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Integrals & Series

Ù0 Sin HxL â x
Π n

Suppose we wanted to find the area under the graph of Sinn HxL for any value of n. Well, you would start by setting up the above
integral. (I preformed a very similar calculation with the function Log@xDn , and arrived at a very similar result.) The problem with
this integral is that it's tough to solve for all values of n, so instead I looked only at odd values, for n = 2 k + 1.

à Sin @xD â x = à sinHxL Sin2 k @xD â x = à sinHxL I1 - Cos2 @xDM â x


Π Π Π
2 k+1 k

0 0 0

And, making the substitution u = Cos@xD , d u = -Sin@xD d x, with uH0L = 1, uHΠL = 0, we obtain

2 à I1 - u2 M â u
1
k

Which, using the binomial formula and evaluating the integral (it's a simple polynomial), can be expanded and nested into the
summation:

H-1Li K O
k


k i

i=0
2i+1

Which is very nice. Now, there is something useful we can do with this formula: we know that as n ® ¥, the integral should go to
zero. That's a result of the fact that the sine function has the range H0, 1L on the interval H0, ΠL, and raising a number between zero
and one to a large power makes it go to zero; thus, as n gets large most of the points on the graph will be very close to zero.
Below are a few graphs to illustrate this:

Out[22]=
2 Integrals - Series.nb

1.0

0.8

0.6

Out[22]= : ,
0.4

0.2

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

1.0

0.8

0.6

,
0.4

0.2

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

,
Integrals - Series.nb 3

1.0

0.8

0.6

,
0.4

0.2

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

,
4 Integrals - Series.nb

1.0

0.8

0.6

,
0.4

0.2

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

1.0

0.8

0.6

,
0.4

0.2

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

1.0

0.8

0.6

>
0.4

0.2

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

So, we have the final result that

H-1Li K O
k

Lim 2 â
k i
=0
k®¥
i=0
2i+1

The sum is actually a cool one. Below are the first few summations for small k and their numerical values. The series converges
really slowly because, as you can see from the graph, Sin2 k+1 @xD still keeps a not insignificant area as k gets large. In the second
table, notice that the numerators are the k th row of Pascals Triangle while the denominators are simply increasing odd numbers.
(With an alternator stuck in there.)
Integrals - Series.nb 5

The sum is actually a cool one. Below are the first few summations for small k and their numerical values. The series converges
really slowly because, as you can see from the graph, Sin2 k+1 @xD still keeps a not insignificant area as k gets large. In the second
table, notice that the numerators are the k th row of Pascals Triangle while the denominators are simply increasing odd numbers.
(With an alternator stuck in there.)

:82, 2.0000<, : , 1.3333>, :


4 16
Out[36]= , 1.0667>,
3 15

: , 0.91429>, : , 0.81270>, : , 0.73882>, :


32 256 512 2048
, 0.68198>>
35 315 693 3003

:2 H1L, 2 1 -
1 2 1 3 3 1 4 6 4 1
, 2 1- + , 2 1- + - , 2 1- + - + ,
3 3 5 3 5 7 3 5 7 9
5 10 10 5 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
2 1- + - + - , 2 1- + - + - + ...>
3 5 7 9 11 3 5 7 9 11 13

Ù-¥ x ã â x
0 n x

This one is a little quicker and clearner, though it still relies on n being an integer. After doing the calculation I noticed that this
integral is quite similar (almost identical) to the one that defines the gamma function; I wonder if the calculation I end up with is
at all useful, or if it has already been done. (It has probably already been done.)

We proceed with an integration by parts; multiple integration by parts. But the pattern appears quickly.

à xn ã x â x = Bxn ã x - à n xn-1 ã x â xF = Bxn ã x - n xn-1 ã x + à nHn - 1L xn-2 ã x â xF


0 0 0

-¥ -¥ -¥

And you can now probably see the pattern.

H-1Li n ! xn-i
0

Aã Ix - n x - ... + H-1L = Bã â F
n
0

Hn - iL !
x n n-1 n-2 n x
+ nHn - 1L x n !ME-¥
i=0 -¥

And, noticing that for x = -¥ all the terms go to zero, and for x = 0 all the terms are zero except where i = n, we have the final
value of the integral: H-1Ln n !

The value of this integral is alternating because if n is even, then xn ® ¥ as x ® -¥ , whereas if n is odd, xn ® -¥ as x ® -¥.
Below are a few graphs for increasing integral values of n.

Out[85]=
6 Integrals - Series.nb

-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2


-0.05

-0.10

:
-0.15
Out[85]= ,
-0.20

-0.25

-0.30

-0.35

0.5

0.4

0.3
,
0.2

0.1

-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2

-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6
,
-0.8

-1.0

-1.2

,
Integrals - Series.nb 7

,
2

-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2

-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2

-5

-10 ,

-15

-20

100

80

>
60

40

20

-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2

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