Nang Nuan oil eld, B6/27, Gulf of Thailand: karst reservoirs of

meteoric or deep-burial origin?

Alan P. Heward
1
, Supamittra Chuenbunchom
2
, Gerard Makel
2,3
, David Marsland
2
and
Laurent Spring
2,3
1
Alan Heward & Assocs, Wallingford OX10 0SD, UK
Present address: Lasmo Plc, 101 Bishopsgate, London EC2M 3XH, UK (email: alan.heward@lasmo.com)
2
Thai Shell Exploration and Production Co. Ltd, Bangkok, Thailand
3
Present address: Petroleum Development Oman LLC, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman
ABSTRACT: Karst reservoirs in the Chumphon Basin of the Gulf of Thailand have
produced oil at well rates exceeding 10 000 BBL/d. Meteorically karstied buried
hills were recognized as a potential exploration play. The Nang Nuan discovery well
appeared to conrm such a play, and the concept prevailed despite the accumulation
of contrary and unusual data. By the time a subsequent well had produced nearly
410
6
BBL oil, there was a desire to better understand the prospectivity of the
concession. The accumulated data indicate that the highs are probably syn-rift horsts
and inversion features. Karst reservoirs occur in Ratburi carbonates, and Mesozoic
and Tertiary clastics, apparently unrelated to subaerial exposure. The karstication
appears to be primarily of deep-burial origin, as indicated by the nature of the karst,
substantial pore volumes that are dicult to account for, and temperature and ow
anomalies consistent with active geothermal circulation. There are granites and hot
springs in the vicinity, and abundant CO
2
in this and neighbouring basins. Such
deep-burial karst reservoirs have dierent implications for reserves estimation,
prospect ranking and well completions.
KEYWORDS: buried hill, karst, porosity, Ratburi, thermal anomaly
INTRODUCTION
This study of the geology of Pre-Tertiary penetrations in the
Chumphon Basin was undertaken to try to understand the
favourable, but unusual, production performance of the Nang
Nuan-B01 well. As we dug into the records of other wells in the
basin, further conicting and unusual data emerged. This case
study is, in our opinion, an example of a good exploration play
analogue being retained too long as anomalous data began to
accumulate. It is also a typical example of how integrating data
from dierent disciplines can result in a more robust geological
interpretation.
The Chumphon Basin is located at the western side of
Gulf of Thailand (Fig. 1). The basin is one of a series of
Tertiary half-graben whose origins can be linked to a regional
transtensional regime induced by the Himalayan orogeny
(Tapponier et al. 1986; Polachan et al. 1991; Bustin &
Chonchawalit 1995). Onshore geology, well penetrations and
seismic data indicate a quite complex Mesozoic history. The
deepest parts of the Chumphon Basin lie in the west, close to
the bounding Klong Marui fault zone. The bulk of the basin ll
consists of Oligo-Miocene lacustrine and oodplain sediments.
Thai Shell was awarded the B6/27 concession in 1985, seeking
hydrocarbons within folded and faulted Tertiary clastics, and in
Pre-Tertiary karstied carbonates. Only the latter play has been
successful, in a modest way, producing to date 0.510
6
BBL
30API oil from Nang Nuan-A02, and 4.310
6
BBL 42API
oil from Nang Nuan-B01 (see Appendix).
The buried hill exploration concept was based on prominent
Pre-Tertiary highs evident on early seismic, experience of a
similar play from China, and karst towers of Permian Ratburi
carbonates, which are common features of Thai scenery (Figs 2
& 3). Fracturing, seen in karstied Ratburi outcrops adjacent to
the Chumphon Basin, was thought likely to add to reservoir
quality.
The Ratburi carbonates are 200300 m thick in the peninsu-
lar Thailand and Chumphon Basin area. They are platform
carbonates in which depositional facies become more restricted
upwards, and dolomitization becomes increasingly common
(Baird & Bosence 1993). The carbonates were extensively
stabilized and karstied during the Late Permian to Early
Triassic, and further cemented, dolomitized and silicied during
Mesozoic burial. Remaining matrix porosity is limited (<5%).
Uplift since the Late Cretaceous has allowed prolonged
weathering and erosion, and the formation of tropical tower
karst. These towers are hundreds of metres to a few kilometres
in size and usually elongate in the prevailing fault direction
(Fig. 3). These are typical landforms of SE Asia and China.
Caves occur at oodplain or sea-level, and some connect via
vadose pipes to dolinas on the irregular tops of the towers.
Floodplain and sea-level caves, which we have observed in
central and peninsular Thailand, are typically lenticular, a few
Presented at GEOTHAI97, Bangkok, August 1997; 6th Archie
Conference, Kerrville, Texas, February 1998; and Modern and
Ancient Analogues: Uses and Abuses in the Subsurface, Aberdeen,
September 1998.
Petroleum Geoscience, Vol. 6 2000, pp. 1527 1354-0793/00/$15.00 2000 EAGE/Geological Society, London
metres high, tens of metres wide, and often extend from one
side of a tower to the other (Fig. 4). There may be one or two
cave levels due to uplift or subsidence, but we have not
observed pervasive multilevel developments occurring through-
out a tower (cf. Fei Qi & Wang Xie-Pei 1984; Ford & Williams
1989). Speleothems and some degree of sediment ll are
normally evident. Estimates of cave percentage versus the total
mass of a Ratburi tower, are less than 2% of the volume.
NANG NUAN-A01 (NNN-1)
The rst of Thai Shells wells in the basin, drilled in 1987, tested
a prominent Pre-Tertiary high (Fig. 1). The well suered more
than 180 000 BBL of uid losses into a highly permeable zone.
There are wellsite descriptions of bit drops in this interval, but
drill speed and caliper logs, and the recovery of sidewall
samples, suggest a highly porous formation rather than large
open cavities (Fig. 5). From sidewall samples and the logs, the
Fig. 1. Location map and cross-sections of the Chumphon Basin at the west of the Gulf of Thailand. NNN=Nang Nuan, SLA-1=Salika-1,
KTA-1=Katiya-1. Ko Samui, Ko Phangan and Ko Tao are oshore islands north east of Surat Thani, and Khao Muang lies close to the one
of the hot spring locations marked south of Chumphon.
16 A. P. Heward et al.
reservoir was interpreted to be a karstied breccia overlying
the Ratburi, analogous to an example cored in the onshore
Phitsanulok Basin (Legendre et al. 1988). Porosity and resistivity
logs were dicult to evaluate, and only after oil stained sidewall
samples were recovered was the well tested, owing dry 30API
oil. Permeabilities estimated from well test are 10002000 mD,
with a dual or layered permeability character. A possible
oilwater contact was interpreted in the well at 3045 m ah
(3016 m ss), towards the base of the porous interval. Though
not highlighted at the time, temperatures of 130140C were
logged over the upper part of the porous interval, 2030C
higher than adjacent formation temperatures (Fig. 5).
In view of Shells previous experience of karst reservoirs
from the Amposta and Tarraco elds, oshore Spain (Seeman
et al. 1990), the Nang Nuan discovery was developed initially
using a single-well early production system (see Appendix).
This was to obtain production information and minimize
nancial risk. Further wells and facilities were planned to be
added once favourable long-term performance had been estab-
lished. The Nang Nuan-A01 well could not be used for
production for mechanical reasons, and a replacement devel-
opment well, Nang Nuan-A02, was drilled to a location some
43 m east at reservoir level.
NANG NUAN-A02
Coring of the reservoir interval began as soon as a drilling break
and losses occurred. Three 9 m cores were cut, with recoveries
ranging from 87% in the more consolidated parts to 40% in the
most porous. The cores consist of bedded conglomerates with
two oil-bearing intervals, an upper one a few metres thick and
a lower one at least ten metres thick (Figs 6 & 7). There was
much controversy as to whether these deposits were a residual
breccia resting on karstied Raturi, as per the play concept, or
waterlaid alluvial fan conglomerates. They have, however, the
sedimentary characteristics of (syn-rift) alluvial fan conglomer-
ates, and recently have yielded PalaeoceneEarly Oligocene
palynomorphs. Clasts are sub-angular to sub-rounded, and
Fig. 2. Prominent irregular Pre-Tertiary
relief apparent on seismic sections from
the Chumphon Basin. This migrated
section is from the Nang Nuan area.
The resemblance between the
Pre-Tertiary morphology and modern
tower karstied Ratburi scenery is
remarkable (cf. Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Tropical tower karst southeast
of Phitsanulok, central Thailand. The
Permian Ratburi platform carbonates
are thickly bedded, with highly irregular
tops to the towers and widespread
vertical uting (karren). The major
development of caves occurs at
oodplain level.
Karst reservoirs, Gulf of Thailand 17
comprise about 70% Ratburi carbonates and 30% ?Mesozoic
sandstones, in a calcareous sandstone matrix. The two porous
and oil-stained karstied zones occur leached within the con-
glomerates. Controversy again surrounded the origin of the
karstication, Shell Research geologists favouring calcretization
and mixing zone diagenesis of alluvial fan conglomerates, and
Fig. 4. Solutionally enlarged bedding
planes and a typical oodplain
cave/temple entrance at Wat Choeng
Pha Pa Rerai, southeast of Phitsanulok.
There are no obvious abandoned higher
oodplain notches and caves aecting
the Ratburi towers in this area. There
may be further cavernous porosity
below oodplain level, but this is likely
to be sediment lled.
Fig. 5. Composite log display for well
Nang Nuan-A01 (also NNN-1). The
Early Tertiary conglomerates were
originally interpreted to be a karstied
breccia overlying the Ratburi, the
neighbouring Nang Nuan-A02 core
revealed their character (GR=gamma
ray, SWS=sidewall sample depths,
DSL=drill speed log in minutes per
metre, calf=caliper, displayed mirrored
to depict borehole diameter in inches,
FDC/CNL=density and neutron
porosity logs, LL9D and LL9S=deep
and shallow resistivity logs, DST=drill
stem test, 150 refers to a seismic
marker). No open-hole logs were
recorded below 3035 m ah. The bold
dashed line in the left-hand track is a
portion of a temperature log, run as
part of the cased-hole logging suite, and
shows a temperature anomaly opposite
the main oil productive interval. DSTs
1 and 2 produced small volumes of
fresh formation water and sea water,
and DST 3, 3400 BBL/d of 30API oil.
The density of the formation water is
unexpectedly light at 964 kg m
3
,
corresponding to a gradient of 0.418 psi
ft
1
.
18 A. P. Heward et al.
Fig. 6. Early Tertiary conglomerates, Nang Nuan-A02, with part of the upper oil-stained karstied zone at the top (core segments c. 1 m long
each). Matrix and some clasts appear to have been leached within the karstied zone and remaining clasts fractured by compaction. The
tomographic scan at 2998.7 m of a whole core sample shows the leached rock to contain considerable cm-scale pore space (black). The 40
bedding dip, evident to the right of the core photo, is a structural one.
Fig. 7. Lower part of the cored Early Tertiary conglomerates, Nang Nuan-A02 (core segments c. 1 m long each). Note the progressive alteration
and increase in oil staining downwards towards the main karstied interval. White patches within the leached interval are vugs lled with
anhydrite. Tomographic scans at 3016.9 and 3017.82 m of whole core samples show a vuggy porosity (black) on a cm-scale, the lower scan being
of core slightly deeper than that illustrated in the photo to the left. Whole core porosity measurements of leached material range from 9.916.8%.
Karst reservoirs, Gulf of Thailand 19
Thai Shell sta, meteoric diagenesis of a residual breccia and the
underlying Ratburi carbonates. Neither of those origins appears
wholly in keeping with the nature of the leaching and the
diagenetic mineral assemblage present.
The karstication appears to be by aggressive dissolution of
clasts and matrix, with oil staining, pyritization and colour
bleaching diminishing away from the leached intervals (Figs 6 &
7). Diagenetic minerals within the porous zones include an
unusual assemblage of anhydrite, pyrite, chalcedony, quartz
and a kandite mineral, possibly dickite. Interpretations of
the diagenetic sequence were inuenced by the supposed
depositional origin, i.e. anhydrite was considered to be an early
formed calcrete/playa mineral. Fluid inclusion and isotope
analyses of the quartz and kandite cements (O and H) indicate
precipitation at around current burial depths and temperatures
(135C), from low salinity uids similar to the present forma-
tion water. Hydrocarbon inclusions are also present within the
quartz cements. The low salinity of the diagenetic uids and
present formation waters was attributed to meteoric recharge
accompanying karstication.
Nang Nuan-A02 produced oil at rates of 20006000 BBL/d
for three months prior to water breakthrough. Following
breakthrough the well produced at uneconomic rates of
1300 BBL oil/d irrespective of gross otake. This has variously
been interpreted as a function of matrix imbibition, or that the
thinner upper leached interval continued to produce dry oil
after water breakthough in the thicker lower one. The 30API
oil had a gasoil ratio of 80 SCF BBL
1
, of which 30% of the
gas was carbon dioxide. Hydrogen sulphide was present at
levels up to 140 ppm. There were minor equipment problems
during production due to the oil being hotter than expected
(142C reservoir temperature). Once water broke through,
carbonate scale formed rapidly in surface pumps and meters,
demonstrating a uid saturated with carbonate at the conditions
within these facilities. Reservoir pressures declined only slightly
during the period of production, with indications of substantial
aquifer support. Material balance calculations suggest con-
nected pore volumes of hundreds of millions of barrels
(200120010
6
reservoir BBL). For various potential geo-
graphical extents (1030 km
2
) and thicknesses of reservoir
rock, this could correspond to porosities of 323%. Such
porosities are in line with those measured on whole core
samples (9.916.8%), and probably the most porous reservoir
was not recovered during coring.
Fig. 8. Penetration chart for
Pre-Tertiary wells in the Chumphon
Basin showing the location of eective
porous intervals in relation to the Base
Tertiary unconformity. Karstication
aects various carbonate and clastic
formations from 43 m above, to 420 m
below, the unconformity. Interestingly
Triassic marls and limestones have not
been karstied in any of the
penetrations to date. Total losses of
drilling uids (large arrows) are
invariably associated with proximity to a
major porous interval. The locations of
temperature anomalies are also
indicated.
20 A. P. Heward et al.
SALIKA-1 (SLA-1), KATIYA-1 (KTA-1) AND
NANG NUAN-A03
Three other wells were drilled on Pre-Tertiary highs in the
period 19871991, Salika-1, Katiya-1 and Nang Nuan-A03
(Fig. 1). Salika-1 penetrated a thick sequence of Triassic marls
and limestones overlying Ratburi carbonates. Losses of drilling
uids began a few metres into the Ratburi and total losses
occurred in a porous vuggy zone 130 m below top Ratburi and
420 m below the Base Tertiary unconformity (Figs 8 & 9).
Caliper and dipmeter data indicate that the borehole is washed
out on a metre-scale, and that the washouts/vugs are approxi-
mately stratiform (i.e. parallel bedding). The Ratburi interval
was tested and owed 3900 BBL/d sea and formation water.
Spot cores of Ratburi carbonates showed matrix porosities of
less than 4.5% and permeabilities of less than 11 mD. The
partial losses near the top of the Ratburi may indicate a less
well-developed leached interval is present, or that limited
fracture permeability occurs.
Katiya-1 encountered thick calcareous, uvial sandstones, of
probable Mesozoic age, overlying Triassic marls and limestones
(Fig. 8). The well reached total depth in Carboniferous quartz-
ites, with Ratburi carbonates apparently absent. Drilling losses
occurred within the Mesozoic sandstones at the top of a
brecciated decalcied sandstone, and total losses occurred a
little deeper. A series of cavities are present within what appear
to have been calcareous sandstones, or interbedded carbonates,
carbonate-rich conglomerates or evaporites. These porous
intervals were again water bearing, and the main interval owed
hot water during logging (20C hotter than the surrounding
formations). Dipmeter data from this well indicate that these
porous intervals are again sponge-like and stratiform. A series
of short cores of the Mesozoic sandstones yielded porosities of
515% and permeabilities of less than 3 mD. Curious vugs
present in a core of the brecciated decalcied sandstones from
15 m above the main porous interval, are similar to ones that
occur occasionally in sandstone clasts in the Nang Nuan-A02
core. These vugs are irregular, sinuous, cm-long and mm-high,
and the Katiya ones examined in thin section, lack any later
cement ll.
Nang Nuan-A03 was drilled as an appraisal well to a
downhole location 270 m east and up-dip from watered-out
producer Nang Nuan-A02. It was targeted using 1990,
state-of-the-art, 3D seismic amplitude techniques, including
calibration from the Amposta Field. Even though the
most porous formation appeared to lie to the west of Nang
Nuan-A02, the well was located in what appeared to be
favourable seismic amplitudes. The well came in deep to
prognosis and failed to encounter leached Early Tertiary
conglomerates. It penetrated tight Ratburi carbonates and has
the unfortunate distinction of being the only Pre-Tertiary
penetration in the Chumphon Basin not to have encountered
eective porosity or suered losses of drilling uids (Fig. 8).
A red silty interval and underlying carbonate breccia some
40 m beneath the Base Tertiary unconformity may indicate
sediment-lled karst of undetermined age.
Following the disappointments of Nang Nuan-A appraisal
and production performance, and the results of other Pre-
Tertiary exploration wells, there was considerable pessimism as
to the remaining hydrocarbon potential of the Chumphon
Basin. Particularly given the typical size of the Pre-Tertiary
highs still to be drilled and the range of karst porosities applied
in evaluating the volumes they might contain (0.52.5%, Weber
& Bakker 1981; <5%, Palmer 1995). One further commitment
well remained to be drilled, for which the Nang Nuan-B high
was chosen, with limited expectations of success (Fig. 1).
NANG NUAN-B01
Nang Nuan-B lies 6 km north of the Nang Nuan-A accumula-
tion (Fig. 1). The Nang Nuan-B01 well encountered losses
shortly after penetrating Ratburi carbonates, and during the
next three weeks of drilling and testing, lost 350 000 BBL of
drilling uids and sea water. The potential of the formation is
evident in that these losses of c. 30 000 BBL/d were incurred
under oating mud-cap conditions (i.e. only a small uid head
was being maintained in the well annulus). Salinity measure-
ments indicate that none of the uids lost were ever noticeably
produced back. The well penetrated ve or more leached
porous zones, described as bit drops from the wellsite, though
detailed examination of drill speed and caliper logs again
indicates variably porous and washed-out formation on a
metre-scale (Fig. 10). Unfortunately there is no indication as to
whether the porous intervals are stratiform, as borehole image
logs are badly aected by washouts and by oil in the wellbore.
The possible level of any original oilwater contact is also very
uncertain. After drilling, a wellbore oilwater contact was
established at 3208 m ah (3181 m ss), corresponding to the
bottom of a leached interval, but still above the spillpoint of the
structure at around 3286 m ss. Uncertainty in initial oil and
Fig. 9. SHDT log (Stratigraphic High-resolution Dipmeter Tool)
for Salika-1, showing caliper (heavier dashed lines), dipmeter
tadpole and microresistivity traces. Total losses began at 2395 m
ah and borehole washouts occur in the interval 23952404 m ah.
Note the decimetre- to metre-scale dimensions of the borehole
washouts/vugs. These features appear generally stratiform and
parallel the dip of the Ratburi at around 3050 to the northeast.
An interpretation of the sponge-like form of the vugs is shaded,
based on the varying microresistivity character around the hole.
Other interpretations are possible. The paired microresistivity
traces are from electrodes about 2 cm apart on 4 pads arranged
90 to each other around the wellbore. The SHDT was a
forerunner of the multi-electrode borehole imaging tools.
Karst reservoirs, Gulf of Thailand 21
water pressures results in possible oilwater contacts deter-
mined from uid gradients being up to several hundred metres
deeper than the spillpoint.
The well was completed with a pre-perforated, non-
cemented liner, in an irregularly washed-out hole. On
production test it owed 42API oil, with a gasoil ratio of
200 SCF BBL
1
. Twenty-ve percent of the gas was carbon
dioxide, and hydrogen sulphide was detected in concentrations
up to 800 ppm. Pressure surveys acquired during the test, and
subsequently, are anomalous in showing increasing owing
tubing head pressures during owing periods, and decreasing
ones during shut-in periods. The opposite of what one would
normally expect. A production log (PLT) was also interpreted
to show an unusual reservoir situation at virgin reservoir
conditions. When the well was owing, almost all the inow
appeared to come from the uppermost porous zones, and when
the well was shut in, cross-ow was occurring between the
porous zones in the well (Fig. 11). Temperature anomalies
(+40C) were present opposite the most productive zone and
at the well total depth (TD). The reservoir was described as
highly unconventional, but unfortunately the PLT interpret-
ation was led with no proposal to verify its observations or
comment as to its possible implications. Estimates of reservoir
productivity (permeability thickness) from well test data are
complicated by the diculty of interpreting pressure build-ups
in what appears to be a continuously cross-owing well, in
combination with the problem of determining the thickness of
the productive intervals. Permeability estimates are from a few
tens of millidarcies to a few darcies only. The prevailing
analogue concept was still one of meteoric tower karstied
Ratburi, with oodplain/sea-level caves providing the reservoir
volumes. It was anticipated that Nang Nuan-B01 would water
out in a relatively limited time as with Nang Nuan-A02.
The well was shut-in for a year before a rented early
production system could be organized (see Appendix). During
that time, and subsequently when the storage/shuttle tanker
was unloading, it appears that the upper hot zone had cross-
owed many thousands of barrels of oil into the lower,
relatively cooler, zones. When producing, the well owed oil at
rates of up to 10 000 BBL/d for several years. By the time it
had produced around 410
6
BBL oil and alone was making a
signicant contribution to Thai Shells equity production, there
was renewed interest in Nang Nuan, undrilled prospects within
the concession and quite what these reservoirs were really like.
Just as study work began in earnest, water breakthrough
occurred in January 1997. There were no facilities for handling
wet production and sales volumes had to have a water content
of less than 2%. This period of declining cyclic production
from the well, before it became uneconomic, allowed the
acquisition of much new data. More PLT data were acquired
which repeated earlier anomalous ow patterns. Although the
temperature dierences through the reservoir were by this time
a few degrees only, the overall ngerprint was the same. There
were problems during the main production period of the well
due to the oil being hotter than anticipated, and the somewhat
piecemeal approach to facilities that had been adopted in
Fig. 10. Composite log display for well
Nang Nuan-B01 (GR=gamma ray,
DSL=drill speed log in minutes per
metre, cal =caliper, displayed mirrored
to depict borehole diameter in inches,
RHOB/NPHI=density and neutron
porosity logs, LL9D and LL9S=deep
and shallow resistivity logs, DST=drill
stem test, 150 refers to a seismic
marker). No coring or sidewall sampling
(SWS) was attempted.
22 A. P. Heward et al.
expectation of a short lifetime. Anomalous water gradients
measured in the well of 0.41 psi ft
1
(i.e. lighter than fresh
water) went unappreciated, as they had in Nang Nuan-A01.
Only after the water was sampled downhole was it found to be
almost saturated with gas, having a gaswater ratio of 23 SCF
BBL
1
(76% CO
2
and 22% CH
4
). The pressure decline
accompanying production was limited (100400 psi) and
material balance calculations indicate connected pore
volumes of hundreds of millions to billions of barrels (700
200010
6
BBL). Such volumes are impossible to accommo-
date within the structure applying conventional karst porosities,
and there is no other known aquifer. Underlying Carboniferous
quartzites are tight, as are adjacent Mesozoic or Tertiary strata
at such depths. Earth-tide eects evident on recent pressure
build-ups using quartz gauges, also indicate substantial
connected pore volumes.
METEORIC TROPICAL TOWER KARST?
These reservoirs were interpreted as meteorically karstied
buried hills, where typical karst porosity values led to a
pessimistic view of prospectivity of the concession. But increas-
ingly with time, data did not t a meteorically karst analogue
(Fig. 12). The karstication occurs in three dierent formations,
two of them essentially clastic! (Ratburi carbonates, ?Mesozoic
calcareous sandstones and syn-rift Early Tertiary con-
glomerates). Karstication does not appear to relate to Late
Cretaceous and Early Tertiary weathering and erosion. Rather,
porous zones occur from immediately above or below the base
Tertiary unconformity, to at least 420 m deeper, in a basin
where the buried hills typically have a relief of less than 250 m
(Fig. 8). In the cored karst zones of Nang Nuan-A02 and the
brecciated decalcied sandstone of Katiya-1, there is no evi-
dence of speleothems, terra rosa, or siliciclastic cave sediments.
Rather the cores from Nang Nuan-A02 show leaching and
pyritization diminishing away from the karst zones, and a
mineral assemblage which indicates at least quartz and kandite
cements formed under deep-burial conditions. Carbon dioxide
is present dissolved in the oil and the formation waters.
Hydrogen sulphide also occurs in low concentrations in the oil.
Fig. 11. Caliper logs indicating
borehole shape, and production logging
tool measurements and interpretations
from the production test of August
1992. When the well is owing the bulk
of the uids originate from the top
20 m of the Ratburi (75 and 25%),
when the well is shut in, cross-ow
occurs between washed out/porous
layers. Borehole-image logs run in this
well (FMS and FMI) also indicate oil
cross-owing down the well from about
3123 m to 3200 m ah. PLT logs run in
1997 show a similar 75:25%
contribution to ow when only oil is
being produced at the start of a cycle,
and a 55:45% contribution when wet
production (oil and water) is taking
place. When the well is shut-in,
cross-ow continues to occur, in a
manner consistent with that illustrated,
though details are dicult to resolve.
Prominent 40C temperature anomalies
are present associated with the main
productive interval at the top of the
Ratburi and tantalizingly towards the
well TD. It is remarkable that these
contrasts can be maintained over short
vertical distances. A similar temperature
ngerprint, albeit with a smaller range
was recorded by PLT logs run in 1997.
Fig. 12. Contrasting analogues for the origin of karstication in
the Chumphon Basin. See text for explanation of data that do not
t the original meteoric buried hill analogue.
Karst reservoirs, Gulf of Thailand 23
Logs and sidewall samples from Nang Nuan-A03 may show
evidence of sediment-lled karst of Permianearly Tertiary age.
The irregular topography of the Pre-Tertiary on seismic has
frequently been considered a reection of its karstied
character and compared to the appearance of Ratburi outcrops.
The resemblance is supercially remarkable (Figs 2 & 3).
However, prospect-scale seismic interpretations typically result
in complexly faulted structures, and well data indicate that the
highs can contain a variety of Ratburi, Triassic, Mesozoic and
Early Tertiary strata. Structures mapped from the three 3D
surveys acquired in the concession, are now interpreted as
syn-rift horsts and inversion structures rather than passively
buried Pre-Tertiary hills.
Petroleum engineering data indicate large active aquifers, and
connected pore volumes of hundreds of millions to billions of
barrels, volumes that exceed the capacity of the structures if
conventional karst porosities are applied. Such volumes are also
orders of magnitude greater than those we estimate can be
contained in the caves of modern tower karst which we have
examined in Thailand (for example, the 132.510
6
m
3
Pha
Thap Pon outlier near Phitsanulok, in central Thailand, has an
estimated cavernous porosity of 1.72.110
6
m
3
or 1.31.6%,
which could contain only some 101510
6
BBL of uids).
Permeabilities for the subsurface karst systems are only modest,
252000 mD, not those of large open cave systems. Production
logs from Nang Nuan-B01 show anomalous inow and
cross-ow behaviour between zones even under initial reservoir
conditions. Logs run several years later indicate similar ow
patterns. Pressure surveys show unusual trends during owing
and shut-in periods which seem likely to be a response to
changing conditions of inow and cross-ow. Most of the
major oil- and water-bearing karstied zones encountered in
the Chumphon Basin are associated with positive temperature
anomalies (2040C).
Many of the features described above are not those we would
typically expect to be associated with meteoric karst and
meteorically karstied reservoirs (e.g. Esteban & Klappa 1983;
Bosak et al. 1989; Palmer 1991; Budd et al. 1995).
DEEP-BURIAL OR HYDROTHERMAL KARST?
All of these features can, however, be accommodated within
the concept of deep-burial or hydrothermal karstication.
Common criteria for recognizing such karst include:
(1) the presence of hot uids;
(2) little apparent genetic relation to exposure surfaces;
(3) 3D maze, ramiform or sponge-like form of cavities,
sometimes with convection cupolas;
(4) porosities of 2530% over areas of hundreds of m
2
to a
few km
2
;
(5) porous, altered or mineralized zones around the main
conduits;
(6) exotic high-temperature minerals within cavities;
(7) lack of normal speleothems and cave sediments
(Bakalowicz et al. 1987; Ford & Williams 1989; Palmer
1995).
In the context of the Chumphon Basin, such an origin
seems likely to involve hot, low salinity, uids being pumped
periodically out of overpressured lacustrine-basin depocentres
(Cartwright 1994). Such uids migrate via major deep-
rooted faults probably during periods of tectonism, and cause
extensive leaching in carbonate-rich highs and anking clastics
(Fig. 12). The leaching and current presence of hydrocarbons
appear a likely precursor to future mineralization (Dzulynski &
Sass-Gustkiewicz 1989; Fowler & Anderson 1991). The
character of the leaching seen in Chumphon Basin cores and
the somewhat unusual mineral assemblage present are entirely
compatible with a hydrothermal karst origin (Bakalowicz et al.
1987; Hill 1990; Hulen et al. 1994). The anomalous tempera-
tures and uid movements indicate that these reservoirs are
part of extensive, low temperature, convecting geothermal
systems (Grant et al. 1982). Temperature anomalies of 2040C,
in an area with geothermal gradients typically of 45C/100 m,
would imply uids circulating over hundreds of metres verti-
cally. The dierent oils present in Nang Nuan A and B (which
possibly reect derivation from a similar source rock at dierent
levels of maturity, R. Archer pers. comm; Appendix), and
dierent initial pressures and temperatures, indicate that these
accumulations are part of separate uid migration systems.
Similar phenomena to those described here have been
documented from small oil elds in Nevada (Hulen et al. 1994),
and from the Yinggehai Basin area of the South China Sea (Hao
et al. 1998). A hydrothermal karst overprint is also now
considered important in the Casablanca and Amposta elds,
oshore Spain (M. Esteban pers. comm.).
There are supportive indications that a deep-burial or hydro-
thermal karst analogue is applicable. Regionally there are
TriassicCretaceous granites at either margin of the basin
forming the oshore islands of Ko Samui, Ko Phangan and Ko
Tao, and extensive outcrops in peninsular Thailand (Fig. 1;
Nakinbodee et al. 1985). There are hot springs associated with
faults at the western onshore margin of the basin, accompany-
ing thick veins of calcite spar (e.g. at Khao Muang), and
abundant CO
2
present in gas and oil elds in the nearby Pattani
and NW Malay basins (Fig. 1; Lian & Bradley 1986; Duval &
Gouadain 1994). The CO
2
in such elds is partly of deep-seated
origin, from its isotopic character, and occurs preferentially in
proximity to major faults.
The Wind and Jewel caves of South Dakota are well
documented examples of 3D maze caves of probable thermal
dissolution origin (Fig. 13). There are many similar cave systems
in the Black Hills area, sometimes occurring in close proximity,
yet not connected (e.g. the Jewel and Jasper caves). The Wind
and Jewel caves have average porosities of 1030% over areas
of 110 km
2
. Jewel Cave presently has 165 km of mapped
passages beneath an area presently of some 310 km
2
,
and Wind Cave 120 km passages in presently some 1.3 km
2
(Bakalowicz et al. 1987). Barometric evidence indicates substan-
tial connected pore volumes of around 5710
6
m
3
for Wind
Cave and 14010
6
m
3
for Jewel Cave, indicating that only a
small percentage of each system is presently known. The
formation of such 3D networks requires the distribution of
solutional capacity rather uniformly over areas of several square
kilometres. There is evidence of changing solutional chemistry,
with both limestone and dolomite being dissolved at times,
dolomite being dissolved preferentially at others, and calcite
being deposited at others. These maze cave networks are
aligned along joint directions and occur at a number of levels
within the Carboniferous Madison limestones. They form
complexly interconnected solutional galleries, with a tendency
to descend in stratigraphic elevation in the direction of stratal
dip. Jewel Cave has extensive wall coatings of calcite spar whilst
Wind Cave has its characteristic boxwork (protruding network
of veins due to dissolution of carbonate matrix). Calcites from
wall coatings and boxwork have carbon and oxygen isotope
ratios typical of burial/hydrothermal conditions (Bakalowicz
et al. 1987).
There is great similarity, supercially at least, between the
Dakota examples and certain types of thermal karst system
described from the Buda Mountains area of Hungary (Jakucs
1977; Dublyansky 1995).
24 A. P. Heward et al.
IMPLICATIONS
A deep-burial or hydrothermal karst interpretation for the
origin of reservoirs in the Chumphon Basin has implications.
Porosities can be higher than conventional meteoric karst ones,
at least over areas of a few square kilometres. The highest
porosities measured from the Nang Nuan A02 cores were 17%,
and net/gross values vary between 49% in Nang Nuan-1, 16%
in -A02, 12.5% in -B01, and 0% in -A03. Such porosity (5%)
and net/gross ranges can accommodate within reasonable
reservoir congurations, the substantial connected pore
volumes indicated by material balance.
Fluid contacts are often dicult to dene in karst reservoirs
due to openhole logs being aected by washouts, lost uids and
tight formation, and uid gradients may be dicult to obtain or
ambiguous. With deep-burial karst, uid contacts may bear no
relation to structural spill points at the top of a reservoir
formation, and potentially lie much deeper within the forma-
tion. Both these factors, increased porosity and a greater
range of possible hydrocarbon column, positively inuence the
estimates of hydrocarbons in-place that can be made.
On the counter side, production log evidence indicates that
only the uppermost zones in Nang Nuan-B01 have produced
hydrocarbons, whilst other zones accept uids when the well is
shut-in. It is not clear what the original uid content of these
latter zones was. The temperature distribution and cross-ow
behaviour seem most reasonably to indicate circulating uids
extending some distance from the wellbore. The Wind and
Jewel cave systems, with their extensive and irregularly con-
nected ow conduits, and sometimes rather limited connec-
tions between areas of porosity development, may be a useful
analogue here. However, evidence of poor connectivity in this
case has negative implications for sweep eciency, which is
usually assumed to be high in karst reservoirs.
Due to the inability to cement casing though karst reservoirs
with extensive losses, typical well completions consist of slotted
or pre-drilled liners or barefoots. With the multizone ow behav-
iour exhibited by Nang Nuan-B01, and possibly also by Katiya-1,
each interval of a multizone reservoir preferably requires testing,
and possibly production, individually. Which intervals have con-
tributed to production in Nang Nuan-B01 remains uncertain.
External casing packers may be able to provide a greater degree
of zonal isolation for future multizone wells.
Applying a deep-burial karst analogue, remaining highs
within the concession have a dierent ranking and risking.
Fig. 13. Examples of deep-burial or hydrothermal karst systems. (A) 3D rectilinear maze cave showing in plan view a strong control by NWSE
orientated joints, and in section a strong stratal inuence on the series of interconnected levels that formed towards the middle of the
Carboniferous (Madison) limestone. Areas of intense development of cavities tend to be separated by areas with only few connections, often fault
zones where gouge has limited uid ow and karstication (from Bakalowicz et al. 1987; Palmer 1995). Nang Nuan karstication may be of this
type and intensity, though whether the cavities formed are of cave size, or smaller, remains to be established. (B) Convection cupula-form of
Satorkupuszta cave, developed in Triassic carbonates of the Pilis Mountains, Hungary (Jakucs 1977). A chain of spherical cavities about 350 m
long in total, as known, the great hall of which contains thick gypsum accumulations. (C) Dissolution, brecciation and mineralization occurring
along the contact of the Triassic ore-bearing dolomite and limestone, Upper Silesia, Poland (Dzulynski & Sass-Gustkiewicz 1989); (ii) is more
mature than (i), with collapse breccias. The lengths of arrows correspond to ow intensity. The brecciated decalcied ?Mesozoic sandstones
overlying the main karst zone of Katiya-1 may be of such form.
Karst reservoirs, Gulf of Thailand 25
Criteria of importance now become proximity to source rock
kitchens and to major deep-rooted faults, likelihood of
carbonate-rich formations, and the presence of a good top and
lateral seals to retain hot uids and allow them to circulate
(Fig. 12). Leaching may not be conned to highs and may occur
in any favourably located formation (e.g. syn-rift clastics).
Overall there is a more positive view of value of concession,
due to the increased oil-in-place estimates and the dierent
prospect risks. If the analogues of the South Dakota or
Hungarian karst are in any way appropriate, then such karsti-
cation may be widespread throughout the Chumphon Basin
area. The size of the hydrocarbon accumulations discovered are
small compared to the connected pore volumes indicated by
material balance. If one or more such pore volumes have a
greater degree of hydrocarbon ll, then the size of possible
hydrocarbon accumulations could be an order of magnitude
larger.
A deep-burial interpretation results in perhaps even greater
uncertainty about how these karst reservoirs really work.
Unfortunately, even with the latest 1997 high-resolution 3D
seismic, the porous leached intervals cannot be imaged at
depths of 30004000 m. A semiquantitative sparse-spiking
inversion of part of the Nang Nuan 3D data, gives hints of low
acoustic impedance zones within seismic facies attributed to
Ratburi carbonates. The properties of the productive intervals
are poorly known, and more focused diagenetic work could be
undertaken on the Chumphon Basin core material. The degree
of connectivity between porous zones is uncertain and may be
able to be established by testing in future wells. A major
uncertainty is the origin of the heat uxes, and where uids are
owing to? Do they form part of closed-loop convection cells,
and does water circulate below the oilwater contact and cause
oil to circulate above? Nang Nuan-A01 seems to indicate hot
oil moving above relatively cooler water (Fig. 5). Is the hot oil
a very recent/active charge? If so, what about the hot water of
Katiya? Material balance calculations are based on the expan-
sion of uids under isothermal conditions, and the impact
of the hydrothermal nature of the reservoir has not been
quantied. Can uid displacements in such thermally driven
reservoirs be represented by traditional oilwater displacement
principles? Are the aquifers just parts of very extensive karst
systems, or is there some other mechanism of pressure support
from overpressured source kitchens?
Despite the many uncertainties, there are lessons here in
continuing to apply an analogue in the face of mounting
conicting data, and potentially underestimating (or over-
estimating) the value of a prospect, a eld, a concession, or a
play fairway. We doubt very much that the karst reservoirs of
Nang Nuan and the Chumphon Basin are unique!
We are grateful to Martin Bradshaw and the management of Thai
Shell Exploration and Production for their encouragement of this
study and for permission to publish its results. We have drawn
liberally on the work of many former Thai Shell and Shell
Research sta, Jean-Yves Chatellier, Steve Coutts, Marianne
Goesten, Fer Guit and Michael Hauck. They have all provided
important insights to these intriguing reservoirs, though they may
not share our conclusions. Ray Buchanan, Mateu Esteban and
John Kantorowicz kindly read a draft of the paper and made
helpful suggestions for its improvement. Lasmo plc. contributed to
the costs of colour printing.
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Appendix Nang Nuan Field data summary
Nang Nuan A Nang Nuan B
Trap
Type Conglomerates onlapping horst Horst
Depth to crest (m ss) 2960 3090
Free water level (m ss) c. 3016 3181>3750
Oil column (m) c. 56 c. 90 few hundred
Pay zone
Formation Early Tertiary conglomerates Mid Permian Ratburi carbonates
Gross thickness (m) 65 >188
Net/gross ratio (%) c. 40 c. 12.5
Karst porosity (%) c. 17 c. 17
Karst permeability (well test) (mD) 10002000 25500
Productivity index (BBL oil/d/psi) c. 60 c. 752000
Matrix porosity (%) 5 12
Matrix permeability Negligible Negligible
Hydrocarbons
Oil density (kg m
3
) [API] 870887 [2931] 817.5 [41.5]
GOR (SCF STB
1
) 6080 200240
In situ viscosity (cP) 3.54 0.62
Wax content (%) 12 12
Pour point (C) 27 21
H
2
S content (ppm) 140 120800
CO
2
content (mol %) 30 2027
Formation water
Salinity (ppm NaCl) c. 5500 25003000
Density (kg m
3
) 964 948
GWR (SCF STB
1
) Not measured 23 (76% CO
2
, 22% CH
4
)
Reservoir conditions
Temperature (C) 142 165.5
Datum (m ss) 3016 3150
Pressure (psia) 4246 4638
Bubble point (psia) 635665 1250
Pressure gradient (psi ft
1
)
Oil 0.353 0.312
Water 0.418 0.407
Field size
Area (km
2
) 1.3 7.2
STOIIP (10
6
BBL) 29.5 47.5
Formation volume factor 1.112 1.207
Drive mechanism Strong aquifer support Strong aquifer support
Recovery factor (%) 21 60
Reserves (10
6
BBL) 6 28.5
Remaining reserves (10
6
BBL) 5.5 24
Production
Oil production (10
6
BBL) 0.48 (Jan.Aug. 1988) 4.31 (Oct. 1993Aug. 1997)
Losses of drilling uids (10
6
BBL) Nang Nuan-A01: 0.18 Nang Nuan-B01: 0.35
Nang Nuan-A02: 0.06
Water depth (m) 32.5 34.5
Development scheme Single well, subsea, rented early production system,
consisting of production jack-up,
storage tanker and shuttle tankers
Single well, wellhead tripod, rented early production system,
consisting of production spread on a
supply boat and a tanker for storage and evacuation
Received 1 March 1999; revised typescript accepted 15 July 1999.
Karst reservoirs, Gulf of Thailand 27