EEE3 Lecture 5 - Exam2 - Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis

1
Sinusoidal Steady Sinusoidal Steady- -State State

Analysis Analysis
Chapter 7
Artemio P. Magabo Artemio P. Magabo
Professor of Electrical Engineering Professor of Electrical Engineering
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
University of the Philippines - Diliman
The Sinusoidal Function
Effective value of a sinusoid
Complex Algebra
Impedance and Admittance in AC Circuits
Network Reduction
Power in AC Circuits
Phasor Transformation
Balanced Three-Phase Systems
Outline
The Sinusoidal Function
T
) t cos( F ) t ( f
m
+ =
where
F
m
= amplitude or peak value
= angular frequency, rad/sec
= phase angle at t=0, rad
The sinusoid is described by the expression
t, rad
-F
m
F
m
2
The sinusoid is generally plotted in terms of t,
expressed either in radians or degrees. Consider
the plot of the sinusoidal function f(t)=F
m
cos t.
-F
m
F
m
t, deg 180 360
t, rad 2
T
When t=2, t=T. Thus we get T=2 or = .
The function may also be written as
T
2
t
T
2
cos F t cos F ) t ( f
m m

= =
2
The peak value of the voltage is V
m
=311 volts. The
angular frequency is =377 rad/sec. The frequency
is f=60 Hz. The period is T=16.67 msec.
Define: The frequency of the sinusoid
T
1
f =
sec
-1
or cycles/sec or Hertz (Hz)
Then, the sinusoid may also be expressed as
ft 2 cos F t cos F ) t ( f
m m
= =
Note: : The nominal voltage in the Philippines is a
sinusoid described by
V ) t 377 cos( 311 ) t ( v + =
Leading and Lagging Sinusoids
Note: We say either f
1 1
(t) leads f
2
(t) by an angle
of 30 or that f
2
(t) lags f
1
(t) by an angle of 30.
) 30 t cos( F ) t ( f
m 2
+ =
Consider the plot of the sinusoidal functions
and
) 60 t cos( F ) t ( f
m 1
+ =
30
60
90 180 -30
-60
-90
t, deg
270 360
) t ( f
1
) t ( f
2
Note: The current is in phase with the voltage.
From Ohms law, we get t cos RI Ri v
m R R
= =
Consider a resistor. Let the
current be described by
t cos I i
m R
=
R
+ - v
R
i
R
90 180 -90
t, deg
270 360
v
R
i
R
The Resistor
The Inductor
Consider an inductor. Let the
t cos I i
m L
=
L i
L
+ - v
L
From v
L
= , we get t sin LI v
m L
=
dt
di
L
L
90 180 -90
t, deg
270 360
i
L
v
L
Note: The current lags the voltage by 90
o
.
3
The Capacitor
i
C
v
C
+ -
C
Consider a capacitor. Let the
t cos I i
m C
=
From v
C
= , we get t sin
C
I
v
m
C

dt i
C
1
C
90 180 -90
t, deg
270 360
i
C
Note: The current leads the voltage by 90
o
.
v
C
Note: We will show later that:
Summary:
In a resistor, i
R
and v
R
are in phase. 1.
In an inductor, i
L
lags v
L
by 90
o
. In a capacitor,
i
C
leads v
C
by 90
o
(ELI the ICE man).
2.
For an RL network, the current lags the
voltage by an angle between 0 and 90.
1.
For an RC network, the current leads the
voltage by an angle between 0 and 90.
2.
For an RLC network, either 1 or 2 will hold. 3.
Consider a DC (constant) current I and an AC
(sinusoidal) current i(t)=I
m
cos t.
The sinusoidal current i(t) is said to be as effective
as the constant current I if i(t) dissipates the same
average power in the same resistor R.
Since the current I is constant, then P
AV,DC
= I
2
R.
Consider R with the DC current I.
The power dissipated by R is
R I P
2
=
R
I
Effective Value of a Sinusoid
The average value of any sinusoidal function can
be shown to be equal to zero. Thus
R I P
2
m 2
1
AC , AV
=
t cos R I R i ) t ( p
2
2
m
2
= =
R
i(t)
Consider next R with the AC
current i(t). The instantaneous
power dissipated by R is
Simplifying, we get
|
\
| +
=
2
t 2 cos 1
R I ) t ( p
2
m
t 2 cos R I R I
2
m 2
1
2
m 2
1
+ =
4
Note: The same definition applies to a sinusoidal
voltage v(t)=V
m
cos t.
Equating average power, we get
R I R I
2
m 2
1
2
=
or
m
m
I 707 . 0
2
I
I =
Definition: The effective value of a sinusoidal
current with an amplitude I
m
is equal to
2
I
I
m
EFF
=
The effective value of a periodic function is also
called the Root-Mean-Square (RMS) value.
That is, given a periodic function f(t), we get
= =
T
0
2
RMS EFF
dt ) t ( f
T
1
F F
The effective or RMS value of the voltage is
V 220 ) 311 ( 707 . 0 V = =
Note: : The nominal voltage in the Philippines is a
sinusoid described by
V ) t 377 cos( 311 ) t ( v + =
From KVL, we get
t cos V Ri
dt
di
L
m
= +
Network with Sinusoidal Source
Consider the network shown.
Let v(t)=V
m
cos t where V
m
and are constant. Find the
steady-state current i(t).
R
L
v(t)
+
-
i
t cos B t sin A
dt
di
+ =
t sin B t cos A i + = Let
Substitution gives
t sin LA t cos LB
t sin RB t cos RA t cos V
m
+
+ =
Comparing coefficients, we get
LA RB 0
LB RA V
m
=
+ =
Solving simultaneously, we get
m
2 2 2
V
L R
R
A
+
=
m
2 2 2
V
L R
L
B
+
= and
5
Thus, the steady-state current is
t sin V
L R
L
t cos V
L R
R
i
m
2 2 2
m
2 2 2

+
+
+
=
Trigonometric Identity:
) t cos( K t sin B t cos A = +
where
2 2
B A K + = and
A
B
tan
1
=
|
\
|

+
=

R
L
tan t cos
L R
V
i
1
2 2 2
m
or
( ) = t cos K
= cos K A = sin K B Proof: Let and
Substitution gives
) sin t sin cos t (cos K t sin B t cos A + = +
) sin (cos K B A
2 2 2 2 2
+ = +
From the definitions of A and B, we get
2 2
B A K + =
or
= tan
A
B
A
B
tan
1
=
and
or
8
0.6H
v(t)
+
-
i
Example: Find the current
i(t) and the average power
dissipated by the resistor.
Assume v(t)=100cos 10t V.
|
\
|

+
=

R
L
tan t cos
L R
V
i
1
2 2 2
m
Earlier we got the steady-state current as
( )
( )
|
\
|

+
=

8
6 . 0 10
tan t 10 cos
6 . 0 10 8
100
i
1
2
2 2
Substitution gives
W 400 R I P
2
RMS AV , R
= =
The average power dissipated by R is
( ) A 87 . 36 t 10 cos 10 i
o
=
Simplifying, we get
A 07 . 7
2
10
I
RMS
= =
The RMS value of the current is
6
Definition: A complex number consists of a real
part and an imaginary part. For example, given
jb a A + =
A is a complex number with real part equal to a
and an imaginary part equal to b. Note: j= . 1
Example: The following complex numbers are
expressed in the rectangular-coordinate form.
3 j 5 . 0 C = 25 . 4 j 6 D + =
4 j 3 A + = 5 . 3 j 5 . 2 B =
Algebra of Complex Numbers
The Complex Plane
Definition: The complex plane is a Cartesian
coordinate system where the abscissa is for real
numbers and the ordinate is for imaginary numbers.
Imaginary
Axis
Real Axis 2 4 6 8 -2 -4 -6 -8
j4
j2
-j2
-j4
A=3+j4
D=0+j2
C=4+j0
B=2.5-j3.5
F=-3-j3
E=-4+j3
Definition: In the polar-coordinate form, the
magnitude and angle of the complex number is
specified.
Polar-Coordinate Form
Consider the complex number A=a+jb.
Imag
+ Real a
jb
A
A
From the figure, we get
2 2
b a A + =
a
b
tan
1
=
Thus,
= + = A jb a A
Trigonometric Form
Consider the complex number .
= + = A jb a A
Imag
+ Real a
jb
A
A
From the figure, we get
= cos A a
= sin A b
Thus, we can also write
) sin j (cos A A + =
For example, A=10 36.87 can be expressed as
6 j 8 ) 87 . 36 sin j 87 . 36 (cos 10 A + = + =
7
Given A = a+jb and B = c+jd, then
( ) ( ) d b j c a B A + =
Addition or Subtraction
For example, given A=8+j6 and B=4+j10
16 j 12 ) 10 6 ( j ) 4 8 ( B A + = + + + = +
4 j 4 ) 10 6 ( j ) 4 8 ( B A = + =
Addition or subtraction of complex numbers can
only be done in the rectangular-coordinate form.
( ) ( ) d b j c a B A + + + = +
Given A = a+jb =| || |A| || |
A
and B = c+jd =| || |B| || |
B
, then
in the rectangular-coordinate form, we get
) jd c ( jb ) jd c ( a + + + =
Multiplication of complex numbers can be done
using the rectangular-coordinate or polar form.
) jd c )( jb a ( AB + + =
) bc ad ( j ) bd ac ( AB + + =
bd j jbc jad ac
2
+ + + =
Since j
2
=-1, the product is
Multiplication
Given A = a+jb =| || |A| | | |
A
and B = c+jd =| || |B| | | |
B
, then
) B )( A ( AB
B A
=
) ( B A AB
B A
+ =
The rule is multiply magnitude and add angles.
We get
For example, given A=3+j4=5 53.13
o
and
B=4+j3=5 36.87
o
o 2
90 25 25 j 12 j 16 j 9 j 12
) 3 j 4 )( 4 j 3 ( AB
= = + + + =
+ + =
or
o o o
90 25 ) 87 . 36 13 . 53 ( ) 5 ( 5 AB = + =
o
13 . 53 5 4 j 3 * A = =
o
and
B=-4-j3=5 -143.13
o
o
13 . 143 5 3 j 4 * B = + =
Definition: The conjugate
of a complex number
A=a+jb=| || |A| | | |
A
is defined
as
A
A jb a * A = =
a
Imag
Real
jb A
-jb
A*
Conjugate of a Complex Number
8
Division
Division of complex numbers can be done using the
rectangular-coordinate or polar form.
Given A = a+jb =| || |A| || |
A
and B = c+jd =| || |B| || |
B
, then
in the rectangular-coordinate form, we get
jd c
jb a
B
A
+
+
=
jd c
jd c
2 2
d c
bd jbc jad ac
+
+ +
=
or
2 2 2 2
d c
ad bc
j
d c
bd ac
B
A
+
+
+
+
=
Given A = a+jb =| || |A| | | |
A
and B = c+jd =| || |B| | | |
B
, then
B
A
B
A
B
A

=
) (
B
A
B
A
B A
=
The rule is divide magnitude and subtract angles.
We get
o
and
B=4-j3=5 -36.87
o
1 j 90 1
87 . 36 5
13 . 53 5
B
A
o
o
o
= =

=
Phasor Transformation
Define a transformation from the time domain to
the complex frequency domain such that
) t cos( F ) t ( f
m
+ =
=
2
F
) j ( F
m
For example, given f
1
(t)=311 cos (377t+60
o
) volts
and F
2
(j)=10 20
o
Amps
V 60 220 ) j ( F
o
1
=
A ) 20 t cos( 14 . 14 ) t ( f
o
2
+ =
From Ohms law, we get t cos RI Ri v
m R R
= =
t cos I i
m R
=
R
+ - v
R
i
R
o m
R
0
2
I
) j ( I =
o m
R
0
2
RI
) j ( V =
Transformation gives
and
=
R
) j ( I
) j ( V
R
R
Dividing, we get
The Resistor
9
t cos I i
m L
=
L i
L
+ - v
L
From v
L
= , we get t sin LI v
m L
=
dt
di
L
L
o m
L
0
2
I
) j ( I =
o m
L
90
2
LI
) j ( V
= and
= =
L j 90 L
) j ( I
) j ( V
o
L
L
Dividing, we get
The Inductor
=LI
m
cos(t+90
o
)
i
C
v
C
+ -
C
t cos I i
m C
=
From v
C
= , we get t sin
C
I
v
m
C

dt i
C
1
C
=

=

C j
1
90 C
1
) j ( I
) j ( V
o
C
C
Dividing, we get
and
o m
C
0
2
I
) j ( I =
o m
C
90
C 2
I
) j ( V
=
The Capacitor
Note:
(2) For an inductor, Z
L
= jL = jX
L
in
Impedance
) j ( I
) j ( V
Z
=
Definition: The ratio of transformed voltage to
transformed current is defined as impedance.
(1) For a resistor, Z (1) For a resistor, Z
R R
= R in
(3) For a capacitor, Z
C
= 1/jC = -jX
C
in
(4) X
L
and X
C
are the reactance of L and C,
respectively.
Admittance
(3) For a capacitor, Y
C
= jC = jB
C
in
-1
) j ( V
) j ( I
Z
1
Y
= =
Definition: The ratio of transformed current to
transformed voltage is defined as admittance.
(1) For a resistor, Y (1) For a resistor, Y
R R
= 1/R in
-1
(2) For an inductor, Y
L
= 1/jL =-jB
L
in
-1
Note:
(4) B
L
and B
C
are the susceptance of L and
C, respectively.
10
2. All the methods of analysis developed for
resistive networks (e.g. Mesh Analysis, Nodal
Analysis, Superposition, Thevenins and Nortons
Theorems) apply to the transformed network.
Summary
1. The equation describing any impedance is
algebraic; i.e. no integrals, no derivatives.
) j ( I Z ) j ( V = (Ohms Law)
3. The phasor transformation was defined for a
cosine function. The magnitude is based on the
RMS value. Other phasor transformations exist.
2 1 eq
Z Z
) j ( I
) j ( V
Z + =
=
2 1
2 1
eq
Z Z
Z Z
) j ( I
) j ( V
Z
+
=
=
2 1 eq
Y Y
) j ( V
) j ( I
Y + =
=
Impedances in Series:
1
Z
2
Z
) j ( I
) j ( V
+
-
Impedances in Parallel:
1
Z
2
Z
) j ( V
+
-
) j ( I
Network Reduction
Transform the source
volts 0 71 . 70 0
2
100
) j ( V = =
Convert R and L to impedances
= = =
= =
6 j ) 6 . 0 )( 10 ( j L j Z
8 R Z
L
R
Example: Given
v(t)=100 cos 10t volts.
Find i(t) and v
L
(t).
8
0.6H
v(t)
+
-
i
v
L
+
-
Z
R
V(j)
+
-
I(j)
+
-
Z
L
V
L
(j)
Transformed Network
The total impedance is
L R T
Z Z Z + =
+ = 6 j 8
Division of
complex
numbers
The transformed current is
6 j 8
0 71 . 70
Z
) j ( V
) j ( I
o
T
+
=
A 36.87 - 071 . 7
87 . 36 10
0 71 . 70
o
o
o
=
=
We get
( ) A 87 . 36 t 10 cos 10 ) t ( i =
11
From Ohms Law, we get the inductor voltage.
) Z )( j ( I ) j ( V
L L
=
V 13 . 53 43 . 42
o
=
(j6) ) 87 . 36 071 . 7 (
o
=
) 90 (6 ) 87 . 36 071 . 7 (
o o
=
From the inverse transformation, we get
) 53.13 (10t cos 2 43 . 42 ) t ( v
o
L
+ =
V ) 53.13 (10t cos 60
o
+ =
Note: The current i(t) lags the source voltage v(t)
by an angle of 36.87.
V 13 . 53 43 . 42 =
We can also apply voltage division to get the
voltage across the inductor.
) j ( V
Z Z
Z
) j ( V
R L
L
L

+
=
) 0 71 . 70 (
6 j 8
6 j
o
+
=
) 0 71 . 70 (
87 . 36 10
90 6
o
o
o
=
Note: Voltage division is applied to the transformed
network.
Transform the network.
( ) ( )
= =
= 10 j
01 . 0 10 j
1
C j
1
Z
C
Example: Given
v(t)=200cos10t volts.
Find i
1
, i
2
and i
3
.
1
i
2
i
3
i
5
6 H 2 . 1
H 5 . 0
v(t)
+
-
0.01F
V 0 42 . 141 0
2
200
) j ( V
o o
= =
( ) ( ) = = = 12 j 2 . 1 10 j L j Z
1 1 L
( ) ( ) = = = 5 j 5 . 0 10 j L j Z
2 2 L
Solution 1: Use network reduction to get the input
impedance.
Transformed network
+ = 12 j 6 Z
1
) j ( I
1

1
Z
V(j)
+
-
2
Z
C
Z
) j ( I
2

) j ( I
3

+ = 5 j 5 Z
2
= 10 j Z
C
10 j 5 j 5
) 5 j 5 ( 10 j
Z Z
Z Z
Z
C 2
C 2
eq
+
+
=
+
=
=
= 10
5 j 5
50 j 50
+ = + = 12 j 16 Z Z Z
eq 1 in
12
Apply current division to get I
2
(j).
) 87 . 36 071 . 7 (
5 j 5
10 j
) j ( I
Z Z
Z
) j ( I
o
1
C 2
C
2

=
+
=

=
+
=
87 . 36 20
0 42 . 141
12 j 16
0 42 . 141
Z
) j ( V
) j ( I
o o
in
1
Solve for current I
1
(j).
A 87 . 36 071 . 7 =

45 071 . 7
) 87 . 36 071 . 7 )( 90 10 (
o
o o

=
A 87 . 81 0 . 10
o
=
) j ( I ) j ( I ) j ( I
2 1 3
=
Use KCL to get I
3
(j).
o o
87 . 81 0 . 10 87 . 36 07 . 7 =
) 9 . 9 j 41 . 1 ( ) 24 . 4 j 66 . 5 ( =
A 13 . 53 07 . 7 66 . 5 j 24 . 4
o
= + =
Inverse transform I
1
(j ), I
2
(j ), and I
3
(j ).
A ) 36.87 - (10t cos 10 ) t ( i
o
1
=
A ) 81.87 - (10t cos 14 . 14 ) t ( i
o
2
=
A ) 53.13 (10t cos 10 ) t ( i
o
3
+ =
Solution 2: Use mesh
analysis.
) j ( I
1

1
Z
V(j)
+
-
2
Z
C
Z
) j ( I
3

+ = 12 j 6 Z
1
+ = 5 j 5 Z
2
= 10 j Z
C
)] j ( I ) j ( I [ Z ) j ( I Z ) j ( V
3 1 2 1 1
+ = mesh 1:
mesh 2: )] (j I - ) (j [I Z ) j ( I Z 0
1 3 2 3 C
+ =
Substitution gives
)] j ( I ) j ( I )[ 5 j 5 ( ) j ( I ) 12 j 6 ( 2 . 141
3 1 1
+ + + =
)] j ( I ) j ( I )[ 5 j 5 ( ) j ( I 10 j 0
1 3 3
+ + =
) j ( I ) 5 j 5 ( ) j ( I ) 17 j 11 ( 2 . 141
3 1
+ + =
Simplifying the equations, we get
(1)
) j ( I ) 5 j 5 ( ) j ( I ) 5 j 5 ( 0
3 1
+ + = (2)
) j ( I 1 j ) j ( I 90 1
1 1
o
= =
From (2), we get
) j ( I
45 071 . 7
45 071 . 7
) j ( I
5 j 5
5 j 5
) j ( I
1 o
o
1 3

+
=
Substitute in (1)
) j ( jI ) 5 j 5 ( ) j ( I ) 17 j 11 ( 2 . 141
1 1
+ + =
13
Solve for I
1
(j). We get
) j ( I ) 12 j 16 ( 2 . 141
1
+ =
o
1
87 . 36 20
2 . 141
12 j 16
2 . 141
) j ( I
=
+
=
or
A 87 . 36 071 . 7
o
=
A 1 . 53 071 . 7
o
=
Solve for I
3
(j). We get
) (j I ) 90 1 ( ) j ( jI ) j ( I
1
o
1 3
= =
) 87 . 36 071 . 7 )( 90 1 (
o o
=
Finally, I
2
(j) can be found using KCL.
) j ( I ) j ( I ) j ( I
3 1 2
=
A 87 . 81 0 . 10 90 . 9 j 41 . 1
o
= =
o o
53.13 7.071 - 87 . 36 071 . 7 =
) 66 . 5 j 24 . 4 ( ) 24 . 4 j 66 . 5 ( + =
Inverse transform I
1
(j ), I
2
(j ), and I
3
(j ).
A ) 36.87 - (10t cos 10 ) t ( i
o
1
=
A ) 81.87 - (10t cos 14 . 14 ) t ( i
o
2
=
A ) 53.13 (10t cos 10 ) t ( i
o
3
+ =
X
i
10
5 H 5 . 0
v
s
+
-
.01F i
s
Example: Given
v
s
=100cos10t volts
i
s
=10cos(10t+30
o
)
amps. Find i
X
.
Transform the network
V 0 71 . 70 ) j ( V
o
S
=
A 30 071 . 7 ) j ( I
o
S
=
= =
= 10 j
) 01 . 0 )( 10 ( j
1
C j
1
Z
C
= = = 5 j ) 5 . 0 )( 10 ( j L j Z
L
Transformed network 1
Z
V
s
(j)
+
-
2
Z
3
Z I
s
(j)
I
x
(j)
Z
1
=5+j5
Z
2
=10
Z
3
=-j10
) j ( V
X
+
Solution 1: Nodal Analysis
REF
3
X
2
X
1
S X
S
Z
) j ( V
Z
) j ( V
Z
) j ( V ) j ( V
) j ( I

+
+

=
Substitution gives
5 j 5
71 . 70
) j ( V
10 j
1
10
1
5 j 5
1
30 071 . 7
X
o
+

(
+ +
+
=
14
Evaluate the coefficient of V
X
(j)
2 . 0
1 . 0 j 1 . 0
50
5 j 5
1 . 0 j 1 . 0
5 j 5
5 j 5
5 j 5
1
=
+ +
= + +
+
o
o
o o
45 10
45 071 . 7
0 71 . 70
5 j 5
0 71 . 70
=
=
+
Evaluate the constant term

Substitution gives
o
X
o
45 10 ) j ( V 2 . 0 30 071 . 7 =
] 45 10 30 071 . 7 [ ) j ( V
o o
2 . 0
1
X
+ =
or
Solve for I
x
(j).
A 15 83 . 6
10
) j ( V
) j ( I
o X
X
=
=
V 15 33 . 68 7 . 17 j 0 . 66
o
= =
Simplifying, we get
] 07 . 7 j 07 . 7 54 . 3 j 12 . 6 [ 5 ) (j V
x
+ + =
Thus, using inverse transformation, we get
A ) 15 - (10t cos 66 . 9 ) t ( i
o
X
=
Solution 2: Superposition
=
+
+
= 5 j 5
1 j 1
1 j 1
1 j 1
10 j
Get the input impedance.
10 j 10
) 10 j ( 10
Z Z
Z Z
Z
3 2
3 2
eq
=
+
=
= + = 10 5 j 5 Z Z
1 in
Thus,
Consider the voltage
source alone.
1
Z
V
s
(j)
+
-
2
Z
3
Z
I
x1
(j)
I
s1
(j)
A 0 071 . 7
10
0 71 . 70
Z
) j ( V
) j ( I
o
o
in
s
1 s
=
=
The source current is
A 54 . 3 j 54 . 3 45 5
o
= =
Using current division, we get
) j ( I
Z Z
Z
) j ( I
1 s
3 2
3
1 X

+
=
) 0 071 . 7 (
45 14 . 14
90 10
o
o
o

=
15
) j ( V
10 j
1
10
1
5 j 5
1
) j ( I
X S

(
+ +
+
=
From KCL, we get
) j ( V
X
+
REF
Consider the current
source alone.
I
s
(j)
1
Z
2
Z
3
Z
I
x2
(j)
Substitution gives
) j ( V 2 . 0 30 071 . 7
X
o
=
V 30 36 . 35 ) j ( V
o
X
=
or
A 77 . 1 j 06 . 3 30 54 . 3
o
+ = =
Applying, superposition, we get
) j ( I ) j ( I ) j ( I
2 X 1 X x
+ =
A 15 83 . 6 77 . 1 j 6 . 6
o
= =
Solving for the current, we get
10
30 36 . 35
Z
) j ( V
) j ( I
o
2
X
2 x

=
=
A 77 . 1 j 06 . 3 54 . 3 j 54 . 3 + + =
A ) 15 - (10t cos 66 . 9 ) t ( i
o
X
=
Thus,
1
Z
V
s
(j)
+
-
3
Z I
s
(j)
I
1
(j)
V
th
(j)
+
-
Solution 3:
Thevenins Theorem
For mesh 1,
we get
)] (j I ) (j [I Z ) j ( I Z ) j ( V
s 1 3 1 1 s
+ + =
)] (j I ) (j [I 10 j ) j ( I ) 5 j 5 ( ) j ( V
s 1 1 s
+ + =
Substitution gives
5 j 5
) j ( I 10 j ) j ( V
) j ( I
s s
1
+
=
Solve for I
1
(j). We get
5 j 5
24 . 61 j 36 . 35
+
=
Simplifying, we get
5 j 5
) 30 07 . 7 ( 10 j 0 71 . 70
) j ( I
o o
1
+
=
o
o
o
105 10
45 071 . 7
60 71 . 70
=

=
The Thevenin voltage is
)] j ( I ) j ( I [ 10 j ) j ( V
s 1 th
+ =
] 30 07 . 7 105 10 [ 10 j
o o
+ =
16
V 15 6 . 136 36 . 35 j 94 . 131
o
= =
=
+
=
+
= 10
5 j 5
) 10 j )( 5 j 5 (
Z Z
Z Z
Z
3 1
3 1
th
Simplifying, we get
) 54 . 3 j 12 . 6 66 . 9 j 59 . 2 ( 10 j ) j ( V
th
+ + + =
Find the Thevenin
impedance
1
Z
3
Z
a
b
ab th
Z Z =
A 15 83 . 6
20
15 6 . 136
o
o
=

=
V 15 6 . 136 ) j ( V
o
th
=
= 10 Z
th
The Thevenin equivalent network
Z
th
V
th
(j)
+
-
10
) j ( I
X

Finally, we put back the 10
resistor and solve for the
current.
10 Z
) j ( V
) j ( I
th
th
X
+
=
Power Equations
Consider a voltage source, a current source or a
network of passive elements (R, L and/or C). Let
i(t)=I
m
cos (t+
I
) and v(t)= V
m
cos (t+
V
).
Voltage
Source
i(t) v(t)
+
-
Current
Source
i(t) v(t)
+
-
Passive
Network
i(t) v(t)
+
-
Note: The current flows from positive to negative
terminal for the passive network.
) t cos( ) t cos( I V v(t)i(t) p
I V m m
+ + = =
The instantaneous power supplied by the voltage
or current source or delivered to the passive
network is
Trigonometric Identities:
(1) = + sin sin cos cos ) cos(
(3) + = + sin cos cos sin ) sin(
(4) ) 2 cos 1 ( cos
2
1
2
+ =
(2) + = sin sin cos cos ) cos(
17
From (1) and (2), we get
)] cos( ) [cos( cos cos
2
1
+ + =
The instantaneous power can be expressed as
)] cos( ) t 2 [cos( I V p
I V I V m m 2
1
+ + + =
)] ( ) 2 t 2 cos[( I V
I V I m m 2
1
+ + =
) cos( I V
I V m m 2
1
+
Simplify using trigonometric identity (1). We get
) cos( ) t 2 [cos( I V p
I V I m m 2
1
+ ++ + = == =
)] cos( ) sin( ) t 2 sin(
I V I V I
+ ++ + + ++ +
Collecting common terms, we get
)] t ( 2 cos 1 )[ cos( I V p
I I V m m 2
1
+ + =
) t ( 2 sin ) sin( I V
I I V m m 2
1
+
Using the RMS values of the voltage and current,
we get
)] t ( 2 cos 1 )[ cos( VI p
I I V
+ + =
) t ( 2 sin ) sin( VI
I I V
+
Note: The instantaneous power consists of a
constant term plus two sinusoidal components.
From Ohms law, we get
) t cos( RI Ri v
I m R R
+ = =
) t cos( I i
I m R
+ =
R
+ - v
R
i
R
The instantaneous power delivered to (dissipated
by) the resistor is
)] t ( 2 cos 1 [ RI ) t ( cos RI p
I
2
m 2
1
I
2 2
m R
+ + = + =
The Resistor
or
)] t ( 2 cos 1 [ R I p
I
2
R
+ + =
The Inductor
) t cos( I i
I m L
+ =
L i
L
+ - v
L
From v
L
= , we get ) t sin( LI v
I m L
+ =
dt
di
L
L
The instantaneous power delivered to the inductor
is
) t cos( ) t sin( LI p
I I
2
m L
+ + =
) t ( 2 sin LI
I
2
m 2
1
+ =
or
) t ( 2 sin X I p
I L
2
L
+ =
18
The Capacitor
i
C
v
C
+ -
C
) t cos( I i
I m C
+ =
From v
C
= , we get ) t sin(
C
I
v
I
m
C
+
dt i
C
1
C
The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor
is
) t cos( ) t sin(
C
I
p
I I
2
m
C
+ +
=
or
) t ( 2 sin X I p
I C
2
C
+ =
Real or Active Power
Definition: Real or active power is defined as the
average value of the instantaneous power. It is the
power that is converted to useful work or heat.
Recall the instantaneous power supplied by a
source or delivered to a passive network.
)] t ( 2 cos 1 )[ cos( VI p
I I V
+ + =
I I V
+
) cos( VI P
I V
= in Watts
Since the average of any sinusoid is zero, the real
or active power is
Recall the instantaneous power delivered to a
resistor, inductor or capacitor.
)] t ( 2 cos 1 [ R I p
I
2
R
+ + =
) t ( 2 sin X I p
I L
2
L
+ =
) t ( 2 sin X I p
I C
2
C
+ =
Since the average of any sinusoid is zero, the real
or active power delivered to R, L and C are
R I P
2
R
= in Watts
0 P
L
=
0 P
C
=
Consider a series LC circuit. Let
the current be described by
i=I
m
cos (t+
I
). The voltages
v
L
and v
C
can be shown to be
v
C
+ -
C L i
+ - v
L
i
v
L
v
C
Reactive Power
) t sin(
C
I
v
I
m
C
+
=
) t sin( LI v
I m L
+ =
90 180 -90
t, deg
270 360
I
19
The energy stored in the magnetic and electric
fields are
) t ( cos Li W
I
2 2
L 2
1
L
+ =
Plots of the energy are shown below.
i
W
L
W
C
90 180 -90
t, deg
270 360
I
) t ( sin Cv W
I
2 2
C 2
1
C
+ =
Comments:
When the magnitude of the capacitor voltage
is increasing, the magnitude of the inductor
current is decreasing, and vice versa.
1.
When the capacitor is storing energy, the
inductor is supplying energy, and vice versa.
2.
The instantaneous power delivered to the inductor
and capacitor are
) t ( 2 sin X I p
I L
2
L
+ =
) t ( 2 sin X I p
I C
2
C
+ =
Definition: The negative of the coefficient of
sin2(t+
I
) is defined as the reactive power Q.
Thus, the reactive power delivered to L and C are
L
2 2
L
X I LI Q = = in Vars (volt-ampere reactive)
C
2
2
C
X I
C
I
Q =
= in Vars
Recall the expression for the instantaneous power
supplied by a source or delivered to a passive
network.
)] t ( 2 cos 1 )[ cos( VI p
I I V
+ + =
I I V
+
The reactive power is
) sin( VI Q
I V
=
in Vars
Apparent Power and Power Factor
Definition: The product of the RMS voltage and
the RMS current is defined as the apparent power.
It is also called the volt-ampere.
VI VA = in Volt-Amperes
Note: Electrical equipment rating is expressed in
terms of the apparent power.
Definition: The ratio of the real or active power to
the apparent power is defined as the power factor.
) cos(
VA
P
PF
I V
= =
20
The power factor must be specified as lagging or
leading:
1. The power factor is lagging when the
current lags the voltage.
2. The power factor is leading when the
current leads the voltage.
Note:
1. The reactive power is positive when the
power factor is lagging.
2. The reactive power is negative when the
power factor is leading.
Summary of Power Equations
1. Real Power: ) cos( VI P
I V
= Watts
R I P
2
R
= for a resistor
2. Reactive Power: ) sin( VI Q
I V
=
Vars
C
2
C
X I Q = for a capacitor
L
2
L
X I Q = for an inductor
3. Apparent Power: VI VA = Volt-Amperes
) cos(
VA
P
PF
I V
= = 4. Power Factor:
lagging or leading
Power Triangle
P
Q
V
A
I V
=
The power triangle is a right triangle whose sides
correspond to the real and reactive power.
) cos( VI P
I V
=
VI VA =
) sin( VI Q
I V
=
From the power triangle, we get
2 2
Q P VA + = (1)
= tan P Q (2)
Complex Power
) ( VI ) I )( V ( * I V S
I V I V
= = =

) sin( jVI ) cos( VI
I V I V
+ =
Note: The complex power S is a complex number
whose real and imaginary components are the real
and reactive power, respectively.
Definition: The product of the phasor voltage and
the conjugate of the phasor current is defined as
the complex power S. Let and .
I
I I =
V
V V =
jQ P S + =
or
21
Recall the transformation from the time domain
to the complex frequency domain defined by
) t cos( F ) t ( f
m
+ =
= F ) j ( F
Note: Unlike complex numbers, a phasor quantity
is a complex representation of a sinusoidal function.
The quantity F(j) is referred to as a phasor. For
simplicity, we make a change in notation:
= = F ) j ( F F
Phasor Notation
Transform the network.
volts 0 220 V
o
=
= = 154 . 1 j ) 00306 . 0 ( 377 j Z

1 L
= = 846 . 4 j ) 012854 . 0 ( 377 j Z
2 L
Example: In the circuit shown, v(t) = 311 cos377t
volts. Find the power and reactive power delivered
to the load.
v(t)
+
-
i(t)
0.5 3.06 mH
7.5
12.854 mH
Load
+
-
0.5 j1.154
7.5
j4.846
V
I
+
-
x
V
Transformed
Network
Get the total
impedance.
846 . 4 j 5 . 7 154 . 1 j 5 . 0 Z
eq
+ + + =
= + = 87 . 36 0 . 10 6 j 8
o
Find the current
A 87 . 36 22
87 . 36 10
0 220
Z
V
I
o
o
o
eq
=
= =

Find the voltage across the load
) 846 . 4 j 5 . 7 ( I V
X
+ =

o o
32.87 (8.929 ) 87 . 36 22 ( =
volts 0 . 4 45 . 196
o
=
Find the complex power delivered to the load.
) 36.87 (22 ) 4 45 . 196 ( I V jQ P
o o *
X L L
= = +

o
87 . 32 8 . 4321 =
346 , 2 j 630 , 3 + =
Thus, P
L
=3,630 Watts and Q
L
=2,346 Vars.
22
Example: Given
v(t)=100 cos 10t volts,
find all Ps and Qs.
v(t)
+
-
i(t)
8
0.6H
Transform the network
V 0 71 . 70 V
o
=
= + =
o
87 . 36 10 6 j 8 Z
+
-
8
j6
V
A 87 . 36 071 . 7
87 . 36 10
0 71 . 70
Z
V
I
o
o
o
=
= =
Solve for the current

Power and Reactive Power delivered to R and L
watts 400 ) 8 ( 071 . 7 R I P
2 2
R
= = =
ars v 300 ) 6 ( 071 . 7 X I Q
2
L
2
L
= = =
Power and reactive power supplied by the source
o
I V s
87 . 36 cos ) 071 . 7 ( 71 . 70 ) cos( VI P = =
watts 400 =
Vars 300 87 . 36 sin ) 071 . 7 ( 71 . 70 Q
o
s
= =
300 j 400 87 . 36 500
o
+ = =
) 87 . 36 071 . 7 )( 0 71 . 70 ( * I V S
o o
= =

or
Example: Given
v=200 cos 10t
Volts. Find all
real power and
reactive power.
i
1
+
-
R
1
=6 L
1
=1.2H
R
2
=5
L
2
=0.5H
0.01F
i
2
i
3
v
The transformed network
V 0 42 . 141 V
o
=
= 12 j Z
1
L
= 5 j Z
2
L
= 10 j Z
C
V
1
I
+
-
6 j12
5
j5
-j10
2
I
3
I

In a previous example, we found
A 87 . 36 071 . 7 I
o
1
=
A 87 . 81 10 I
o
2
=
A 13 . 53 071 . 7 I
o
3
=
watts 500 ) 5 ( 10 R I P
2
2
2
2 2 R
= = =
Average power dissipated by the resistors
watts 300 ) 6 ( 071 . 7 R I P
2
1
2
1 1 R
= = =
Reactive Power delivered to the capacitor
vars 500 ) 10 ( 071 . 7 X I Q
2
C
2
3 C
= = =
23
Reactive Power delivered to the inductors
vars 600 ) 12 ( 071 . 7 X I Q
2
1 L
2
1 1 L
= = =
ars v 500 ) 5 ( 10 X I Q
2
2 L
2
2 2 L
= = =
o o
I V
87 . 36 ) 87 . 36 ( 0 = = =
o
1 S
87 . 36 cos ) 071 . 7 ( 42 . 141 cos VI P = =
watts 800 =
vars 600 sin VI Q
1 S
= =
We can also use the complex power formula
*
1 S S
I V jQ P

= +
600 j 800 87 . 36 1000
o
+ = =
) 87 . 36 07 . 7 )( 0 42 . 141 (
o o
=
Thus, P
S
=800 watts and Q
S
=600 vars.
Note: Real and reactive power must always be
balanced. That is,
watts 800 P P P
2 R 1 R S
= + =
vars 600 Q Q Q Q
C 2 L 1 L S
= + + =
From a previous example, we found
V 15 3 . 68 V
o
X
=
A 15 83 . 6 I
o
X
=
and
Example: Given
V 0 71 . 70 V
o
S
=
A 30 071 . 7 I
o
S
=
Find all P and Q.

+ = 5 j 5 Z
1
= 10 Z
2
= 10 j Z
3
X
V
+
S
I
S
V
REF
1
I
X
I
C
I
1
Z
+
-
2
Z
3
Z
We can also find and .
1
I
C
I
( )
1 1
X S
1
Z
68 . 17 j 97 . 65 71 . 70
Z
V V
I

=
o
o
45 071 . 7
75 3 . 18
5 j 5
68 . 17 j 737 . 4
=
+
+
=
A 30 59 . 2
o
=
o
o
C
X
C
90 10
15 3 . 68
Z
V
I

= =
A 75 83 . 6
o
=
24
Power and reactive power delivered to Z
1
watts 5 . 33 ) 5 ( 59 . 2 R I P
2
1 Z
2
1 1 Z
= = =
vars 5 . 33 X I Q
1 Z
2
1 1 Z
= =
watts 5 . 466 ) 10 ( 83 . 6 R I P
2
2
2
X 2 R
= = =
Power dissipated by the resistor R
2
vars 5 . 466 X I Q
C
2
C C
= =
Reactive power delivered to the capacitor
S
V
Power and reactive power supplied by

) 30 59 . 2 )( 71 . 70 ( I V jQ P
o
*
1 S V V
= = +

watts 5 . 158 P
V
= vars 5 . 91 Q
V
=
5 . 91 j 5 . 158 30 183
o
= =
) 30 071 . 7 )( 15 3 . 68 ( I V jQ P
o o
*
S X I I
= = +

Power and reactive power supplied by
S
I
o
45 - 95 . 82 4 = 5 . 341 j 5 . 341 =
watts 5 . 341 P
I
= vars 5 . 341 Q
I
=
vars 100 , 3 ) pf (cos tan P Q
1
1
1 1
= =

V 0 220 V
o
1
=
Example: Find
the power and
power factor
of generator 2.
Assume
Gen. 1
1
V
1
I
L
I
+
-
2
V
+
-
0.3+j0.4 0.2+j0.2
L
V
+
-
2
I
Gen. 2 Load
P
1
=5 kW P
L
=10 kW
pf
1
=0.85 lag pf
L
=0.8 lag
For generator 1,
watts 000 , 5 P
1
=
From the complex power formula, we get
1
1 1
*
1
V
jQ P
I
+
=
08 . 14 j 73 . 22
220
100 , 3 j 000 , 5
+ =
+
=
08 . 14 j 73 . 22 I
1
=
A 79 . 31 74 . 26
o
=
Thus,
From KVL, we get the voltage at the load
1 1 L
I ) 4 . 0 j 3 . 0 ( V V

+ =
25
Substitution gives
) 31.79 - )(26.74 13 . 53 5 . 0 ( V V
o o
1 L
=

o
1
34 . 21 37 . 13 V =

) 86 . 4 j 45 . 12 ( 220 + =
86 . 4 j 55 . 207 =
V 34 . 1 6 . 207 V
o
L
=
vars 7,500 0.8) tan(cos 000 , 10 Q

-1
L
= =
At the load,
watts 000 , 10 P
L
=
o
o
34 . 1 6 . 207
87 . 36 500 , 12

=
A 24 . 37 j 31 . 47 =
o
34 . 1 6 . 207
500 , 7 j 000 , 10

+
=
L
L L
*
L
V
jQ P
I
+
=
A 21 . 38 21 . 60 I
o
L
=
Thus,
1 L 2
I I I

=
From KCL, we get the current supplied by Gen 2.
) 08 . 14 j 73 . 22 ( ) 24 . 37 j 31 . 47 ( =
16 . 23 j 58 . 24 =
A 3 . 43 77 . 33 I
o
2
=
Thus,
From KVL, we get the voltage of Generator 2
L 2 2
V I ) 2 . 0 j 2 . 0 ( V

+ + =
L
V ) 16 . 23 j 58 . 24 )( 2 . 0 j 2 . 0 (

+ + =
Simplifying, we get
86 . 4 j 55 . 207 28 . 0 j 55 . 9 V
2
+ + =
V 21 . 1 15 . 217 58 . 4 j 1 . 217
o
= =
Applying the complex power formula,
*
2 2 2 2
I V jQ P

= +
) 3 . 43 77 . 33 )( 21 . 1 15 . 217 (
o o
=
915 , 4 j 443 , 5 1 . 42 334 , 7
o
+ = =
lag 74 . 0 )
P
Q
cos(tan pf
2
2 1
2
= =

The power is 5,443 watts while the power factor is
26
Example: A small industrial shop has the following
connected load:
Load L1: Induction motor 2 kW, 0.85 pf lag
Load L2: Electric Heater 3 kW, 1.0 pf
Load L3: Lighting Load 500 W, 0.9 pf lag
Load L4: Outlets 1 kW, 0.95 pf lag
The voltage across the load is 220 V RMS. Find the
current through each load and the total current
supplied to the shop.
+
220V
t
I
1
I
2
I
3
I
4
I
L4 L3 L2 L1
-
For load L1, P
1
=2,000 watts, pf
1
=0.85 lag
vars 1,240 0.85) (cos tan 000 , 2 Q
-1
1
= =
A 79 . 31 7 . 10 63 . 5 j 09 . 9
o
= =
For load L2, P
2
=3,000 watts. Since pf
2
=1, then
Q
2
=0. Thus
A 0 64 . 13
220
0 j 000 , 3
I
o
2
=
220
240 , 1 j 000 , 2
V
jQ P
I
*
1
1 1
1

=

For load L3, P
3
=500 watts, pf
3
=0.90 lag
vars 242 0.9) (cos tan 500 Q
-1
3
= =
A 84 . 25 52 . 2 1 . 1 j 27 . 2
o
= =
220
242 j 500
I
3

=
For load L4, P

4
=1,000 watts, pf
4
=0.95 lag
vars 329 0.95) tan(cos 000 , 1 Q
-1
4
= =
220
329 j 1000
I
4

=
A 19 . 18 78 . 4 49 . 1 j 54 . 4
o
= =
From KCL, the total current is
4 3 2 1 t
I I I I I

+ + + =
A 55 . 15 66 . 30 22 . 8 j 54 . 29
o
= =
) 0 j 64 . 13 ( ) 63 . 5 j 09 . 9 ( + =
) 49 . 1 j 54 . 4 ( ) 1 . 1 j 27 . 2 ( + +
or
watts 500 , 6 P P P P P
4 3 2 1 t
= + + + =
vars 811 , 1 Q Q Q Q Q
4 3 2 1 t
= + + + =
A 22 . 8 j 54 . 29
220
811 , 1 j 500 , 6
I
t
=
27
Phasor Diagrams
v(t)
+
-
i(t)
8
0.6H
v
R
+
-
+ -
v
L
Consider the circuit shown.
Let v=100 cos(10t+) V.
Phasor diagrams show graphically how KVL and
KCL equations are satisfied in a given circuit.
The transformed network
V 71 . 70 V =
= 8 Z
R
= 6 j Z
L
+
-
+
-
+ -
V
R
V
L
V
Z
L
Z
R
I

) 8 )]( 87 . 36 ( 071 . 7 [ Z I V
o
R R
= =

V ) 87 . 36 ( 57 . 56
o
=
V ) 13 . 53 ( 43 . 42
o
+ =
) 90 6 )]( 87 . 36 ( 071 . 7 [ Z I V
o o
L L
= =

o
T
87 . 36 10
71 . 70
6 j 8
71 . 70
Z
V
I

=
+

= =
Solve for the phasor current and voltages. We get

A ) 87 . 36 ( 07 . 7
o
=
Assume =0
o
. We get
V 0 71 . 70 V
o
=
V 36.87 - 56.57 V
o
R
=
V 53.13 42.43 V
o
L
=
A 87 . 36 07 . 7 I
o
=
The phasor diagram

is shown.
Note:
L R
V V V

+ =
I
is in phase with
R
V
L
V
lags by 90
o
R
V
L
V
I
36.87
o
53.13
o
R
V
L
V
3
6
.
8
7
o
5
3
.
1
3
o
Assume =60
o
. We get
V 60 71 . 70 V
o
=
V 3.13 2 56.57 V
o
R
=
V 3.13 11 42.43 V
o
L
=
A 13 . 23 07 . 7 I
o
=
The phasor diagram

is shown.
Note: The entire phasor
diagram was rotated by
an angle of 60
o
.
28
Assume =120
o
. We get
V 120 71 . 70 V
o
=
V 3.13 8 56.57 V
o
R
=
V 3.13 17 42.43 V
o
L
=
A 13 . 83 07 . 7 I
o
=
The phasor diagram is shown.

Note: The entire phasor
diagram was rotated by
another 60
o
.
R
V
L
V
3
6
.
8
7
o
5
3
.
1
3
o
Note: The magnitude and phase displacement
between the phasors is unchanged. The phasors
are rotating in the counterclockwise direction.
S S S S
cos I V P =
W 400 87 . 36 cos ) 071 . 7 ( 71 . 70
o
= =
vars 300 87 . 36 sin ) 071 . 7 ( 71 . 70 Q
o
S
= =
Power dissipated by the resistor
watts 400 ) 8 ( ) 071 . 7 ( R I P
2 2
R
= = =
vars 300 ) 6 ( ) 071 . 7 ( X I Q
2 2
L
= = =
Reactive power delivered to the inductor
The total impedance seen by the source
C 2 1 T
Z // Z Z Z + =
10 j 5 j 5
) 5 j 5 ( 10 j
12 j 6
+
+
+ + =
= + = 87 . 36 20 12 j 16
o
Example:
V 0 42 . 141 V
o
=
+ = 5 j 5 Z
2
+ = 12 j 6 Z
1
1
V
2
V
1
I
+
-
6 j12
5
j5
-j10
2
I
3
I
+ -
+
-
Note: Refer to a previous problem.
Source current
A 87 . 36 07 . 7
87 . 36 20
0 42 . 141
Z
V
I
o
o
o
T
1
=
= =
Apply current division to get

A 87 . 81 0 . 10 I
o
2
=
A 13 . 53 07 . 7 I
o
3
=
) 12 j 6 )( 87 . 36 07 . 7 ( Z I V
o
1 1 1
+ = =

V 56 . 26 87 . 94
o
=
Solve for the voltage
1
V
29
) 5 j 5 )( 87 . 81 10 ( Z I V
o
2 2 2
+ = =

Solve for the voltage
2
V
V 87 . 36 71 . 70
o
=
Phasor Diagram
V
1
V
2
V
2 1
V V V

+ =
Note:
1
I
2
I
3
I
3 2 1
I I I

+ =
) 87 . 36 071 . 7 )( 0 42 . 141 (
o o
=
600 j 800 87 . 36 1000
o
+ = =
Power supplied by the source
*
1 S S
I V jQ P

= +
or
watts 800 87 . 36 cos ) 071 . 7 ( 42 . 141 P
o
S
= =
vars 600 87 . 36 sin ) 071 . 7 ( 42 . 141 Q
o
S
= =
vars 500 ) 10 ( ) 07 . 7 ( X I Q
2
C
2
C C
= = =
Power delivered to Z
C
We can also use the complex-power formula
*
1 1 1 1
I V jQ P

= +
) 87 . 36 071 . 7 )( 56 . 26 87 . 94 (
o o
=
600 j 300 43 . 63 82 . 670
o
+ = =
1
watts 300 ) 6 ( ) 071 . 7 ( R I P
2
1
2
1 1
= = =
vars 600 ) 12 ( ) 071 . 7 ( X I Q
2
1
2
1 1
= = =
2
watts 500 ) 5 ( ) 10 ( R I P
2
2
2
2 2
= = =
vars 500 ) 5 ( ) 10 ( X I Q
2
2
2
2 2
= = =
or
*
2 2 2 2
I V jQ P

= +
) 87 . 81 10 )( 87 . 36 71 . 70 (
o o
=
500 j 500 45 1 . 707
o
+ = =
Note: It can be shown that power balance is
satisfied.
30
Let volts, the reference phasor
o
R
0 120 V =
A 0 6
20
0 120
20
V
I
o
o
R
S
=
= =
Then
Example: A voltmeter reads these voltages for the
network shown below:
RMS V 220 V
S
=
RMS V 120 V
R
=
RMS V 150 V
C
=
C
V
S
I
+
-
+
-
S
V
R
V
+ -
20
R
C
a) Find R and C.
b) Find P and Q supplied by the source.
Note: (1) Since the network is capacitive, i
S
must
lead v
S
.
C R S
V V V

+ = (2) From KVL,
Phasor Diagram
R
V
S
I
S
V
C
V
Apply the cosine law

+ = cos (220)(120) 2 - 120 220 150
2 2 2
o
25 . 40 = 763 . 0 cos = or We get
o
12 . 31 = 86 . 0 cos = We get or
Check: 14 . 142 j 92 . 47 120 V V
C R
+ = +

14 . 142 j 92 . 167 =
S
o
V 25 . 40 220

= =
Apply the cosine law again
volts 0 120 V
o
R
=
volts 25 . 40 220 V
o
S
=
volts 37 . 71 150 V
o
C
=
Thus
2 2 2
120 220 150 -2(220)(150)cos = +
038 . 0 j 013 . 0 + = C j
R
1
+ =
o
o
o
C
S
37 . 71 04 . 0
37 . 71 150
0 6
V
I
=

The admittance for the parallel RC branch

o
25 . 40 1320 =
853 j 1008 =
We get R=78.26 and C=0.04
-1
.
*
S S S S
I V jQ P

= + ) 0 6 )( 25 . 40 220 (
o o
=
Power supplied by the source
31
Balanced Three Phase Voltages
Three sinusoidal voltages whose amplitudes are
equal and whose phase angles are displaced by
120
o
are three-phase balanced.
) t cos( V (t) v
m a
+ =
The RMS value of the voltages is
m
m
V 71 . 0
2
V
V =
120) t cos( V (t) v
m c
+ + =
120) t cos( V (t) v
m b
+ =
Balanced Three Phase Voltages
Note: The synchronous
generator is a three phase
machine that is designed to
generate balanced three-
phase voltages.
Transforming to phasors, we get
V
a
= V
V
b
= V -120
V
c
= V +120
a
V
b
V
c
V

Balanced Three-Phase Currents
are three-phase balanced.
The currents ) t ( cos I i
m a
+ =
) 120 t cos( I i
m b
+ =
) 120 t cos( I i
m c
+ + =
In phasor form, we get
= I I
a
o
b
120 I I =
o
c
120 I I + =
a
I
b
I
c
I

Balanced Three-Phase System
A balanced three-phase system consists of :
1. Balanced three-phase sinusoidal sources;
3. The connecting wires have equal impedances.
2. Balanced three-phase loads; and
a) Equal impedances per phase or
A balanced three-phase load has:
Note: The load may be connected in wye or delta.
b) Equal P and Q per phase
32
Example
Example: Given V
a
=200/0
o
volts, V
b
=200/-120
o
volts and V
c
=200/120
o
volts. Find the phasor
currents I
a
, I
b
and I
c
. Also, find P and Q supplied to
Z
a
, Z
b
and Z
c
.
n n'
a
V
b
V
c
V
c
I
a
I
b
I
Z
a
Z
a
=Z
b
=Z
c
=7+j5
Z
b Z
c
2
I
1
I
Z
F
Z
F
Z
F
=1+j1
Example
Mesh equations using loop currents I
1
and I
2
.
V
a
V
b
= 2(Z
f
+ Z
L
)I
1
(Z
f
+ Z
L
)I
2
V
b
V
c
= -(Z
f
+ Z
L
)I
1
+ 2(Z
f
+ Z
L
)I
2
Substitution gives
300 + j173.2 = (16 + j12)I
1
(8 + j6)I
2
- j346.4 = -(8 + j6)I
1
+ (16 + j12)I
2
Solving simultaneously we get
I
1
= 20-36.87A
I
2
= 20-96.87 A
Example
Solving for currents I
a
, I
b
and I
c
, we get
I
a
= I
1
= 20-36.87A
I
b
= I
2
I
1
= 20-156.87A
I
c
= -I
2
= 2083.13A
Note: Currents I
a
, I
b
and I
c
are balanced.
Power and Reactive Power supplied to load impedances
Z
a
, Z
b
and Z
c
.
P
a
= P
b
= P
c
= (20)
2
(7) = 2800 Watts
Q
a
= Q
b
= Q
c
= (20)
2
(5) = 2000 Var
Comments
1. The sum of 3 balanced phasors is zero.
2. If a neutral wire is connected between n and n, no
currents will flow through the neutral wire.
3. The nodes n and n are at the same potential.
4. We can analyze the circuit using single-phase
analysis.
n n'
neutral line
a
V
Z
a
=7+j5
Z
F
=1+j1
a
I
33
Comments
Using KVL, we get
V
a
= (Z
f
+ Z
a
)I
a
+ V
nn
Since V
nn
= 0, we get for phase a
I
a
=
Z
f
+ Z
a
V
a
= 20-36.87A
8 + j6
2000
=
P
a
= (20)
2
(7) = 2800 Watts
Q
a
= (20)
2
(5) = 2000 Watts
For phases b and c, we get
I
b
= I
a
-120= 20-156.87 A
I
c
= I
a
120 = 2083.13 A
Line-to-line and Phase Voltages
Consider a 3-phase wye-connected generator or a
3-phase wye-connected load.
V
an
, V
bn
and V
cn
are line-to-neutral (or phase) voltages
V
ab
, V
bc
and V
ca
are line-to-line (or line) voltages
n n
b
a
c
Line-to-line and Phase Voltages
From KVL, V
ab
= V
an
+ V
nb
= V
an
V
bn
V
bc
= V
bn
+ V
nc
= V
bn
V
cn
V
ca
= V
cn
+ V
na
= V
cn
V
an
If V
an
, V
bn
and V
cn
are balanced
3-phase voltages,
we get the phasor
diagram shown.
V
ca
V
cn
V
ab
V
an
V
bn
V
bc
Comments
1. The line-to-line voltages V
ab
, V
bc
and V
ca
are also
balanced 3-phase voltages;
2. The magnitude of the line-to-line voltage is
square root of three times the magnitude of the
line-to-neutral voltage; and
3. V
ab
leads V
an
by 30, V
bc
leads V
bn
by 30and V
ca
leads V
cn
by 30.
o
an ab
30 V 3 V =

o
bn bc
30 V 3 V =

o
cn ca
30 V 3 V =

34
-Y Conversion for Generators
Given a balanced 3-phase delta connected
generator, what is its equivalent wye ?
a a
Note: The line-to-line voltages must be the same.
c
b
c
b
V
ca
V
ab
V
bc
V
cn
V
an
V
bn
If V
ab
= V
L
, then V
an
= (1/3) V
L
-30
-Y Conversion for Loads
Note: For equivalence, Z
ab
, Z
bc
and Z
ca
must be
the same for both networks.
If the impedance of the delta load is specified,
convert the impedance to wye.
Y
Z
3
1
Z =
a
c
b
Y
Z
Y
Z
Y
Z
c
a
b
Z

Z
Z
Power Equations
For a single-phase system
P
p
= V
p
I
p
cos Q
p
= V
p
I
p
sin
VA
p
= V
p
I
p
For a three-phase system
P
3
= 3P
p
= 3V
p
I
p
cos = 3V
L
I
p
cos
Q
3
= 3Q
p
= 3V
p
I
p
sin = 3V
L
I
p
sin
VA
3
= 3VA
p
= 3V
p
I
p
= 3V
L
I
p
where
V
p
= magnitude of voltage per phase
I
p
= magnitude of current per phase
= angle of V
p
minus angle of I
p
Example
A balanced 3-phase load draws a total power of 75
KW at 0.85 pf lag from a 440-volt line-to-line
supply. Find the current drawn by the load?
A 115.8 I
P
=
cos I V 3 P
P L 3
=
cos V 3
P
I
L
3
P
=
From
we get
) (440)(0.85 3
75,000
=
or
35
Example
For load 1, P
1
=75 kw
For load 2, P
2
=60 kw
kvars 48 . 46 ) 85 . 0 tan(cos P Q
1
1 1
= =

kvars 06 . 29 ) 9 . 0 tan(cos P Q
1
2 2
= =

Get P and Q drawn by combined load
kw 135 P P P
2 1 T
= + =
kvars 54 . 75 Q Q Q
2 1 T
= + =
Another 3-phase load rated 60 KW at 0.9 pf lag is
connected in parallel with the load in the previous
example. Find the total current drawn.
Example
A 203
(440) 3
154,700
I
P
= =
The total volt-ampere is
kva 7 . 154 Q P VA
2
T
2
T T
= + =
Since
P L 3
I V 3 VA =
we get
Single-Phase Analysis of a Balanced
Three-Phase System
A balanced three-phase system can be
replaced by a single-phase equivalent circuit
provided:
1. All generators are connected in wye; and
2. All loads are connected in wye.
Note: To get the single-phase equivalent,
draw the neutral line and isolate one phase.
Example
Find the phasor current I
s
, I
1
and I
2
and the total power and
reactive power supplied by the three-phase voltage source.
Source Load 1 Load 2
V
an
= 120 /0
o
V P
T
= 4.5 kW Z = 8 + j6
at 0.92 pf lag
c
b
a
I
s
I
1
Z
Z
Z
I
2
36
Example
Single-Phase Equivalent Circuit
V
an
= 1200 V P
1
=1,500 W Z=8+j6
0.92 pf lag
For load 1, P
1
= 1,500 watts
Q
1
= P
1
tan(cos
-1
0.92) = 639 vars
A 1 . 23 6 . 13
o
=
I
s
I
1
I
2 V
an
I
1
=
1500 j369
120
= 12.5 j5.3 A
= 13.6-23.1 A
Z
Example
For load 2,
For the source,
I
s
= I
1
+ I
2
= 22.1 j12.5 A = 25.4 -29.5
P
s
+ jQ
s
= V
an
I
s
* = 120 (25.4 -29.5)
= 2652 + j1503
For the three phase source
ars v 509 , 4 ) 503 , 1 ( 3 Q
3
= =
watts 956 , 7 ) 652 , 2 ( 3 P

3
= =
I
2
=
V
an
Z
120 0
120 0
=
= 12 -36.87 = 9.6 j7.2 A

EEE3 Lecture 5 - Exam2 - Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis

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EEE3 Lecture 5 - Exam2 - Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis

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1

Sinusoidal Steady Sinusoidal Steady- -State State

Evaluate the constant term

= = 154 . 1 j ) 00306 . 0 ( 377 j Z

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Solve for the current

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Find all P and Q.

Power and reactive power supplied by

vars 7,500 0.8) tan(cos 000 , 10 Q

From the complex power formula, we get

For load L4, P

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Solve for the phasor current and voltages. We get

The phasor diagram

The phasor diagram

The phasor diagram is shown.

Apply current division to get

Apply the cosine law

The admittance for the parallel RC branch

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

watts 956 , 7 ) 652 , 2 ( 3 P

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