1

What is a Network
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as
printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on
a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light
beams.
The two basic types of networks include:
Local Area Network (LAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Local Area Network:
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area. It is
generally limited to a geographic area such as a writing lab, school, or building. Rarely are LAN
computers more than a mile apart.
In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is designated as the file server. It stores all of the
software that controls the network, as well as the software that can be shared by the computers
attached to the network. Computers connected to the file server are called workstations. The
workstations can be less powerful than the file server, and they may have additional software on
their hard drives. On most LANs, cables are used to connect the network interface cards in each
computer. See the Topology, Cabling, and Hardware sections of this tutorial for more
information on the configuration of a LAN.
Wide Area Network:
Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic areas, such as Florida, the United
States, or the world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect
this type of network.
Using a WAN, schools in Florida can communicate with places like Tokyo in a matter of
minutes, without paying enormous phone bills. A WAN is complicated. It uses multiplexers to
connect local and metropolitan networks to global communications networks like the Internet.
To users, however, a WAN will not appear to be much different than a LAN or a MAN.
Advantages of I nstalling a School Network:
Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files.
Without a network, files are shared by copying them to floppy disks, then
carrying or sending the disks from one computer to another. This method of
transferring files (referred to as sneaker-net) is very time-consuming.
Cost. Network able versions of many popular software programs are available at
considerable savings when compared to buying individually licensed copies.
Besides monetary savings, sharing a program on a network allows for easier
2

upgrading of the program. The changes have to be done only once, on the file
server, instead of on all the individual workstations.
Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," so
that you do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords
can be established for specific directories to restrict access to authorized users.
Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of installing a
network at a school is the fact that all of the software can be loaded on one
computer (the file server). This eliminates that need to spend time and energy
installing updates and tracking files on independent computers throughout the
building.
Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in which a network exceeds
stand-alone computers. Most schools cannot afford enough laser printers, fax
machines, modems, scanners, and CD-ROM players for each computer. However,
if these or similar peripherals are added to a network, they can be shared by many
users.
Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the hardware necessary to
install an e-mail system. E-mail aids in personal and professional communication
for all school personnel, and it facilitates the dissemination of general information
to the entire school staff. Electronic mail on a LAN can enable students to
communicate with teachers and peers at their own school. If the LAN is
connected to the Internet, students can communicate with others throughout the
world.
Flexible Access. School networks allow students to access their files from
computers throughout the school. Students can begin an assignment in their
classroom, save part of it on a public access area of the network, then go to the
media center after school to finish their work. Students can also work
cooperatively through the network.
Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice) allows
many users to work on a document or project concurrently. For example, educators
located at various schools within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas
about new curriculum standards to the same document and spreadsheets.
Disadvantages of I nstalling a School Network:
Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the
initial costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software are
expensive, and the installation may require the services of a technician.
Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires
considerable time and expertise. Many schools have installed a network, only to find
that they did not budget for the necessary administrative support.
File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than any
other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network may come to a
halt. When this happens, the entire school may lose access to necessary programs and
files.
Cables May Break. The Topology chapter presents information about the various
configurations of cables. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the
inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can stop
the entire network.
3

7-layer OSI MODEL

The OSI (Open System Interconnection) model is developed by ISO in 1984 to provide a
reference model for the complex aspects related to network communication. It divides the
different functions and services provided by network hardware and software in 7 layers. This
facilitates modular engineering, simplifies teaching and learning network technologies, helps to
isolate problems and allows vendors to focus on just the layer(s) in which their hardware or
software is implemented and be able to create products that are compatible, standardized and
interoperable.

The diagram below shows the 7 layers of the OSI Model, to remember them in the correct order
a common mnemonic is often used: All People Seem To Need Data Processing.
Host A Host B


The Application, Presentation and Session layer are known as the Upper Layer and are
implemented in software. The Transport and Network layer are mainly concerned with protocols
for delivery and routing of packets to a destination and are implemented in software as well. The
Data Link is implemented in hard- and software and the Physical layer is implemented in
hardware only, hence its name. These last two layers define LAN and WAN specifications.

A more detailed description of each layer follows below, but here's what basically happens when
data passes from Host A to Host B:
1. The Application, Presentation and Session layer take user input and converts it into data
2. The Transport layer adds a segment header converting the data into segments,
3.Tthe Network layer adds a network header and converts the segments into packets ,
4. The Data Link layer adds a frame header converting the packets into frames,
5. The MAC suB layer converts the frames into a bit which the Physical layer can put on the
wire.
The steps are known as the 5 steps of data encapsulation. When the bits stream arrives at the
destination, the Physical layer takes it of the wire and converts it into frames, each layer will
remove their corresponding header while the data flows up the OSI model until it is converted
back to data and presented to the user, this is known as de-capsulation



4

APPLICATION

The Application layer provides network services directly to the user's application such as a web
browser, email software and Windows Explorer. This layer is said to be "closest to the user".
Protocols that operate on this layer include: TELNET, HTTP, FTP, TFTP, SMTP, NTP, SNMP,
EDI.

PRESENTATION

This layer 'represents' the data in a particular format to the Application layer. It defines
encryption, compression, conversion and other coding functions.
Specifications defined at this layer include: GIF, TIFF, JPEG, MPEG, MIME, and ASCII.

SESSION

Establishes, maintains and terminates end-to-end connections (sessions) between two
applications on two network nodes. It controls the dialogue between the source and destination
node, which node can send when and how long. Also provides error reporting for the
Application, Presentation and Session layer.
Protocols/API's that operate on this layer include: RPC, SQL, NETBIOS.

TRANSPORT

This layer converts the data received from the upper layers into segments. The Transport layer is
responsible for end-to-end (also called source-to-destination) delivery of entire messages.
Provides end-to-end connectivity, it allows data to be transferred reliably and sequencing to
guarantee that it will be delivered in the same order that it was sent. Provides services such as
error checking and flow control (software).
Protocols that operate on this layer: TCP, UDP, NETBEUI, SPX.
These protocols are either connectionless or connection-oriented:

Connection-oriented means that a connection (a virtual link) must be established before data
can be exchanged. This can guarantee that data will arrive, and in the same order it was sent. It
guarantees delivery by sending acknowledgements back to the source when messages are
received. TCP is an example of an connection-oriented transport protocol.
A common example of connection-oriented communication is a telephone call: you call, the
'destination' picks up the phone and acknowledges and you start talking (sending data). When a
message or a piece of it doesn't arrive, you say: "What!?" and the sender will retransmit the data.

Connectionless is the opposite of connection-oriented; the sender does not establish a
connection before it sends data, it just sends without guaranteeing delivery. UDP is an example
of an connectionless transport protocol.



5

NETWORK

This layer converts the segments from the Transport layer into packets (or datagrams) and is
responsible for path determination, routing, and the delivery of these individual packets across
multiple networks without guaranteed delivery. The network layer treats these packets
independently, without recognizing any relationship between those packets, it relies on upper
layers for reliable delivery and sequencing.
Also this layer is is responsible for logical addressing (also known as network addressing or
Layer 3 addressing) for example IP addresses
Examples of protocols defined at this layer: IP, IPX, AppleTalk, ICMP, RIP, OSPF, BGP, IGRP,
EIGRP, NLSP, ARP, RARP, X.25.
Devices that operate on this layer: Routers, Layer 3 Switches.

Network layer addresses
Also known as Layer 3 or Logical addresses. These type of addresses are protocol-dependent, for
example if the network protocol is IP, IP addressing will be used which is made up of a network
part and a host part and needs a subnet mask to determine the boundaries of these parts. An
example of an IP address is: 172.16.0.1 and a subnet mask: 255.255.0.0
Another example is Novell's IPX addressing, which uses a combination of a hexadecimal
network address + the layer 2 MAC address to form a network layer address, for example"
46.0010E342A8BC

DATA LINK
The Data Links provides transparent network services to the Network layer so the Network layer
can be ignorant about the physical network topology and and provides access to the physical
networking media. Responsible for reassambling bits taken of the wire by the Physical layer to
frames, makes sure they are in the correct order and requests retransmission of frames in case an
error occurs. Provides error checking by adding a CRC to the frame, and flow control.

Devices that operate on this layer: Switches and Bridges

Data Link layer addresses

Also known as layer 2 addresses, BIAs (Burned-in Address), physical address and most
commonly referred to as MAC address. This is a fixed address programmed into a NIC or a
router interface for example.
00-10-E3-42-A8-BC is an example of a MAC address. The first 6 hexadecimal digits (3 bytes)
specify the vendor/manufacturer of the NIC, the other 6 digits (3 bytes) define the host.

The layer 2 broadcast addresses is FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF.





6

PHYSICAL

This layer communicates directly with the physical media, it is responsible for activating,
maintaining and deactivating the physical link. It handles a raw bits stream and places it on the
wire to be picked up by the Physical layer at the receiving node. It defines electrical and optical
signaling, voltage levels, data transmission rates and distances as well as mechanical
specifications such as cable lengths and connectors, the amount of pins and their function.
Devices that operate on this layer: HUBs/concentrators, repeaters, NICs, and LAN and WAN
interfaces such as RS-232, OC-3, BRI, V.24, V.35, X.25 and Frame Relay.





































7

PROTOCOLS
What is a Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a network.
These rules include guidelines that regulate the following characteristics of a network: access
method, allowed physical topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data transfer.
The most common protocols are:
Ethernet
Local Talk
Token Ring
FDDI
ATM
Ethernet
The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses an access method called
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection). This is a system where each
computer listens to the cable before sending anything through the network. If the network is
clear, the computer will transmit. If some other node is already transmitting on the cable, the
computer will wait and try again when the line is clear. Sometimes, two computers attempt to
transmit at the same instant. When this happens a collision occurs. Each computer then backs off
and waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit. With this access method, it
is normal to have collisions. However, the delay caused by collisions and retransmitting is very
small and does not normally effect the speed of transmission on the network.
The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies. Data can be transmitted over
wireless access points, twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a speed of 10 Mbps up to
1000 Mbps.
Fast Ethernet
To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the Ethernet protocol has developed a new
standard that supports 100 Mbps. This is commonly called Fast Ethernet. Fast Ethernet requires
the use of different, more expensive network concentrators/hubs and network interface cards. In
addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is necessary. Fast Ethernet is becoming
common in schools that have been recently wired.
Gigabit Ethernet
The most recent development in the Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a transmission speed
of 1 Gbps. Gigabit Ethernet is primarily used for backbones on a network at this time. In the
8

future, it will probably be used for workstation and server connections also. It can be used with
both fiber optic cabling and copper.
Local Talk
Local Talk is a network protocol that was developed by Apple Computer, Inc. for Macintosh
computers. The method used by Local Talk is called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Avoidance). It is similar to CSMA/CD except that a computer signals its intent to
transmit before it actually does so. Local Talk adapters and special twisted pair cable can be used
to connect a series of computers through the serial port. The Macintosh operating system allows
the establishment of a peer-to-peer network without the need for additional software. With the
addition of the server version of AppleShare software, a client/server network can be established.
The Local Talk protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies using twisted pair cable. A
primary disadvantage of Local Talk is speed. Its speed of transmission is only 230 Kbps.
Token Ring
The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The access method used
involves token-passing. In Token Ring, the computers are connected so that the signal travels
around the network from one computer to another in a logical ring. A single electronic token
moves around the ring from one computer to the next. If a computer does not have information to
transmit, it simply passes the token on to the next workstation. If a computer wishes to transmit
and receives an empty token, it attaches data to the token. The token then proceeds around the
ring until it comes to the computer for which the data is meant. At this point, the data is captured
by the receiving computer. The Token Ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair
or fiber optic cable. It can operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps. Due to the
increasing popularity of Ethernet, the use of Token Ring in school environments has decreased.
FDDI
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a network protocol that is used primarily to
interconnect two or more local area networks, often over large distances. The access method
used by FDDI involves token-passing. FDDI uses a dual ring physical topology. Transmission
normally occurs on one of the rings; however, if a break occurs, the system keeps information
moving by automatically using portions of the second ring to create a new complete ring. A
major advantage of FDDI is speed. It operates over fiber optic cable at 100 Mbps.
ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network protocol that transmits data at a speed of 155
Mbps and higher. ATM works by transmitting all data in small packets of a fixed size; whereas,
other protocols transfer variable length packets. ATM supports a variety of media such as video,
CD-quality audio, and imaging. ATM employs a star topology, which can work with fiber optic
as well as twisted pair cable.
9

ATM is most often used to interconnect two or more local area networks. It is also frequently
used by Internet Service Providers to utilize high-speed access to the Internet for their clients. As
ATM technology becomes more cost-effective, it will provide another solution for constructing
faster local area networks.
Protocol Summary
Protocol Cable Speed Topology
Ethernet
Twisted Pair, Coaxial,
Fiber
10 Mbps
Linear Bus, Star,
Tree
Fast
Ethernet
Twisted Pair, Fiber 100 Mbps Star
Local Talk Twisted Pair .23 Mbps Linear Bus or Star
Token Ring Twisted Pair
4 Mbps - 16
Mbps
Star-Wired Ring
FDDI Fiber 100 Mbps Dual ring
ATM Twisted Pair, Fiber 155-2488 Mbps
Linear Bus, Star,
Tree


10

NETWORKI NG HARDWARE
What is Networking Hardware
Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other equipment
needed to perform data-processing and communications within the network.

This section provides information on the following components:
File Servers
Workstations
Network Interface Cards
Switches
Repeaters
Bridges
Routers
File Servers
A file server stands at the heart of most networks. It is a very fast computer with a large amount
of RAM and storage space, along with a fast network interface card. The network operating
system software resides on this computer, along with any software applications and data files
that need to be shared.
The file server controls the communication of information between the nodes on a network. For
example, it may be asked to send a word processor program to one workstation, receive a
database file from another workstation, and store an e-mail message during the same time period.
This requires a computer that can store a lot of information and share it very quickly. File servers
should have at least the following characteristics:
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Faster microprocessor (Pentium 4 or Xeon, G4 or G5)
A fast hard drive with at least 120 gigabytes of storage
A RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) to preserve data after a disk casualty
A tape back-up unit (i.e. DAT, JAZ, Zip, or CD-RW drive)
Numerous expansion slots
Fast network interface card
At least of 1 GB of RAM
Workstations
All of the user computers connected to a network are called workstations. A typical workstation
is a computer that is configured with a network interface card, networking software, and the
appropriate cables. Workstations do not necessarily need floppy disk drives because files can be
saved on the file server. Almost any computer can serve as a network workstation.
Network I nterface Cards
The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection between the network and the
computer workstation. Most NICs are internal, with the card fitting into an expansion slot inside
the computer. Some computers, such as Mac Classics, use external boxes which are attached to a
serial port or a SCSI port. Laptop computers can now be purchased with a network interface card
built-in or with network cards that slip into a PCMCIA slot.
Network interface cards are a major factor in determining the speed and performance of a
network. It is a good idea to use the fastest network card available for the type of workstation
you are using.
The three most common network interface connections are Ethernet cards, Local Talk
connectors, and Token Ring cards. According to a International Data Corporation study, Ethernet
is the most popular, followed by Token Ring and Local Talk.
Ethernet Cards
Ethernet cards are usually purchased separately from a computer, although many computers
(such as the Macintosh) now include an option for a pre-installed Ethernet card. Ethernet cards
contain connections for either coaxial or twisted pair cables (or both). If it is designed for coaxial
cable, the connection will be BNC. If it is designed for twisted pair, it will have a RJ-45
connection. Some Ethernet cards also contain an AUI connector. This can be used to attach
coaxial, twisted pair, or fiber optics cable to an Ethernet card. When this method is used there is
always an external transceiver attached to the workstation.
12


Ethernet Card.
From top to bottom:
RJ-45, AUI, and BNC connectors
Local Talk Connectors
Local Talk is Apple's built-in solution for networking Macintosh computers. It utilizes a special
adapter box and a cable that plugs into the printer port of a Macintosh. A major disadvantage of
Local Talk is that it is slow in comparison to Ethernet. Most Ethernet connections operate at 10
Mbps (Megabits per second). In contrast, Local Talk operates at only 230 Kbps (or .23 Mbps).
Ethernet Cards vs. Local Talk Connections
Ethernet Local Talk
Fast data transfer (10 to
100 Mbps)
Slow data transfer (.23
Mbps)
Expensive - purchased
separately
Built into Macintosh
computers
Requires computer slot
No computer slot
necessary
Available for most
computers
Works only on
Macintosh computers

13

Token Ring Cards
Token Ring network cards look similar to Ethernet cards. One visible difference is the type of
connector on the back end of the card. Token Ring cards generally have a nine pin DIN type
connector to attach the card to the network cable.
Switch
A concentrator is a device that provides a central connection point for cables from workstations,
servers, and peripherals. In a star topology, twisted-pair wire is run from each workstation to a
central switch/hub. Most switches are active, that is they electrically amplify the signal as it
moves from one device to another. Switches no longer broadcast network packets as hubs did in
the past, they memorize addressing of computers and send the information to the correct location
directly. Switches are:
Usually configured with 8, 12, 24 or 48 RJ-45 ports
Often used in a star or star-wired ring topology
Sold with specialized software for port management
Also called hubs
Usually installed in a standardized metal rack that also may store net modems, bridges, or
routers
Repeaters
Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often necessary to boost the signal
with a device called a repeater. The repeater electrically amplifies the signal it receives and
rebroadcasts it. Repeaters can be separate devices or they can be incorporated into a
concentrator. They are used when the total length of your network cable exceeds the standards
set for the type of cable being used.
A good example of the use of repeaters would be in a local area network using a star topology
with unshielded twisted-pair cabling. The length limit for unshielded twisted-pair cable is 100
meters. The most common configuration is for each workstation to be connected by twisted-pair
cable to a multi-port active concentrator. The concentrator amplifies all the signals that pass
through it allowing for the total length of cable on the network to exceed the 100 meter limit.
Bridges
A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two smaller, more efficient
networks. If you are adding to an older wiring scheme and want the new network to be up-to-
date, a bridge can connect the two.
A bridge monitors the information traffic on both sides of the network so that it can pass packets
of information to the correct location. Most bridges can "listen" to the network and automatically
figure out the address of each computer on both sides of the bridge. The bridge can inspect each
message and, if necessary, broadcast it on the other side of the network.
14

The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on both sides of the network.
You might say that the bridge is like a traffic cop at a busy intersection during rush hour. It keeps
information flowing on both sides of the network, but it does not allow unnecessary traffic
through. Bridges can be used to connect different types of cabling, or physical topologies. They
must, however, be used between networks with the same protocol.

Routers
A router translates information from one network to another; it is similar to a superintelligent
bridge. Routers select the best path to route a message, based on the destination address and
origin. The router can direct traffic to prevent head-on collisions, and is smart enough to know
when to direct traffic along back roads and shortcuts.
While bridges know the addresses of all computers on each side of the network, routers know the
addresses of computers, bridges, and other routers on the network. Routers can even "listen" to
the entire network to determine which sections are busiest -- they can then redirect data around
those sections until they clear up.
If you have a school LAN that you want to connect to the Internet, you will need to purchase a
router. In this case, the router serves as the translator between the information on your LAN and
the Internet. It also determines the best route to send the data over the Internet. Routers can:
Direct signal traffic efficiently
Route messages between any two protocols
Route messages between linear bus, star, and star-wired ring topologies
Route messages across fiber optic, coaxial, and twisted-pair cabling

15

What is Network Cabling
Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to
another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a
network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable types. The
type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size.
Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and how they relate to other aspects
of a network is necessary for the development of a successful network.
The following sections discuss the types of cables used in networks and other related topics.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber Optic Cable
Wireless LANs
Cable Installation Guides
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair
(UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school networks (See fig. 1).

Fig.1. Unshielded twisted pair
The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The
cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of
twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices.
The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per
foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry Association)
has established standards of UTP and rated five categories of wire.
Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair
Type TIA/EIA Use
Category unrecognized telephone Voice Only (Telephone Wire)
16

1 by TIA/EIA communications,
ISDN and
doorbell wiring.
Category
2
unrecognized
by TIA/EIA
Token Ring
Network
Data to 4 Mbps (LocalTalk)
Category
3
defined in
TIA/EIA-568-B
data networks
using
frequencies up
to 16 MHz
Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)
Category
4
unrecognized
by TIA/EIA
performance of
up to 20 MHz
Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps
Token Ring)
Category
5
unrecognized
by TIA/EIA
performance of
up to 100 MHz
Data to 100 Mbps (Fast
Ethernet)
Category
5e
defined in
TIA/EIA-568-B
performance of
up to 100 MHz
Data to 100 Mbps & 1000 Mbps
Category
6
defined in
TIA/EIA-568-B
performance of
up to 250 MHz
more than double category 5 and
5e
Category
6a
defined in
ANSI/TIA/EIA-
568-B.2-10.
Provides
performance of
up to 500 MHz
Suitable for 10GBase-T.
Category
7
ISO/IEC 11801
Class F cabling
frequencies up
to 600 MHz.
four individually-shielded pairs
(STP) inside an overall shield


Buy the best cable you can afford; most schools purchase Category 3 or Category 5. If you are
designing a 10 Mbps Ethernet network and are considering the cost savings of buying Category 3
wire instead of Category 5, remember that the Category 5 cable will provide more "room to
grow" as transmission technologies increase. Both Category 3 and Category 5 UTP have a
maximum segment length of 100 meters. In Florida, Category 5 cable is required for retrofit
grants. 10BaseT refers to the specifications for unshielded twisted pair cable (Category 3, 4, or 5)
carrying Ethernet signals. Category 6 is relatively new and is used for gigabit connections.
17

Category 6 cable
Category 6 cable, commonly referred to as Cat 6, is a cable standard for Gigabit Ethernet and
other network protocols that is backward compatible with the Category 5/5e and Category 3
cable standards. Cat-6 features more stringent specifications for crosstalk and system noise. The
cable standard provides performance of up to 250 MHz and is suitable for 10BASE-T /
100BASE-TX and 1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet). It is expected to suit the 10GBASE-T
(10Gigabit Ethernet) standard, although with limitations on length if unshielded Cat 6 cable is
used.
The cable contains four twisted copper wire pairs, just like earlier copper cable standards.
Although Cat-6 is sometimes made with 23 gauge wire, this is not a requirement; the ANSI/TIA-
568-B.2-1 specification states the cable may be made with 22 to 24 AWG gauge wire, so long as
the cable meets the specified testing standards. When used as a patch cable, Cat-6 is normally
terminated in 8P8C modular connectors, often incorrectly referred to as "RJ-45" electrical
connectors. Cat-6 connectors are made to higher standards that help reduce noise caused by
crosstalk and system noise. Attenuation, NEXT (Near End Crosstalk), and PSNEXT (Power Sum
NEXT) are all significantly lower when compared to Cat-5/5e.
Some Cat-6 cables are too large and may be difficult to attach to 8P8C connectors without a
special modular piece and are technically not standard compliant. If components of the various
cable standards are intermixed, the performance of the signal path will be limited to that of the
lowest category. As with all cables defined by ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B, the maximum allowed
length of a Cat-6 horizontal cable is 100 meters (330 ft) in length, depending upon the ratio of
cord length:horizontal cable length.
The cable is terminated in either the T568A scheme or the T568B scheme. It doesn't make any
difference which is used, as they are both straight through (pin 1 to 1, pin 2 to 2, etc). Mixing
T568A-terminated patch cords with T568B-terminated horizontal cables (or the reverse) does not
produce pinout problems in a facility. Although it may very slightly degrade signal quality, this
effect is marginal and certainly no greater than that produced by mixing cable brands in-channel.
The T568B Scheme is by far the most widely used method of terminating patch cables.
Crossover is used for hub to hub, computer to computer, wherever two-way communication is
necessary. All gigabit ethernet equipment, and most new 10/100Mb equipment, supports
automatic crossover, meaning that either a straight-through or crossover cable may be used for
any connection. However, older equipment requires the use of a straight-through cable to
connect a switch to a client device, and a crossover cable to connect a switch to a switch or a
client to a client. Crossover cables can be constructed by wiring one end to the T568A scheme
and the other end with the T568B scheme. This will ensure that the Transmit (TX) pins on both
ends are wired through to the Receive (RX) pins on the other end.
8P8C Wiring (TIA/EIA-568-A T568A)
Pin Pair Wire Color
1 3 1
white/green
18

2 3 2
green
3 2 1
white/orange
4 1 2
blue
5 1 1
white/blue
6 2 2
orange
7 4 1
white/brown
8 4 2
brown
8P8C Wiring (TIA/EIA-568-B T568B)
Pin Pair Wire Color
1 2 1
white/orange
2 2 2
orange
3 3 1
white/green
4 1 2
blue
5 1 1
white/blue
6 3 2
green
7 4 1
white/brown
8 4 2
brown
Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector
The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a
plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector (See fig. 2). A slot allows the
RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector
follows a standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard designates which wire
goes with each pin inside the connector.

Fig. 2. RJ-45 connector
19

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency
interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical interference;
however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used
on networks using Token Ring topology.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation
between the center conductor and a braided metal shield (See fig. 3). The metal shield helps to
block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.


Fig. 3. Coaxial cable
Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In
addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable.
The two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.
Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment
length being 200 meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial
cable is popular in school networks, especially linear bus networks.
Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick
coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500
meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away
from the center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths
in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is
difficult to install.
Coaxial Cable Connectors
The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman
(BNC) connector (See fig. 4). Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors,
including a T-connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the
weakest points in any network. To help avoid problems with your network, always use the BNC
connectors that crimp, rather than screw, onto the cable.
20



Fig. 4. BNC connector
Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective
materials (See fig. 5). It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of
electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount
of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between
buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.
Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and
twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity
broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and
interactive services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it
is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber optic cable
carrying Ethernet signals.


Fig.5. Fiber optic cable
Facts about fiber optic cables:
Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC.
Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent breakage.
A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center.
Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.
Fiber Optic Connector
The most common connector used with fiber optic cable is an ST connector. It is barrel shaped,
similar to a BNC connector. A newer connector, the SC, is becoming more popular. It has a
squared face and is easier to connect in a confined space.



21

TOPOLGY

What is a Topology
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other
peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method
used to pass information between workstations. Logical topology was discussed in the Protocol
chapter.
Main Types of Physical Topologies
The following sections discuss the physical topologies used in networks and other related topics.
Linear Bus
Star
Star-Wired Ring
Tree
Considerations When Choosing a Topology
Summary Chart
Linear Bus
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end (See fig. 1).
All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable. Ethernet
and LocalTalk networks use a linear bus topology.

Fig. 1. Linear Bus topology
Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology
Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
22

Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
Star
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected
directly to a central network hub or concentrator (See fig. 2).
Data on a star network passes through the hub or concentrator before continuing to its
destination. The hub or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. It also
acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common with twisted pair cable;
however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.

Fig. 2. Star topology
Advantages of a Star Topology
Easy to install and wire.
No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.
The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or LocalTalk. Token Ring uses a
similar topology, called the star-wired ring.

23

Star-Wired Ring
A star-wired ring topology may appear (externally) to be the same as a star topology. Internally,
the MAU (multi station access unit) of a star-wired ring contains wiring that allows information
to pass from one device to another in a circle or ring (See fig. 3). The Token Ring protocol uses a
star-wired ring topology.
Tree
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups
of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable (See fig. 4). Tree
topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a
network to meet their needs.

Fig. 4. Tree topology
Advantages of a Tree Topology
Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
24

5-4-3 Rule
A consideration in setting up a tree topology using Ethernet protocol is the 5-4-3 rule. One aspect
of the Ethernet protocol requires that a signal sent out on the network cable reach every part of
the network within a specified length of time. Each concentrator or repeater that a signal goes
through adds a small amount of time. This leads to the rule that between any two nodes on the
network there can only be a maximum of 5 segments, connected through 4
repeaters/concentrators. In addition, only 3 of the segments may be populated (trunk) segments if
they are made of coaxial cable. A populated segment is one which has one or more nodes
attached to it . In Figure 4, the 5-4-3 rule is adhered to. The furthest two nodes on the network
have 4 segments and 3 repeaters/concentrators between them.
This rule does not apply to other network protocols or Ethernet networks where all fiber optic
cabling or a combination of a fiber backbone with UTP cabling is used. If there is a combination
of fiber optic backbone and UTP cabling, the rule is simply translated to 7-6-5 rule.
Considerations When Choosing a topology:
Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do
not have to purchase concentrators.
Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding
another concentrator.
Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most
often used with star topologies.
Summary Chart:
Physical Topology Common Cable Common Protocol
Linear Bus
Twisted Pair
Coaxial
Fiber
Ethernet
LocalTalk
Star
Twisted Pair
Fiber
Ethernet
LocalTalk
Star-Wired Ring Twisted Pair Token Ring
Tree
Twisted Pair
Coaxial
Fiber
Ethernet


25

I P Addresses
IP addresses are 32 bit numbers, most commonly represented in dotted decimal notation
(xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx). Each decimal number represents eight bits of binary data, and therefore can
have a decimal value between 0 and 255. IP addresses most commonly come as class A, B, or C.
It's the value of the first number of the IP address that determines the class to which a given IP
address belongs. ClassD addresses are used for multi-cast applications.

The range of values for these classes are given below.

Class Range Allocation
A 1-126 N.H.H.H
B 128-191 N.N.H.H
C 192-223 N.N.N.H
D 224-239 Not applicable

N=Network
H=Host

Note 1: 127.0.0.0 is a class A network, but is reserved for use as a loopback address(typically
127.0.0.1).
Note 2: The 0.0.0.0 network is reserved for use as the default route.
Note 3: Class D addresses are used by groups of hosts or routers that share a common
characteristic: e.g. all OSPF devices respond to packets sent to address 224.0.0.2
Note 4: Class E addresses exist (240-248),but are reserved for future use.

The class of an address defines which portion of the address identifies the Network number and
which portion identifies the Host, as illustrated above, as N and H.
IP addresses are used to deliver packets of data across a network and have what is termed end-to-
end significance. This means that the source and destination IP address remains constant as the
packet traverses a network. Each time a packet travels, it can match the network number of the
destination IP address.
Subnet Masks
Subnet masks are essential tools in network design, but can make things more difficult to
understand. Subnet masks are used to split a network into a collection of smaller subnetworks.
This may be done to reduce network traffic on each subnetwork, or to make the internetwork
more manageable as a whole. To all intents and purposes, each subnetwork functions as if it were
an independent network, as far as entries in the routing table are concerned. The illustration
below shows how a routing table looks when
subnet masks are used on a network.
Interface configuration for router 1
26

Interface IP Address Subnet mask
E0 150.4.2.1 255.255.255.0
E1 150.4.3.1 255.255.255.0
E2 150.4.1.1 255.255.255.0
How the subnet mask works:
Communication between a node on a local subnetwork and a node on a different subnetwork is
like communication between nodes on two different networks. To a user, routing between
subnetworks is transparent. Internally, however, the IP software recognizes any IP addresses that
are destined for a subnetwork and sends those packets to the gateway for that subnetwork.
When subnet masks are used, an IP address is interpreted as follows:
[IP address] = [Network address][Subnetwork address][Host address]
This shows that when a network is divided into subnetworks, the host address portion of the IP
address is divided into two parts, the subnetwork address and the host address.
For example, if a network has the Class B IP network address portion 129.47, the remainder of
the IP address can be divided into subnetwork addresses and host addresses. This division is
controlled by the network administrator to allow the most flexibility for network development at
the site.
A subnet mask is the mechanism that defines how the host portion of the IP address is divided
into subnetwork addresses and local host address portions. The subnet mask is a 32-bit, (four
byte) number, just as an IP address is.
To understand the mechanics of the subnet mask, it is important to know a little of binary
arithmetic.









27

I P Addresses Explained
IP address (Internet Protocol address): This number is a exclusive number all information
technology devices (printers, routers, modems, et al) use which identifies and allows them the
ability to communicate with each other on a computer network. There is a standard of
communication which is called an Internet Protocol standard (IP). IP addresses may either be
assigned permanently for an Email server/Business server or a permanent home resident or
temporarily, from a pool of available addresses (first come first serve) from your Internet Service
Provider. A permanent number may not be available in all areas and may cost extra so be sure to
ask your ISP.
Domain Names:(Domain Name System-DNS ), this allows the IP address to be translated to
words. It is much easier for us to remember a word than a series of numbers. The same is true
for email addresses.
Dynamic IP Address: This is the number which was mentioned above in the IP address
section. This is the formal type of IP address issued to you from a pool of numbers allocated by
your Internet Service Provider. This is for a large number of customers that do not require the
same number all the time for a variety of reasons. Your computer will automatically get this
number and saves you the trouble of having to know details regarding the specific network
configurations. This number can be assigned to anyone using a dial-up connection, Wireless and
High Speed Internet connections.
Static IP Address: An IP address that is fixed and never changes. This is in contrast to a dynamic
IP address which may change at any time
IP version 4: Those series of numbers separated by dots is known as Ipv4. It is a mathematical
equation which we are running out of quickly. Just like in a home town addresses have to be
created for new neighborhoods but, if your neighborhood gets too large, you will have to come
up with a another pool of addresses. The Ipv4 is limited to how many addresses can be created
for public use.
IP version 5: This is an experimental protocol for UNIX based systems. In keeping with standard
UNIX (a computer Operating System) release conventions, all odd-numbered versions are
considered experimental. It was never intended to be used by the general public.
IP version 6:The new mathematical formula to replace Ipv4 for expanding the public IP address
pool. It has not been released yet but will be very soon. The estimated number of unique
addresses is 40,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456. The old and current standard
of addresses was this: 192.168.100.100 the new way can be written different ways but means the
same and are all valid:
* 1080:0000:0000:0000:0000:0034:0000:417A
* 1080:0:0:0:0:34:0:417A
28

I P Command Lines
To get to the command prompt in Windows XP go to: Start, Run and in the empty box type cmd
and then hit the enter key. If you do not have the RUN option please contact your network
administrator

Display Connection Configuration: ipconfig /all

Display DNS Cache Info Configuration: ipconfig /displaydns

Clear DNS Cache: ipconfig /flushdns

Release All IP Address Connections: ipconfig /release

Renew All IP Address Connections IP Configuration: ipconfig /renew

Refresh DHCP and Re-Register the DNS connections: ipconfig /registerdns

Display DCHP Class Information: ipconfig /showclassid

Change/Modify DHCP Class ID: ipconfig /setclassid

Network Connections:control netconnections

Network Setup Wizard: netsetup.cpl

Test Connectivity: ping Example: ping www.whatismyip.com

Trace IP address Route: tracert

Displays the TCP/IP protocol sessions: netstat

Display Local Route: route

Display Resolved MAC Addresses: arp

Display Name of Computer Currently on: hostname





29

I P Default Subnet Masks For Address Classes A, B and C
Subnetting is the process of dividing a Class A, B or C network into subnets, as we've seen in the
preceding topics. In order to better understand how this division of the whole is accomplished,
it's worth starting with a look at how the whole class A, B and C networks are represented in a
subnetted environment. This is also of value because there are situations where you may need to
define an unsubnetted network using subnetting notation.
This might seem like a strange conceptif you aren't going to bother creating subnets, why do
you need to consider how the old-fashioned classes are used under subnetting? The answer is
that after subnetting became popular, most operating systems and networking hardware and
software were designed under the assumption that subnetting would be used. Even if you decide
not to subnet, you may need to express your unsubnetted network using a subnet mask.
In essence, a non-subnetted class A, B or C network can be considered the default case of the
more general, custom-subnetted network. Specifically, it is the case where we choose to divide
the host ID so that zero bits are used for the subnet ID and all the bits are used for the host ID. I
realize that this seems like a bit of a semantic game. However, this default case is the basis for
the more practical subnetting we will examine in the next topic.
Just as is always the case, the subnet mask for a default, unsubnetted class A, B or C network has
ones for each bit that is used for network ID or subnet ID, and zeroes for the host ID bits. Of
course, we just said we aren't subnetting, so there areno subnet ID bits! Thus, the subnet mask
for this default case has 1s for the network ID portion and 0s for the host ID portion. This is
called the default subnet mask for each of the IP address classes.
Since classes A, B and C divide the network ID from the host ID on octet boundaries, the subnet
mask will always have all ones or all zeroes in an octet. Therefore, the default subnet masks will
always have 255s or 0s when expressed in decimal notation. Table 1 summarizes the default
subnet masks for each of the classes; they are also shown graphically in Figure 1.
Table 1: Default Subnet Masks for Class A, Class B and Class C Networks
IP Address
Class
Total # Of Bits For
Network ID / Host ID
Default Subnet Mask
First
Octet
Second
Octet
Third
Octet
Fourth
Octet
Class A 8 / 24
11111111
(255)
00000000
(0)
00000000
(0)
00000000
(0)
Class B 16 / 16
11111111
(255)
11111111
(255)
00000000
(0)
00000000
(0)
Class C 24 / 8
11111111
(255)
11111111
(255)
11111111
(255)
00000000
(0)

30




Figure 68: Default Subnet Masks for Class A, Class B and Class C Networks

So, the three default subnet masks are 255.0.0.0 for Class A, 255.255.0.0 for class B, and
255.255.255.0 for Class C. Note that while all default subnet masks use only 255 and 0, not
all subnet masks with 255 and 0 are defaults. There are a small number of custom subnets
that divide on octet boundaries as well. These are:
o 255.255.0.0:,This is the default mask for Class B, but can also be the custom subnet mask
for dividing a Class A network using 8 bits for the subnet ID (leaving 16 bits for the host
ID).
o 255.255.255.0: This is the default subnet mask for Class C, but can be a custom Class A
with 16 bits for the subnet ID or a Class B with 8 bits for the subnet ID.


31

Subnet masks
Network IDs and host IDs within an IP address are distinguished by using a subnet mask. Each
subnet mask is a 32-bit number that uses consecutive bit groups of all ones (1) to identify the
network ID and all zeroes (0) to identify the host ID portions of an IP address.
For example, the subnet mask normally used with the IP address 131.107.16.200 is the following
32-bit binary number:
11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000
This subnet mask number is 16 one-bits followed by 16 zero-bits, indicating that the network ID
and host ID sections of this IP address are both 16 bits in length. Normally, this subnet mask is
displayed in dotted decimal notation as 255.255.0.0.
The following table displays subnet masks for the Internet address classes.
Address class Bits for subnet mask Subnet mask
Class A 11111111 00000000 00000000 00000000 255.0.0.0
Class B 11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000 255.255.0.0
Class C 11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000 255.255.255.0
Typically, default subnet mask values (as shown in the previous table) are acceptable for most
networks with no special requirements and where each IP network segment corresponds to a
single physical network.
In some cases, you can use customized subnet masks to implement IP subnetting. With IP
subnetting, you can subdivide the default host ID portion of an IP address to specify subnets,
which are subdivisions of the original class-based network ID.
By customizing the subnet mask length, you can reduce the number of bits that are used for the
actual host ID. For more information about using a custom subnet mask for subnetting your
network, see the Windows 2000 Resource Kit.
Important To prevent addressing and routing problems, you should make sure all TCP/IP
computers on any network segment use the same subnet mask.






32


NETWORK INTERFACE CARD


A transitional network card with both BNC "Thin net" (left) and Twisted pair (right) connectors.
A network card (also called network adapter, network interface card, NIC, etc.) is a piece of
computer hardware designed to provide for computer communication over a computer network.o
Whereas network cards used to be expansion cards to plug into a computer bus, most newer
computers have a network interface built into the motherboard, so a separate network card is not
required unless multiple interfaces are needed or some other type of network is used.
The card implements the electronic circuitry required to communicate using a specific physical
layer and data link layer standard such as ethernet or token ring. This provides a base for a full
network protocol stack, allowing communication among small groups of computers on the same
LAN and large-scale network communications through routable protocols, such as IP.
A network card typically has a twisted pair, BNC, or AUI socket where the network cable is
connected, and a few LEDs to inform the user of whether the network is active, and whether or
not there is data being transmitted on it.



33

Computer Peer to Peer Network without Hub
First off, you have a few of decisions to make, what speed network you want 10Mbps or
100Mbps, which network interface cards to use PCI vs.ISA, and twisted pair or coax cables.
Another one that I have to finish...! Beam me up Scotty
I'm shifting gears... Lets forget about all the different options right now and focus on the details
of my own setup using 3Com 10/100TX Fast Ethernet network interface cards (NIC's).
For two computers you do not need a hub, all you need is an ethernet crossover cable.
Start by going to Control panel, open the Network Icon and click on the Identification tab.
Make sure you give each computer a unique name.
Chose a Workgroup name and use the same name on all computers.
The computer description can be whatever you like.




34

Click on Access Control tab, enable Share-level access control


Next click the Configuration tab and you should see the following.
Client for Microsoft Networks, if Client for NetWare is there also you can highlight it and click
the remove button, it is not needed.
The picture below shows a 3Com NIC you will see the name for whatever NIC you have. If there
is no entry for you NIC then you have to trouble shoot the NIC installation.
I always install both NetBEUI and IPX/SPX on a fresh install, then once everything is working
you can delete whichever protocol you don't use. However, if you are going to play IPX games
then you may as well leave both because to share files you need NetBEUI and for games you
will need IPX.


35

The screen below is part one of two.

Part two.

If anything is missing click the add button and add the appropriate protocol. When you add a
protocol the network card will automatically create corresponding entries for itself.
36


Now highlight TCP/IP for your NIC like in the picture below - then click the properties
button.









37

Select specify an IP address and enter the numbers exactly as they appear below.


On the second and third machines use the same numbers except increment the last digit for each
machine. Example the second machine would be 192.168.0.2 and a third machine would be
192.168.0.3
The subnet Mask stays the same for all machines and in this example we are using 255.255.255.0

Next click on DNS Configuration and Enable DNS
For Host enter the name you gave this machine in the first step under the Identification tab. On
the other machines use the unique name given to each machine from step one
Enter 192.168.0.1 into the field with the dots and click the add button. Use this same number for
all machines in the network.
38


OK, you made it this far now open a DOS-Prompt window on the computer 192.168.0.1 and type
ping 192.168.0.2 and you should see data returned showing the ping time between the two
computers. If you receive an error you need to go back and check all of the settings.









39

DHCP(dynamic host configuration protocol)



DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a communications protocol that lets network
administrators centrally manage and automate the assignment of Internet Protocol (IP) addresses
in an organization's network. Using the Internet Protocol, each machine that can connect to the
Internet needs a unique IP address, which is assigned when an Internet connection is created for
a specific computer. Without DHCP, the IP address must be entered manually at each computer
in an organization and a new IP address must be entered each time a computer moves to a new
location on the network. DHCP lets a network administrator supervise and distribute IP
addresses from a central point and automatically sends a new IP address when a computer is
plugged into a different place in the network.
DHCP uses the concept of a "lease" or amount of time that a given IP address will be valid for a
computer. The lease time can vary depending on how long a user is likely to require the Internet
connection at a particular location. It's especially useful in education and other environments
where users change frequently. Using very short leases, DHCP can dynamically reconfigure
networks in which there are more computers than there are available IP addresses. The protocol
also supports static addresses for computers that need a permanent IP address, such as Web
servers.
DHCP is an extension of an earlier network IP management protocol, Bootstrap Protocol
(BOOTP). DHCP is a more advanced protocol, but both configuration management protocols are
commonly used and DHCP can handle BOOTP client requests. Some organizations use both
protocols, but understanding how and when to use them in the same organization is important.
Some operating systems, including Windows NT/2000, come with DHCP servers. A DHCP or
BOOTP client is a program that is located in (and perhaps downloaded to) each computer so that
it can be configured.









40


DNS(domain name server)
Definitions of DNS
Domain Name Server (or system) An Internet service that translates domain names into
IP addresses.

(Domain Name System) The Domain Name System is the system that translates Internet
domain names into IP numbers. A "DNS Server" is a server that performs this kind of
translation.

DNS stands for Domain Name System. This System translates a domain name such as
rshweb.com into the Internet Protocol (IP) numbers (209.203.234.42) to find the correct
web site - in this case the site for Domain Bank. The network of computers that constitute
the Internet map domain names to their corresponding IP numbers. The data is then made
available to all computers and users on the Internet.
How Domain Name Servers Work
Information about the owner and name servers for each domain. If you go to the who is form,
you can find information about any domain current The Distributed System
Name servers do two things all day long:
They accept requests from programs If you spend any time on the Internet sending e-mail or
browsing the Web, then you use domain name servers without even realizing it. Domain name
servers, or DNS, are an incredibly important but completely hidden part of the Internet, and they
are fascinating! The DNS system forms one of the largest and most active distributed databases
on the planet. Without DNS, the Internet would shut down very quickly.
IP Addresses
To keep all of the machines on the Internet straight, each machine is assigned a unique address
called an IP address. IP stands for Internet protocol, and these addresses are 32-bit numbers
normally expressed as four "octets" in a "dotted decimal number." A typical IP address looks like
this:
64.14.119.232
The four numbers in an IP address are called octets because they can have values between 0 and
255 (2
8
possibilities per octet).
Every machine on the Internet has its own IP address. A server has a static IP address that does
not change very often. A home machine that is dialing up through a modem often has an IP
address that is assigned by the ISP when you dial in. That IP address is unique for your session
and may be different the next time you dial in. In this way, an ISP only needs one IP address for
each modem it supports, rather than for every customer.
Distributing Domain Names
Because all of the names in a given domain need to be unique, there has to be a single
entity that controls the list and makes sure no duplicates arise. For example, the COM
domain cannot contain any duplicate names, and a company called Network Solutions is
41

in charge of maintaining this list. When you register a domain name, it goes through one
of several dozen registrars who work with Network Solutions to add names to the list.
Network Solutions, in turn, keeps a central database known as the who is database that
contains to convert domain names into IP addresses.
They accept requests from other name servers to convert domain names into IP addresses.
When a request comes in, the name server can do one of four things with it:
It can answer the request with an IP address because it already knows the IP address for
the domain.
It can contact another name server and try to find the IP address for the name requested.
It may have to do this multiple times.
It can say, "I don't know the IP address for the domain you requested, but here's the IP
address for a name server that knows more than I do."
It can return an error message because the requested domain name is invalid or does not existtly
in existence
The Beauty of DNS
As you can see from this description, DNS is a rather amazing distributed database. It handles
billions of requests for billions of names every day through a network of millions of name
servers administered by millions of people. Every time you send an e-mail message or view a
URL, you are making requests to multiple name servers scattered all over the globe. What's
amazing is that the process is usually completely invisible and extremely reliable!













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WI NS (windows server)

Successfully maintaining a Windows NT Serverbased network means using every tool that you
have on your shelf. In the world of Windows NT Server 4.0, Windows Internet Naming Service
(WINS) is one of those tools. Note that WINS will be displaced by Dynamic DNS in Windows
2000 Server, so in reality, you could say that WINS is on its way out of favor. And although
Windows 2000 Server will support WINS for backward compatibility reasons, at this point in the
Windows NT Server 4.0 life cycle, you are advised to plan for DNS-based network name
resolution and to deemphasize your reliance on WINS.
That said, this section will provide you with what you need to know about WINS. It will provide
little more given WINS impending exit from the Windows NT community. And although you
certainly need to know WINS basics, be advised that your time is better spent mastering the first
two topics of this chapter (DNS, DHCP).
WINS was designed to eliminate broadcasts and maintain a dynamic database providing
computer nametoIP address mappings.
A WINS system has two components: servers and clients.
WINS servers. WINS servers maintain the database that maps a WINS Client IP address
to its NetBIOS computer name. Broadcasts for NetBIOS-type name resolutions are
eliminated (or at least reduced) because the database on the WINS server may be
consulted for immediate name resolution.
WINS clients. A WINS client is a workstation that is configured with the WINS
server(s) IP address(es). At system startup, the WINS client registers its name and IP
address with the WINS server. When a WINS client needs a name resolved, the WINS
server and its database are consulted. This results in fast and efficient name resolution.
At the enterprise level, a network typically has one or more WINS servers that a WINS client
may contact for name resolution. In fact, WINS servers may be configured on a given network so
that they replicate all computer names to IP address mappings to each others respective
databases.






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Remote Installation Services


Remote Installation Services (RIS) is an automated installation technology that you can use to
create installation images of operating systems or of complete computer configurations,
including desktop settings and applications. These installation images can then be made available
to users at client computers. RIS is typically used during large-scale deployments when it would
be too slow and costly to have administrators or end users interactively install the operating
system on individual computers.
Compared to a standard interactive installation, RIS decreases installation time, eliminates the
need to use CDs during installation, and minimizes end user and administrator interaction during
installations. To accomplish this, RIS relies on Pre-Boot execution Environment (PXE)
technology. PXE technology enables computers without an operating system to start up and
connect remotely over a TCP/IP network connection to a RIS server, which then installs an
operating system. The client computers must support remote booting with the PXE ROM, or they
must be started with a remote-startup floppy disk and have a network adapter that is supported by
that disk.











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Comparison of RI S and I nteractive I nstallations







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