Professional Documents
Culture Documents
= =
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
101
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Drill Collar Selection
Typical sizes of drill collars to be run in each hole section:
Drill Collar Profiles
Slick Drill Collar- Same nominal diameter over total length of joint
Spiral Drill Collar- Reduces risk of differential sticking. Reduces
weight of collar and contact area.
Square Drill Collar- In special operations to reduce deviation in
crooked formations and provide good rigidity.
102
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Buoyancy Factor Method
Drill collars have a significantly greater stiffness when
compared to drill pipe and as such can be run in
compression. Drill collars are used to provide weight for
use at the bit and at the same time keep the drill pipe in
tension.
In order to avoid buckling, weight on bit should not
exceed 85% of the buoyed weight on the collars.
l _
1
65.5
(0.85)
lenght DC
ength vertical
lenght
MW
BF
WOB DC Weight BF
DC
DC
Coso
=
=
=
BF : Buoyancy factor
MW : Mud weight, ppg
DC
lenght
: Drill collars length, ft
WOB : Desired weight on bit, lb (x1000)
Weight
DC
: Drill collar weight in air, lb/ft
o: well inclination
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
103
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Neutral Point of Bending
Buckling occurs only below the neutral point of bending,
which is defined as the point where the average of the
radial and tangential stress in the string equal the axial
stress.
The neutral point of bending occurs where the effective
hydrostatic force equals the compressive force in the
drillstring.
_
string
WOB
H
Buoyed WT
=
H: Height of neutral point, ft
WOB: Weight on bit, lb
Buoyed_WT
string
: Buoyed weight of drill string, lb/ft
If the hole is inclined, the buoyed weight must be reduced
by a factor equal to the cosine of the well inclination
104
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Weight on Bit
For vertical holes, the maximum weight on bit available
can be calculated as follows:
max
0.85
DC DC
WOB L Wt BF =
WOB
max
: Available weight on bit, lb
L
DC
: Length of drill collars, ft
WT
DC
: Air weight of drill collars, lb/ft
BF: Buoyancy Factor
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
105
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Weight on Bit
For inclined holes, the maximum weight on bit available can be
calculated as follows:
1. Calculate the available weight on bit provided by the drill collars
2. Calculate the maximum available WOB provided by the HWDP
3. Calculate the critical force to buckle the HWDP
4. Calculate the critical force to buckle the drill pipe
( ) ( ) ( )
4 4 2 2
_
max_ _
1617
HWDP HWDP HWDP HWDP
HWDP critc
hole of HWDP
OD ID BF OD ID Sin
F
D OD
u
=
( )
DC DC DC
WOB L Wt BFCos u =
( )
HWDP HWDP HWDP
WOB L Wt BFCos u =
( ) ( )
( )
4 4 2 2
_
max_ _
1617
pipe pipe pipe pipe
DP crit
hole of pipe
OD ID BF OD ID Sin
F
D OD
u
=
106
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Weight on Bit
For inclined holes, the maximum weight on bit
available can be calculated as follows:
5. If WOB
HWDP
+F
DP crit
>F
HWDP crit
Then the maximum
allowable weight on bit is given by the following:
6. If WOB
HWDP
+F
DP crit
<F
HWDP crit
Then the maximum
allowable weight on bit is given by the following:
7. The maximum WOB calculated above should be
reduced by a safety factor. Generally, a safety
factor of 85% is adequate.
max _ DC HWDP Crit
WOB WOB F = +
max _ DC HWDP DP crit
WOB WOB WOB F = + +
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
107
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Weight of BHA Required
Weight of drill collars required is estimated from the bit
specifications and formation classification.
108
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Tension
The design of the drill string for static tension loads
requires sufficient strength in the topmost joint of each
size, weight, grade and classification of drill pipe to
support the submerged weight of all the drill pipe plus
the submerged weight of the collars, stabilizers, and
bit.
This load may be calculated as follows:
( ) ( )
TEN DP DP DC DC
F L Wt L Wt BF = + (
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
109
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Tension Design Criteria
The difference between the calculated load F
TEN
and the
maximum allowable tension load represents the Margin of
Over Pull (M.O.P.)
Normally the designer will desire to determine the
maximum length of a specific size, grade, and inspection
class of drill pipe which can be used to drill a certain well.
By combining the above equations the following equation
results:
design TEN
MOP F F =
0.9
design yield
F F =
0.9
yield
DC DC
DP
DP DP
F MOP
L Wt
L
Wt BF Wt
=
110
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Burst
The drill pipe internal yield pressure can be calculated
as follows:
2
m
i
YWt
P
D
=
P
i
: burst pressure, psi
Y
m
: specified minimum yield strength, psi
Wt: pipe wall thickness, in
D: outside pipe diameter, in
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
111
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Collapse
Drill stem testing (DST) causes the most severe collapse
loading on the drill pipe.
API specifications for collapse resistance of drill pipe is
calculated assuming either transition, or plastic failure
based on the pipes D/t (diameter / wall thickness ratio).
The collapse resistance of drill pipe corrected for the
effect of tension loading may be calculated with the
following equation:
2
4 3
2
_ _
* _
avg
Z Z
R
Total Tensile load
Z
A Yield Strength
+
=
=
Effective Collapse Resistance under tension = R * Nominal plastic collapse resistance
A : Cross section area, sq. in
112
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Slip Crushing
The maximum allowable tension load must be
determined to prevent slip crushing.
1
2 2
1
2 2
H
T S S
S DK DK
S L L
(
| |
= + +
(
|
( \ .
H
S L
T
S
T T
S
=
S
H
: hoop stress, psi
S
T
: tensile stress, psi
D : outside diameter of pipe, in
K : lateral load factor on slips
L
S
: Length of slips, in
T
S
: tension from slip crushing
T
L
: tensile load in string
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
113
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Pipe Torsion
Torsion only
Drill pipe torsional yield strength when subject to pure
torsion is given by the following:
Torsion and Tension
When drill pipe is subject to both torsion and tension,
as is the case during drilling operations, the minimum
torsional yield strength under tension is given as
follows
0.096167
m
JY
Q
D
=
( )
4 4
32
J D d
t
=
Q : minimum torsional yield strength, ft-lb
J : polar moment of inertia
D: Pipe OD, in
d: Pipe ID, in
Y
m
: minimum unit yield strength, psi
2
2
2
0.096167
t m
J P
Q Y
D A
=
Q
t
: minimum torsional yield strength under tension, ft lb
P : total load in tension, lbs
A : cross-sectional area, sq. in
114
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Fatigue
The most common type of drill pipe failure is fatigue wear. It
generally occurs in dog legs where the pipe goes through
cyclic bending stresses.
These stresses occur because the outer wall of the pipe in a
dog leg is stretched and creates a greater tension load.
Fatigue damage from rotation in dog legs is a significant
problem if the angle is greater than some critical value.
The maximum permissible dogleg severity for fatigue
damage consideration can be calculate with the following
equations:
( )
432,000 tanh
b
KL
C
EDKL
o
t
=
T
K
EI
=
C : maximum permissible dogleg severity, / 100 ft
E : Youngs modulus, psi (30*10
6
psi for steel and 10.5*10
6
psi for
aluminium
D : drill pipe outer diameter, in
L : half the distance between tool joints, 180 in for Range 2 pipe, in
T : tension below the dog leg, lb
o
b
: maximum permissible bending stress, psi
I : drill pipe moment of inertia
( )
4 4
64
D d
t
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
115
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Critical Rotary Speeds
Transverse Vibration
The approximate critical rotary speeds which induce
nodal (transverse) vibration can be calculated using the
following shown below.
Axial Vibration
The approximate critical rotary speeds which induce
pendulum or spring (axial) vibration can be calculated
using the following shown below.
2 2
2
476000
_ Critical RPM D d
L
= +
258000
_ Critical RPM
L
=
L : total length of string, ft
L : total length of one pipe, ft
116
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Drill String Design Process
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
117
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Heavy Walled Drill Pipe
Same OD as standard drill pipe but reduced
inner diameter
Has an extra Tool joint.
Used between DP and DC to provide a smooth
transition between the section moduli of drill
string.
Centre wear pad acts as stabiliser increasing
overall stiffness
118
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Stabilisers
Tools placed above Bits and along BHA to control:
Dogleg severity
Hole Deviation
Differential sticking
Provides extra stiffness to the BHA .
-centralization and improved Bit performance.
Types
Rotating Stabilisers-include integral blade, sleeve and
welded blade stabilisers.
Non-Rotating Stabilisers-
Comprise of Rubber Sleeve and Mandrel.
Used to prevent reaming of hole walls during drilling
operations
Protect Drill collars from wall contact wear.
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
119
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Reamers
Used where High torque ,swelling or abrasive
formations are encountered.
To replace near bit and first string stabilisers
with a roller reamer with either 3 or 6 cutter
sets.
120
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Drilling Jars
Jars are a mandrel within a sleeve that provide upward or downward
power blows to a stuck drill string
Types
Mechanical Jars
-Preset Load causing jar to trip
-Sensitive to load and not time
-Free end of mandrel is in a hammer form striking an anvil.
Hydraulic Jars
-Hydraulic fluid to control firing of the jar.
-Sensitive to load and time.
Bumper Jars
-Free travel to assist in engaging a fish
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
121
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Drill Bits
What is a bit ?
Cutting or boring element used in drilling wells that comprises of
circulating and cutting elements
Objective
Deliver lowest cost/ft
122
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Bit Types
Rotary drilling bits usually are classified according
to their design
Drag or Fixed cutter
Natural Diamond/TSP
PDC
Impregnated
Roller Cone
Milled tooth
Insert
F
ix
e
d
c
u
t
te
r
R
o
t
a
r
y
d
ri
ll
in
g
b
it
s
R
o
l
le
r
c
o
n
e
E
a
r
l y
ro
l
l
in
g
c
u
t
te
r
E
a
rl
y
f
is
h
t
a
i
l
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
123
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Drag or Fixed cutter bits consist of fixed cutter
blades that are integral with the body of the bit
and rotate as a unit with the drillstring.
Rolling cutter bits have two or more cones
containing the cuttings elements, which rotate
about the axis of the cone as the bit is rotated
at the bottom of the hole.
Bit Types
124
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Bit Selection Considerations
Formation characteristics should be studied in detail to assess the type
of cutting structure required to successfully drill the formation.
The existence of abrasive and hard minerals such as chert or pyrite
nodules should be identified.
Gauge protection (which determines the final hole size) is particularly
critical in abrasive formations
Drilling fluid details and well bore profile
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
125
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Bit Selection Considerations
When drilling directional wells the Directional Contractor shoul d be asked
to provide an assessment of the required BHA changes.
In addition bit characteristics in terms of walk, build and drop tendencies
will need to be assessed for their impact on the well path.
When drilling soft shale sections where the major limitations on ROP is
bottom hole and cutter cleaning, the use of centre jet, extended jets or
lateral jet bits should be considered.
126
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Roller Cone Bits
Made up of (usually) three equal -sized cones
and three identical legs which are attached
together with a pin connection. Each cone is
mounted on bearings which run on a pin that
forms an integral part of the bit leg.
The three legs are welded together and form
the cylindrical section which is threaded to
make a pin connection. The pin connection
provides a means of attachment to the drill
string.
Each leg is provided with an opening for fluid
circulation. The size of this opening can be
reduced by adding nozzles of different sizes.
Nozzles are used to provide constriction in
order to obtain high jetting velocities
necessary for efficient bit and hole cleaning.
Mud pumped through the drillstring passes
through the bit pin bore and through the
nozzles.
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
127
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Roller Cone Bits
Types
Milled tooth bits: The cutting
structure is milled from the steel
making up the cone
Insert bits: The cutting structure
is a series of inserts pressed into
the cones.
Steel-tooth bits
Insert bits
Formation hardness
Soft
Hard
128
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Roller Cone Bits
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
129
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Roller Cone bits-Cutting Action
Soft Formation :
Gouging-Scrapping
Most aggressive
cutting action
Typically high ROP
Applications
Hard Formations:
Chipping-Crushing
Most durable cutting
action
Low ROP applications
130
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Design Factors
Directly influence the type of cutting action
Journal angle
Offset between cones
Cone profile angle
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
131
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Skew angle, or offset, and cone shape
cause cones to periodically stop rotating
as the bit turns. As a result, cutting
structures slide on the bottom of a hole
and scrape the formation.
Offset angles vary from 5 for soft
formations to zero in hard formations.
Bits for soft formations use longer
cutting structures with cone-offset
angles that reduce true rolling motion.
Short cutters on cones that roll more
generate crushing action in hard
formations.
Crushing Gouging and scraping
Low skew (0) High skew (5)
Direction
of rotation
Gauge
True
rolling at
all points
Gauge
Cone
contour
departs
from true
rolling
motion
Journ
al
angle
Design Factors
132
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Milled tooth bits
Milled tooth bit design depends on the geometry of the cones and the bit
body and geometry and composition of the cutting elements (teeth).
The geometry of the cones and of the bit body depend on:
Journal Angle
Cone Profile
Offset Angle
The geometry and composition of the teeth depend on:
Journal Angle
Angle of Teeth
Length of Teeth
Number of Teeth
Spacing of Teeth
Shape of Teeth
Tooth Hard facing
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
133
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Journal Angles
The bit journal is the bearing load-
carrying surface.
The journal angle is defined as
the angle formed by a line
perpendicular to the axis of the
journal and the axis of the bit
The magnitude of the journal
angle directly affects the size of
the cone; the size of the cone
decreases as the journal angle
increases.
The journal angle also determines
how much WOB the drill bit can
sustain; the larger the angle the
greater the WOB. The smaller the
journal angle the greater is the
gouging and scraping actions
produced by the three cones.
The optimum journal angles for
soft and hard roller cone bits are
33 degrees and 36 degrees,
respectively.
134
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Cone Profile
The cone profile determines the durability of the drill bit.
Cones with flatter profile are more durable but give lower
ROP, whilst a rounded profile delivers a faster ROP but is
less durable
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
135
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Cone Offset
The degree of cone offset (or skew angle) is
defined as the horizontal distance between the
axis of the bit and a vertical plane through the
axis of the journal.
A drill bit with zero offset has the centre lines of
the three cones meeting at the centre of the drill
bit. Skew angle is an angular measure of cone
offset.
A cone with zero offset has a true rolling action as
the cone moves in a circle centered at the cone
apex and bit centre.
The amount of offset is directly related to the
strength of rock being drilled.
Soft rocks require a higher offset to produce
greater scraping and gouging actions.
Hard rocks require less offset as rock breakage is
dependent on crushing and chipping actions
rather than gouging.
Cone offset increases ROP but also increases
tooth wear, especially in the gauge area, and
increases the risk of tooth breakage.
Low skew (0) High skew (5)
Direction
of rotation
Gauge
136
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Tooth angle and length
As shown, drill bits can have
slender and long teeth or short
and stubby teeth.
The long teeth are designed to
drill soft formations with low
compressive strength where the
rock is more yielding and easily
penetrated.
Soft
formation
s
Soft-to-
medium
formations
Medium-
to-hard
formation
s
Hard
formation
s
43A
53
63
73
51
53A
83
51A
61
52A
62 62A
Cemented-carbide microstructure
10
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
137
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Tooth angle and length
Penetration is achieved by applying weight on bit (WOB) which forces the
teeth into the rock by overcoming the rock compressive strength.
Rotation of the bit helps to remove the broken chips.
Harder rocks have high compressive strength and can not be easily
penetrated using typical field WOB values.
Hard rock bits therefore have much shorter (and more) teeth with a
larger bearing area., therefore the short teeth will be less likely to break
when they are subjected to drilling loadings.
The teeth apply load over a much larger area and break the rock by a
combination of crushing, creation of fractures and chipping. The teeth are
not intended to penetrate the rock, but simply to fracture it by the
application of high compressive loads.
138
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Bearings
Major Bearing Types
Roller Bearing
Typically used in larger bit sizes
Referred to as Anti-friction bearings
Friction Bearing
Typically for smaller bit sizes
Referred to as Journal Bearings
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
139
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
There are two bearing types, roller and friction (or journal).
Roller bearings may be sealed or unsealed whilst friction bearings are
always sealed.
In roller bearings, the loads applied to the cutting structure is
transmitted to the journal through a series of rollers.
There may be one, two or three of these roller races depending upon
the size of the bit.
Bearing life is affected by:
heavy reaming which reduces bearing life
directional effects which produce high side loadings
severe Drillstring and bit vibrations
Bearings
140
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Bearings
Functions:
Support Radial Loads
Support thrust or axial loads
Secure cones on legs
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
141
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Antifriction bearings
Roller bearings carry most of the loads, and ball
bearings inserted through a hole in the journal hold
cones in place. A thrust face and friction pin carry
nose loads and stabilize the bearings.
Seals keep grease inside bearings, and prevent mud
and solids from entering.
Grease reservoirs in the lugs ensure lubrication. There
is no pressure differential across the seals, and
hydrostatic pressure is transferred through a
diaphragm to equalize pressure between the bearings
and borehole.
142
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Antifriction bearings
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
143
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Friction Bearings
Bearings without antifriction rollers are durable and
handle high weights because loads are distributed over a
larger bearing area.
Floating beryllium-copper bushings dissipate heat and
reduce relative velocities between journals and cones.
Silver plating acts as a solid lubricant to further reduce
friction and wear.
Radial elastomer seals are used because they require less
compression than round seals and do not generate as
much heat.
144
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Friction Bearings
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
145
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Insert Bits
The design factors relating to cone offset, bit profile and cone profile
apply equally to insert bits.
The cutting structure of insert bit relies on using tungsten carbide
inserts which are pressed into pre-drilled holes in the cones of the bit.
The following relates to the various design features of inserts which are
designed to suit various rock types.
146
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Insert Number, Diameter, and Spacing
Soft insert bits have fewer and longer inserts to provide aggressive
penetration of the rock. Durable, hard formation bits have many, small
diameter inserts with limited protrusion.
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
147
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Insert Shape
For soft formation bits, the inserts have chisel shapes to provide
aggressive drilling action.
In soft, poorly consolidated formations the chisel shape is more efficient
at penetrating the formation than a more rounded conical shape.
148
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
IADC Bit Classification for Roller Cone
Bits
Three code system for roller cone bits
The first code or digit defines the series classification relating to the
cutting structure. The first code carries the numbers 1 to 8.
For milled tooth bits, the first code carries the numbers 1 to 3, which
describes soft, medium and hard (and semi-abrasive or abrasive)
rocks respectively. This number actually signifies the compressive
strength of rock.
For insert bits, the first code carries the numbers 4-8.
The second code relates to the formation hardness subdivision within
each group and carries the numbers I to 4. These numbers signify
formation hardness, from softest to hardest within each series. The
second code is a subdivision of the first code (1 to 8)
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
149
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
IADC Bit Classification for Roller Cone
Bits
The third code defines the mechanical features of the bit such as
non-sealed or sealed bearing. Currently there are seven
subdivisions within the third code:
1. Non-sealed roller bearing
2. Roller bearing air cooled
3. Sealed roller bearing
4. Sealed roller bearing with gauge protection
5. Sealed friction bearing
6. Sealed friction bearing with gauge protection
7. Special features - category now obsolete.
As an example, a code of 1-2-1 indicates:
Code 1: long, slim and widely spaced milled tooth bit
Code 2: medium soft formations (if this number was 4, then it
is hard soft formation)
Code 3: non-sealed bearings
150
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
IADC Bit Classification
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
151
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Fixed Cutter Bits
Styles
PDC
Natural Diamonds
Impregnated
Terminology
PDC-Polycrystalline Diamond Compact
TSP-Thermally Stable Polycrystalline
152
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Fixed Cutter Bits
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
153
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Polycrystalline Diamond Compact (PDC)
Bits
A polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bit employs no moving parts (i.e. there
are no bearings) and is designed to break the rock in shear and not in
compression as is done with roller cone bits.
Rock breakage by shear requires significantly less energy than in compression,
hence less weight on bit can be used resulting in less tear and wear on the rig and
drillstring.
A PDC bit employs a large number of cutting elements, each called a PDC cutter.
The PDC cutter is made by bonding a layer of polycrystalline man-made diamond
to a cemented tungsten carbide substrate in a high pressure, high temperature
process.
The diamond layer is composed of many tiny diamonds which are grown together
at random orientation for maximum strength and wear resistance
154
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
PDC Terminology
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
155
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Bit Design Elements
The PDC design is affected by:
1. Body design: can either be steel-bodied or tungsten carbide (matrix)
2. Cutters Geometry
Cutters
Number of Cutters and spacing of cutters
Size of Cutters
Back Rake
Side Rake
3. Geometry of Bit
Number of Blades
Blade Depth
4. Diamond table
Composition
Shape
156
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
PDC Bits Applications
PDC bits are typically useful for drilling long, soft to medium shale
sequences which have a low abrasivity. In such formations they typically
exhibit high ROP and extended life enabling entire sections to be drilled on
one run.
PDC bits are not usually appropriate for highly abrasive well cemented
sand sequences. When drilling tight siliceous formations the incidence of
PDC chipping and breaking is dramatically increased resulting in less than
expected ROP and bit life.
When drilling heterogeneous formations containing alternating shales and
or shale limestone sequences the use of hybrid PDC bits is encouraged.
This bit incorporates the use of back-up diamond studs behind the PDC
cutter.
When drilling mobile, plastic formations such as salt sections the use of
eccentric PDC bits should be considered. These bits have proved
successful in preventing incidence of stuck pipe
The use of bladed hybrid PDC bits is recommended for drilling hard
formations. The deep watercourse on these bits enable optimum fl uid flow
across the cutter to efficiently reduce the friction temperatures induced
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
157
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Diamond and TSP Bits
Diamond is the hardest mineral. Diamond also posses the highest
thermal conductivity of any other mineral allowing it to dissipate
heat very quickly. This is a desirable property from a cutting element
to prevent it from burning or thermal fracture due to overheating.
Diamond and TSP (thermally stable PDC) bits are used for drilling
hard and abrasive formations and particularly useful in turbine
drilling applications.
ROP's achieved with diamond bits are generally low due to the
nature of the formations that they are designed to drill. Due to their
fixed cutter design, greater endurance is achieved with diamond bits
as compared with similar formation rated insert bits.
158
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Diamond and TSP Bits
The cutting elements of a diamond bit consists of a large number of
small-sized diamonds geometrically distributed across a tungsten
carbide body.
The bit does not employ moving parts and is especially suited to
drilling hard and abrasive formations (such as quartzite) and when
longer bit runs are required to reduce trip times.
Diamond bits are manufactured as either drilling or coring bits.
Diamond bits comprise: natural diamond bits, TSP bits and
impregnated bits. They share several features:
similar profiles
common drilling mechanism grinding
hydraulics dominated by flow through waterways
application in hard and very hard formations, with corresponding
poor performance in soft rocks.
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
159
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Diamond Bit Terminology
160
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Impregnated Bits
Diamond-impregnated bits are specialized grinding wheels.
Dura-diamond technology provides options to handle any type of hard
formation. Special mixtures of diamonds and tungsten carbide were
developed to increase penetration rates and ensure longer bit life.
Matching matrix and diamond wear balances bit life and penetration
rate. If the matrix is too soft, diamonds are released before they
wear out, which shortens bit run time. If the matrix is too hard,
diamonds are not properly exposed and penetration rates are
reduced.
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
161
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Impregnated Bit Terminology
162
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Impregnated Bits
Three profiles are available (middle).
The most aggressive profile is a deep double cone (blue) for drilling
softer interbedded formations and horizontal sections
A rounded, shallow double cone (red) is used in intermediate- strength
formations.
A flatter rounded profile (green) is a general-purpose design for
harder, abrasive formations and angle-building sections of directional
wells.
Development Phase
September October 2005
abalt solutions limited - 2005
INTRODUCTION TO HYDROCARBON EXPLOITATION
163
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Drilling Mechanics
How do Bits drill ?
Roller Cone: Crushing
PDC: Shearing
Natural Diamond & Impregnated: Grinding
164
Abalt Solutions
D
r
i
l
l
i
n
g
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
s
2005 Abalt Solutions Limited. All rights reserved
Drilling Mechanics