,
water temperature 8C;
- February 2001, water level 58 m, average air temperature 11C,
water temperature 8C.



Fig. 21.1 Mesh of the 2D model of Acena arch-gravity dam

The results of the steady-state thermal analysis are shown in figure 21.2.
The inside temperature distribution is represented for the two different dates
with their corresponding boundary temperatures.


Chapter 21 Thermal Analyses_____ __________________________________________


212


Fig. 21.2 Temperature distribution over the dam cross section (C):
a. October 1999; b. February 2001.




Fig. 21.3 Radial displacements over the dam cross section (m):
a. October 1999; b. February 2001.
a.
b.
a. b.

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213
The nodal temperature values calculated during the thermal analysis were
used as input data for the structural analysis. The date of joints grouting was
chosen as reference temperature (10C). Out of the calculated results, the
contours of the radial displacements due to upstream water pressure and the
temperature field at dates mentioned before are shown in figure 21.3.

Even if the displacement scale is not similar for both drawings, it is obvious
that the deformed shape has a different pattern. The main reason for
achieving smaller horizontal displacements for a higher level of water
pressure is the body temperature distribution. The temperature field, with
lower values on the downstream face of the dam, induces strains in opposite
direction as the structural load.