V Diffraction

Physics 425 Modern Optics Diffraction
Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

1
V. DIFFRACTION

Introduction

The diffraction of light is a direct consequence of Huygens Principle, which states that
each point on a wavefront can be considered as a source of secondary wavelets. Consider
a plane wave incident on an 1-D aperture of width a;

Each segment dx along the aperture emits a spherical wave of the form

[ ] . . exp c c t i
r
dx
L
+ r k
E

Huygens Principle
(polarization ignored)

where
L
E is the source strength per unit length across the slit, and the
r
1
factor accounts
for the inverse square dependence of the irradiance,
2
E I .
So, the total field at point P due to all the elemental sources across the slit can be written
as

( ) ( ) [ ] t i
r
dx
x A E
L
P
=

r k exp
E
( ) [ ] t i
r
dx
a
a
L
=
r k exp
2
2
E

since the aperture function ( ) 1 = x A
for
2 2
a
x
a
< < and zero otherwise.

P(X,Y)
R
r
2
a

2
a

dx
x
z
x

2
We may evaluate the scalar r k by noting that

( ) [ ] [ ]
2
1
2
1
2 2 2 2
2 x xX R x X Z r + = + =
since
2 2 2
Z X R + =
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
(
(
+ =
R
x
R
xX
R r

(
(
+ + = ...
2
1
2
2
2
R
x
R
xX
R r

For the far-field diffraction pattern (Fraunhofer Diffraction) we can assume x R >> , so
that

(
=
2
1
R
xX
R r

Hence,

( ) [ ]
( )
dx
R
xX
x
R
X
ik x A
t kR i
R
E
L
P
=
2
1
exp
exp
E

So, for 1
2
<<
R
xX
and noting that = sin
R
X
we have, in general

( ) ( )
=
(
\
|

sin ...
2 exp constant
l
l
l dx x i x A E
P

In other words, the far-field diffracted field distribution ( ) l
P
E , as a function of the
diffraction angle (l = sin), is proportional to the Fourier Transform of the aperture
function ( ) x A .

3
N.B.

(i) By ignoring the higher order terms in the expansion of
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
(
(
+ =
R
x
R
xX
R r we ignore terms like
(
(
|
|
\
|
R
x
ik
2
exp
2

This is reasonable if <<
R
kx
2
2
which for a maximum aperture dimension,
a x =
max
, gives
>>
2
a
R where
2
a
is termed the Raleigh distance.

NOTE: The approximation is exact if
=
(
= sin 1
2
x R
R
xX
R r
which occurs when the observation point is at infinity;

z
x
z
x
x
R
sin x

r
4
An easy way to ensure that the observation point is at infinity is to place a lens
its focal length from the aperture and a screen in its focal plane;

- the lens only focuses plane waves (from infinity) on the screen.

(ii) If
<
2
a
R Fresnel Diffraction (near field)
If
>>
2
a
R Fraunhofer Diffraction (far field)

(We will not cover Fresnel Diffraction in this course.)

f f
Screen
5
1-D Aperture: A Slit

The Fraunhofer diffraction pattern
2
) ( ) ( p E p I , with
( ) ( )
= dx e x A p E
ipx

where ( ) 1 = x A for
2 2
a
x
a
< < and ( ) 0 = x A otherwise,
and
= sin
2
p .
2
2
2
2
) (
a
a
ipx
a
a
ipx
e
p
i
dx e p E
= =

[ ]
2 2 pa i pa i
e e
p
i
=

|
\
|
= |
\
|
=
2
sinc
2
sin
2
) (
pa
a
pa
p
p E
where ( )
x
x
x
sin
sinc = .

x
2
a

2
a
=
2
a
R
Fresnel
Diffraction
p
) (p I
6

Hence,
Fraunhofer pattern, ( )
|
\
|
=
2
sinc
2
pa
I p I
o

First minimum at
a
p

=
2
, but
= sin
2
p , thus angle to the first minimum is given by

a
= sin
as expected

NOTE: As a ,
o
90 and ( ) p I becomes a constant (c.f. Fourier transform of
( ) x is a constant).

0 3 2 -3 -2 -
( ) p I
( ) o I
2
pa

7
Real Youngs Slits

In a real Youngs slit experiment the slits are not infinitely narrow (i.e. not delta
functions). Consider the diffraction/interference pattern produced by two slits of width a
separated by h, i.e.

which is equal to a convolution of a single slit with two delta functions;

Hence

( ) ( ) [ ] ( )
(
)
`
\
|
+ |
\
|
+ = =
2 2
'
h
x
h
x x A x A p E

( ) ( ) [ ]
(
\
|
+ |
\
|
+ =
2 2
h
x
h
x x A p E

... convolution theorem
( )
|
\
|
|
\
|
=
2
cos 2
2
sinc
ph pa
a p E

1
A(x)
a
a
0
2
h

2
h x
( ) x A'
0
2
a

2
a x

0
2
h

2
h
x
8
So that

( )
|
\
|
|
\
|
=
2
cos
2
sinc
2 2
ph pa
I p I
o

N.B.
(i) The maxima of the
|
\
|
2
cos
2
ph
pattern occur when h m p = 2 ( ... 2 , 1 , 0 = m )

Thus, if
a h
m
=
2 2
one of the interference maxima will fall at the first
minimum of the diffraction pattern, i.e. there is a missing order.

Missing orders if
m
h
a =

[Other conditions possible for other minima of diffraction pattern.]

(ii) Again, if 0 a , we are reduced to ( )
|
\
|
2
cos
2
ph
I p I
o
the result for two
infinitely narrow Youngs slits.

The
|
\
|
2
sinc
2
pa
function
modifies the irradiance of the
|
\
|
2
cos
2
ph
interference
pattern.
0
) ( p I

o
I
p
|
\
|
2
sinc
2
pa

|
\
|
2
cos
2
ph

a
p

=
2
h
p

=
9
Real Diffraction Grating

A real diffraction grating can be considered as N slits of width a separated by d, i.e.

Hence, the far-field diffraction pattern ( ) [ ] x A is given by

( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] [ ] { } ( ) [ ] { } x A x A x A
2 1
comb Dirac =

( ) [ ]
|
\
|
\
|
|
\
|
=

=
2
sinc
2 1
2
sinc
pNd
Nd
d
m
p
d
pa
a x A
m

a
A(x)
0 d
2
Nd
-d
2
Nd
x
1

0
1
A
2
(x)
x
2
Nd

2
Nd

=
x
1
A
1
(x)
2
a

2
a

x 0 d -d 2d 3d
Dirac comb
10
( ) [ ]
\
|
|
\
|
|
\
|
=

d
m
p
pa pNd
Na x A
2
2
sinc
2
sinc

So, ( ) ( ) [ ]
2
x A p I looks like

Thus, the orders ( ) ... , 2 , 1 , 0 = m occur when

d
m
p

=

=
2 sin 2

= m d sin
as expected since
m
= and 0 =
i
in this case

0
p
d
2
d
8
d
6
d
10

d
4
a
4
a
2
( ) p I
missing
order
|
\
|
2
sinc
2
pNd

|
\
|
2
sinc
2
pa

11

And, the width of each order is given by =
2
pNd

Nd
p

=

=
2 sin 2

Again, there are missing orders if

m
d
a
a d
m
=
=
2 2

i.e. the line narrows as the
number of slits increases
NOTE: For small d and a d 10 , usually no missing orders are possible since
1 sin >
=
a
, i.e. a .

Nd
2

2
0
Nd
2

2
p
I(p)
12
Circular Aperture

Diffraction from a circular aperture is a common occurrence in optics; e.g. lenses,
aperture stops, and laser physics.

Consider a circular aperture of radius a;

Since the field at point P is due to contributions from all points on the aperture ( ) y x A ,
we have

( ) ( )
( ) qy px i
P
e y x A dy dx q p E
+

= , ,

with q being the transform variable for y.

a
r
x
y
q
p
R
z

P
Screen
A(x,y)

13
The symmetry suggests the use of polar-coordinates, i.e.

=
= =
= =
d dr r dy dx
q p
r y r x
sin cos
sin cos

( ) ( ) [ ]

=
2
cos exp ,
o
a
o
P
r i d dr r E

since A(r,) = 1 for 0 < r a and zero otherwise
and cos( - ) = cos cos + sin sin.

It is sufficient to evaluate ( ) 0 , =
P
E since the diffraction pattern will be radically
symmetric. Moreover,

[ ] ( ) r J d r i =
0
2
0
2 cos exp

where ( ) u J
0
is the Bessel function of order zero. Thus,

( ) ( )
=
a
P
dr r rJ E
0
0
2

and with the identity ( ) ( )du u uJ x xJ
x
o
=
0
1
, we then have

( ) ( ) a J
a
E
P

=
1
2

14
The irradiance can therefore be written as

( )
( )
2
1
2
(
=
a
a J
I I
o

N.B.

(i) The irradiance pattern is known as an Airy pattern, and the central spot (which
contains 84% of the light) as the Airy disk.

(iii) Since
R
=
2
sin
2
and the first minimum occurs at 83 . 3
1
= a , the
radius of the Airy disk,
1
, is given by

NOTE: This relation is important it defines the resolving power of a perfect
lens (or optical system) of diameter D = 2a.

|
\
|
=
a
R
2
22 . 1
1

q
p ( ) I
o
I
0
a 3.83 7.02
15
Appendix: Fourier Transforms

Definition:

Fourier transform of ( ) x f is ( ) p F :

( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
= = x f dx e x f p F
ipx

where x and p are the transform variables.

The spatial frequency, p, is given by

=
sin 2
p

NOTE: and t are also transform variables,

( ) ( ) dt e t f F
t i
=

Inverse Transform:

( ) ( ) dp e p F x f
ipx
=
2
1

NOTE: The 2 factor is sometimes omitted, and the sign in the exponential is
sometimes reversed (i.e.
ipx
e for the transform and
ipx
e
for the inverse).

16
Dirac delta function:

Definition:

( ) 0 =
o
x x for
o
x x

( ) 1 =

dx x x
o

NOTE: In an integral, ( ) ( ) ( )
o o
x f dx x x x f =

Fourier transform of ( )
o
x x :

( ) ( )
o
ipx ipx
o
e e x x p D

= =

Shifting:

( ) [ ] ( ) p F e a x f
ipa
= +

since

( ) ( )
( )

= + du e u f dx e a x f
a u ip ipx

( )
= du e u f e
ipu ipa

17
Convolution:

Definition: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

= = ' ' ' dx x x b x a x b x a x g

Fourier transform:

( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) p B p A x b x a =

NOTE: A correlation is similar

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

= = ' ' '
*
dx x x b x a x b x a x h

= ( ) ( ) [ ] p B p A
*

Convolutions and correlations are related

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x b x a x b x a =
*

Parsevals Theorem:

( ) ( ) dx x f dp p F

=
2 2
2
1

conservation of energy

18

Important Transforms in Optics:

( ) ( ) [ ] 1
2 2
= =
o
x x p D

( ) ( ) { } ( )
o o o
px x x x x cos
2
1
=
(
+ +

( ) ( ) { } ( )
o o o
px x x x x sin
2
1
=
(
+

Infinite Dirac comb:

( ) ( )

=
o
nx x x comb

( ) [ ] ( )dx nx x e x comb
o
ipx

|
|
\
|
=
o o
x
n
p
x
2 1

For other standard Fourier transforms see a good mathematics book or a reference book
(e.g. Schaums Outline Series, Mathematical Handbook of Formulas and Tables).

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Physics 425 Modern Optics Diffraction

Lecture Notes W. Andreas Schroeder

for the inverse).

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