STRUCTURAL NOTES

PROPERTIES OF FORCES
MAGNITUDE- the amount of force, N
DIRECTION- refers to the orientation of its path or line of
action. It is usually described by the angle that the line of
action makes with some reference.
SENSE- refers to the manner in which it acts along its line
of action
FORCE SYSTEM
COPLANAR
- all acting in a single plane of a vertical wall
PARALLEL
- all having the same direction
CONCURRENT
- all having their lines of action intersect at a common point.
MOMENT
- force x distance
- moment can be about any point called
CENTER OF MOMENT
MOMENT ARM
- distance from center of moment to force
- shortest or perpendicular distance from the center of
moment to line of action of force.
KINDS OF LOADS
CONCENTRATED LOADS - example is a beam
supporting a column
UNIFORM LOADS- a series of uniform concentrated
loads, but for 5 or more uniformly spaced concentrated
loads.
OTHER LOADS- varying load, moment load
TYPES OF SUPPORT
HING!
"#$$"
%I&!' "()"*IN!
TYPES OF BEAMS
(I+,$- (.,,#")! /*+
(I+,$- (.,,#")! 0' #1" H*NG
2#1"H*NGING /*+3
4*N)I$1" /*+
,"#,,! 4*N)I$1" /*+ 2indeterminate3
4#N)IN#.( /*+
INTERNAL FORCES TYPES
TENSION- pulls away from 5oint
COMPRESSION-pushes towards 5oint
SHEAR- for connections
ASTM- *merican (ociety for )esting and +aterials
ACI- *merican 4oncrete institute
*ccording to *4I code, I the strain in concrete reaches
6.667 28conc9 6.6673, 89
7mm
It begins to crack :666

AISC- *merican Institute for steel construction
If a grade ;6 steel 2fy9 ;6ksi9 <:<+pa3 reaches a strain
6.66=: it begins to yield of 2=.:mm3
FEATURES OF A STRAIN STRESS DIAGRAM:
STRESS- STRAIN DIAGRAM - a graphic representation of
the relationship between unit stress values and the
corresponding unit strains for a specific material
:. PROPORTINAL LIMIT- maximum stress which the
material springs back to the original length when the load is
released
=. ELASTIC LIMIT- maximum stress below which the
material does not return to its original length but has
incurred a permanent deformation we call permanent set
7.YIELD POINT- the stress wherein the deformation
increases without any increase in the load. )he material at
some portion shows a decrease in its cross section
<. ULTIMATE STRENGTH- the maximum stress that can be
attained immediately before actual failure or rupture
RUPTURE STRENGTH- stress at which material specimen
breaks
ALLOWABLE STRESS- the maximum unit stress permitted
for a material in the design of a structural member, usually a
fraction of the material>s elastic limit, yield strength, or
ultimate strength. *lso called allowable unit stress, working
stress.
ELASTIC RANGE- the range of unit stresses for which a
material exhibits elastic deformation
ELASTIC DEFORMATION- a temporary change in the
dimensions or shape of a body produced by a stress less
than the elastic limit of the material
BRITLENESS- the property of material that causes it to
rupture suddenly under stress with little evident
deformation. (ince brittle materials lack the plastic behavior
of ductile materials, they can give no warning of impending
material
DUCTILITY- the property of a material that enables it to
undergo plastic deformation after being stressed beyond the
elastic limit and before rupturing. !uctility is a desirable
property of a structural material since plastic behavior is an
indicator of reserve strength and can serve as a visual
warning of impending failure.
ELASTICITY- the property of a material that enables it to
deform in response to an applied force and to recover its
original si?e and shape upon removal of the force
MALLEABILITY- the ability of a material to regain and
rebound to original shape when the load is released
1 | S t r u c t u r a l
TOUGHNESS- the property of a material that enables it to
absorb energy before rupturing, represented by the area
under the stress- strain curve derived from a tensile test of
the material. !uctile materials are tougher than brittle
materials.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY- a coefficient of elasticity of a
material expressing the ratio between a unit stress a(d the
corresponding unit strain caused by the stress, as derived
from Hooke>s law and represented by the slope of he
straight line portion of the stress- strain line diagram. *lso
called coefficient of elasticity, elastic modulus
PERMANENT SET- the inelastic strain remaining in a
material after complete release of the stress producing
deformation
YIELD STRENGTH- the stress necessary to produce a
specific limiting permanent set in a material, usually 6.=@ of
its original length when tested in tension. -ield strength is
used to determine the limit of usefulness of a material
having a poorly defined yield point. *lso called poor stress.
STRAIN- RATE EFFECT- the behavior an increased rate of
load application can cause in normally ductile material
TEMPERATURE EFFECT- the brittle behavior low
temperatures can cause in a normally ductile material
STRESS RELAXATION- the time- dependent decrease in
stress in a constrained material under a constant load
CREEP- the gradual permanent deformation of a body
produced by a continued application of stress or prolonged
exposure to heat. 4reep deflection in a concrete structure
continues over time and can be significantly grater than the
initial elastic deflection
FATIGUE- the weakening or failure of a material at a stress
below the elastic limit when sub5ected to a repeated series
of stresses
STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES
OF A36 STEEL:
+aximum allowable stress 2%v3 in shear is :<.A ksi
+aximum allowable stress 2%b3 for bending is =< ksi
+odulus of elasticity 23 is =B,666 ksi
WEIGHT:
water9 :666 kg' m
7
steel9 CDA6 kg' m
7
concrete9 =<66 kg' m
7
weight9 density x volume
volume of cylinder9 pi 2diameter3
=
x length
<
PROPERTIES OF A MATERIAL
TENSION- the act of stretching or state of being pulled
apart, resulting in the elongation of an elastic body
TENSILE FORCE- an applied force producing or tending to
produce tension in an elastic body
AXIAL FORCE- a tensile or compressive force acting along
the longitudinal axis of a structural member and at the
centroid of the cross section, producing axial stress without
bending, torsion or shear, also called axial load
AXIAL STRESS- the tensile or compressive stress that
develops to resist axial force, assumed to be normal to and
uniformly distributed over the area of the cross section. *lso
called direct stress, normal stress
COMPRESSION- the act of shortening or state of being
pushed together, resulting in the reduction in si?e or volume
of an elastic body
COMPRESSIVE FORCE- an applied force producing or
tending to produce compression in an elastic body
ECCENTRIC FORCE- a force applied parallel to the
longitudinal axis of a structural member but not to the
centroid of the cross section, producing bending and
uneven distribution of stresses in the section. *lso called
eccentric load.
STRESS- the internal resistance or reaction of an elastic
body to external forces applied to it. Eual to the ratio of
force to area and expressed in units of force per unit of
cross- sectional area. *lso called unit stress.
TENSILE STRESS- the axial stress that develops at the
cross section of an elastic body to resist the collinear tensile
forces tending to elongate it.
TENSILE STRAIN- the elongation of a unit length of
material produces by a tensile stress
ELONGATION- a measure of ductility of a material,
expressed as the percentage increase in length of a test
specimen after failure in tensile test
REDUCTION OF AREA- a measure of ductility of a
material, expressed as the percentage decrease in cross-
sectional area of a test specimen after rupturing in a tensile
test
TENSILE STRENGTH- the resistance of a material to
longitudinal stress, measured by the minimum amount of
longitudinal stress reEuired to rupture the material
STRAIN - the deformation of a body under the action of an
applied force. (train is a dimensionless Euantity, eEual to
the ratio of the change in si?e and shape to the original si?e
and shape of a stressed element.
STAIN GAUGE- an instrument for measuring minute
deformation in a test specimen caused by tension,
compression, bending or twisting. *lso called extensometer
YOUNGS MODULUS- a coefficient of elasticity of material
expressing the ratio of longitudinal stress to the
corresponding longitudinal strain caused by the strain.
POISSONS RATIO- the ratio of lateral strain to the
corresponding longitudinal strain in an elastic body under
longitudinal stress
COMPRESSIVE STRESS- the axial stress that develops at
the cross section of an elastic body to resist the collinear
compressive forces tending to shorten it.
COMPRESSIVE STRAIN - the shortening of a unit length of
material produced by a compressive stress
SHEAR - the lateral deformation produced in a body by an
external force that causes one part of the body to slide
relative to an ad5acent part in a direction parallel to their
plane contact.
2 | S t r u c t u r a l
SHEAR FORCE - an applied force producing or tending to
produce shear in the body
SHEARING FORCE - an internal force tangenial to the
surface on which it acts, developed by a body in response
to shear, shearing in a vertical plane necessarily involves
shearing in a hori?ontal plane and vise versa
SHEARING STRESS- the force per unit area developed
along a section of an elastic body to resist a shear force.
*lso called shear stress, tangenial stress
SHEARING STRAIN - the lateral deformation developed in
a body in response to shearing stresses, defined as the
tangent of the skew angle of the deformation.
SHEAR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY - a coefficient
elasticity of a material, expressing the ratio between
shearing stress and the corresponding shearing strain
produced by the strain. *lso called modulus of rigidity,
modulus of torsion
BENDING- the bowing of an elastic body as an external
force is applied transversely to its length. /ending is the
structural mechanism that enables a load to be mechanism
that enables a load to be channeled in a direction
perpendicular to its application.
TRANSVERSE FORCE- a force applied perpendicular to
the length of a structural member, producing bending and
shear
TORQUE- the moment of a force system that causes or
tends to cause rotation or torsion
TORSION- the twisting of an elastic body about its
longitudinal axis caused by two eEual and opposite torEues,
producing shearing stresses in the body
REINFORCED CONCRETE
EFFECTIVE LENGTH- the depth of concrete section
measured from the compression face to the centroid of the
tension reinforcement
COVER- the amount of concrete reEuired to protect steel
reinforcement from fire and corrosion, measured from the
surface of the reinforcement to outer surface of the concrete
section
BOND STRESS- the adhesive for per unit area of contact
between reinforcing bar and the surrounding concrete
developed at any section of a flexural member
HOOK- a bend or curve given to develop an eEuivalent
embedment length, used where there is insufficient room to
develop in adeEuate embedment length
STANDARD HOOK- a B6F, :7AF, :D6F bend made at the
end of a reinforcing bar according to standards
ANCHORAGE - any of various means, as embedment
length or hooked bars, for developing tension or
compression in a reinforcing bar on each side of critical
section in order to prevent bond failure or splitting
CRITICAL SECTION - the section of a flexural concrete
member at a point of maximum stress, a point of inflection,
or appoint within the span where tension bars are no longer
needed to resist stress
BALANCED SECTION - a concrete in which the tension
reinforcement theoretically reaches its specified yield
strength as the concrete in compression reaches its
assumed ultimate strain
OVERREINFORCED SECTION - a concrete section in
which the concrete in compression reaches its assumed
ultimate strain before the tension reinforcement reaches its
specified yield strength. )his is a dangerous condition since
failure of the section could occur instantaneously without
warning
UNDERREINFORCED SECTION - a concrete section in
which the tension reinforcement reaches its specified yield
strength before the concrete in compression reaches its
assumed ultimate strain. )his is desirable condition since
failure of the section would be preceded by large
deformations giving prior warning of impending collapse
BEAM
BEAM- a rigid structural member designed to carry and
transfer transverse loads across spaces supporting
elements
SPAN- the extent of space between two supports of a
structure
CLEAR SPAN- the distance between inner faces of the
support of a span
EFFECTIVE SPAN- the center to center distance between
the supports of a span
BENDING MOMENT- an external moment tending to cause
part a structure to rotate or bend, eEual to the algebraic sum
of the moments about the neutral axis of the section under
consideration
RESISTING MOMENT- an internal moment eEual and
opposite to a bending moment, generated by a force couple
to maintain eEuilibrium of the section being considered
DEFLECTION - the perpendicular distance a spanning
member deviates from a true course under transverse
loading, increasing with load and span, and decreasing with
an increase in the moment of inertia of the section of the
modulus of elasticity of the material
NEUTRAL AXIS - an imaginary line passing through the
centroid of the cross section of a beam, other ember sub5ect
to bending, along which no bending stresses occur
BENDING STRESS - a combination of compressive and
tensile stresses developed at a cross section of structural
member to resist transverse force, having a maximum value
at the surface furthest from the neutral axis
CAMBER - a slight convex curvature intentionally built into
beam, girder, or truss to compensate for an anticipated
deflection.
How is camber treated in a steel truss =A meters and
longerG 4amber shall be approximately eEual to the dead
load deflection
TRANSVERSE SHEAR- an external shear force at a cross
section of a beam or other member sub5ect to bending,
eEual to the algebraic sum of transverse forces on one side
of the section
3 | S t r u c t u r a l
VERTICAL SHEARING- the shearing stress developed
along cross section of a beam to resist transverse shear,
having a maximum value at the neutral axis and decreasing
nonlinearly toward the outer faces
HORIZONTAL SHEARING- the shearing stress developed
to prevent slippage along longitudinal planes of a beam
under transverse loading, eEual to any point to the vertical
shearing stress at that point. *lso called longitudinal
shearing stress
FLEXURE FORMULA - a formula defining the relationship
between bending moment, bending stress, and the cross
sectional properties of a beam. /ending stress is directly
proportional to bending moment and inversely proportional
to the moment of inertia of a beam section.
MOMENT OF INERTIA - the sum of the products of each
element of an area and the sEuare of its distance from a
coplanar axis of rotation. +oment of inertia is a geometric
property that indicates how the cross sectional area of
structural member is distributed and does not reflect the
intrinsic physical properties of a material
SECTION MODULUS- a geometric property of a cross
section, defined as the moment of inertia of the section
divided by the distance from the neutral axis to the most
remote surface.
LATERAL BUCKLING- the buckling of a structural member
induced by compressive stresses acting on slender portion
insufficiently rigid in the lateral direction
STRESS TRAECTORIES- lines depicting the direction but
not the magnitude of the principal stresses in a beam
SHEAR DIAGRAM - a graphic representation of the
variation in magnitude of the external shears present in a
structure for a given set of transverse loads and support
conditions concentrated loads produce external shears
which are constant in magnitude between the loads
uniformly distributed loads produce linearly varying shears
MOMENT DIAGRAM - a graphic representation of the
variation in magnitude of the bending moment present in a
structure for a given set of transverse load and support
conditions. )he overall deflected shape of a structure
sub5ect to bending can often be inferred from the shape of
its moment diagram
CONCENTRATED LOADS- produce bending moments
which vary linearly between loads
UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS produce parabolically
varying moments
POSITIVE SHEAR- a net resultant of shear forces that acts
vertically upward on the left part of the structure being
considered
NEGATIVE SHEAR- a net resultant of shear forces that act
vertically downward on the left part of the structure being
considered
POSITIVE MOMENT- a bending moment that produces
moment that produces a concave curvature at a section of a
structure
INFLECTION POINT- a point at which a structure changes
curvature from convex to concave or vise versa as it
deflects under a transverse loadH theoretically an internal
hinge and therefore a point of ?ero moment
NEGATIVE MOMENT- a bending moment that produces a
convex curvature at a section of a structure
SIMPLE BEAM - a beam resisting on simple supports at
both ends which are free to rotate and have no moment
resistance. *s with any statistically determinate structure,
the values of all reactions, shears, and moments for a
simple beam are independent of its cross sectional shape
and material
CANTILEVER BEAM- a pro5ecting beam supported at only
one fixed end
CANTILEVER- a beam or other rigid structural member
extending beyond a fulcrum and supported by a balancing
member or a downward force behind the fulcrum
OVERHANGING BEAM - a simple beam extending beyond
one of its supports. )he overhanging reduces the positive
moment at midspan while developing a negative moment at
the base of the cantilever over the support
FIXED END BEAM- a beam having both ends restrained
against translation and rotation. )he fixed ends transfer
bending stresses, increase the rigidity of the beam and
reduces its maximum deflection
CONTINUOUS BEAM - a beam extending over more than =
supports in order to develop greater rigidity and smaller
moments than a series of simple beams having similar
spans and loading. /oth fixed end and continuous beams
are indeterminate structures for which the values of all
reactions, shears and moments are dependent not only on
span and loading but also on cross sectional shape and
material
HAUNCH - the part of a beam that is thickened or
deepened to develop greater moment resistance. )he
efficiency of a beam can be increased by shaping its length
in response to the moment and shear values which typically
vary along its longitudinal axis
SUSPENDED SPAN- a simple beam supported by the
cantilevers of two ad5oining spans with pinned construction
5oints at points of ?ero moment. *lso called hung span
EFFECTIVE LENGTH- the distance between inflection
points in the span of a fixed end or continuous beam,
eEuivalent in nature to the actual length of simply supported
beam
COLUMN
COLUMN - a relatively slender structural member designed
primarily to support axial, compressive loads, applied at the
member ends.
POST - a stiff vertical support especially a wooden column
in timber framing
BUCKLING - the sudden lateral or torsional instability of a
slender structural member induced by the action of a
compressive load. /uckling can occur well before the yield
stress of the material is reached
BUCKLING- the axial load at which a column begins to
deflect laterally and becomes unsuitable.
CRITICAL BUCKLING LOAD - the maximum axial load
that can theoretically be applied to a column without
causing it to buckle. )he critical buckling load for a column
4 | S t r u c t u r a l
is inversely proportional to the sEuare of its effective length
and directly proportional to the modulus of elasticity of the
material and to the moment of inertia of the cross section.
*lso called uler buckling load
BIFURCATION - the critical point at which a column
carrying its critical buckling load, may either buckle or
remain undeflected. )he column is therefore in a state of
neutral eEuilibrium
CRITICAL BUCKLING STRESS - the critical buckling load
for a column divided by the area of its cross section
SLENDERNESS RATIO- the ratio of the effective length of
a column to its least ratio of gyration
)he higher the slenderness ratio, the lower is the critical
stress that will cause buckling. * primary ob5ective in the
design of a column is to reduce its slenderness ratio by
minimi?ing its effective length or maximi?ing its effective
length or maximi?ing the radius of gyration of its cross
section
RADIUS OF GYRATION - the radial distance from any axis
to a point at which the mass of a body could be
concentrated without altering the moment of inertia of the
body about that axis. %or a structural section, the radius of
gyration is eEual to the sEuare root of the Euotient of the
moment of inertia and the area
)he higher the radius of gyration of a structural section, the
more resistant the section is to buckling. In determining the
cross- sectional shape of a column, the ob5ective is to
provide the necessary radius of gyration about the different
axes. %or an asymmetrical cross section, buckling will tend
to occur about the weaker axis or in the direction of the
least dimension
LONG COLUMN- a slender column sub5ect to failure by
buckling rather than by crushing
SHORT COLUMN - a thick column sub5ect to failure by
crushing rather than by buckling. %ailure occurs when the
direct stress from an axial load exceeds the compressive
strength of the material available in the cross section. *n
eccentric load, however, can produce bending and result in
uneven stress distribution in the section
INTERMEDIATE COLUMN - a column having a mode of
failure between that a short column and a long column,
often party inelastic by crushing and partly elastic by
buckling
ECCENTRICITY - )he amount by which an axis deviates
from another parallel axis.
P-DELTA EFFECT I *n additional moment developed in a
structural member as its longitudinal axis deviates from the
line of action of a compressive force eEual to the product of
the load and the member deflection at any point.
MIDDLE THIRD RULE I )he proposition that a
compressive load should be located within the middle third
of a hori?ontal section of a column or wall to prevent tensile
stresses from developing in the section.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH I )he distance between inflection
points in a column sub5ect to buckling load. 0hen this
portion of a column buckles the entire column falls.
COMBINED STRESSES I * set of tensile and compressive
stresses resulting from the superposition of axial and
bending stresses at a cross section of a structural member,
acting in the same direction and eEual at any point to their
algebraic sum.
KERN I )he central area of any hori?ontal section of a
column or wall within which the resultant of all compressive
loads must pass if only compressive stresses are to be
applied beyond this area will cause tensile stresses to
develop in the section. *lso called kern area.
KERN POINT I * point on either side of the centroidal axis
of a hori?ontal column or wall section defining the limits of
the kern area.
LATERAL BRACING I the bracing of a column or other
compression member to reduce its effective length. $ateral
bracing is most effective when the bracing pattern occurs in
more than one plane.
UNBRACED LENGTH I the distance between the points at
which a structural member is braced against buckling in a
direction normal to its length.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR I a coefficient for
modifying the actual length of a column according to its end
conditions in order to determine its effective length. %ixing
both ends of a long column reduces its effective length by
half and increases its load-carrying capacity by a factor of <.
TRUSS
METHOD OF SECTIONS I a method of determining
member forces in a truss by considering the eEuilibrium of
any portion of the truss assembly.
METHOD OF OINTS I a method for determining member
forces in a truss by considering the eEuilibrium of the
various 5oints ideali?ed as points in free body diagrams
DEFINITION OF TERMS
ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE - a soil pressure acting on
any structure that will tend to push the structure wherein the
structure or a wall tends to move away from the soil
ACCELEROGRAPH- is an instrument which measures the
velocity and acceleration of an earthEuake in the ground
ANCHOR BOLTS - a round, steel bolt embedded in
concrete or masonry used to hold down machinery, steel
columns or beam casting, shock beam plates and engine
heads
BALANCED DESIGN - is one which both the concrete and
the steel are so proportioned as to work to their full working
stresses when the member carries its full allowable load
BATTER PILES - are piles at an inclination to resist forces
that are not critical. )his is also known as brace pile or spur
pile
BEARING WALL SYSTEM- a structural system without a
complete vertical load carrying space frame
BENDING MOMENT - is the algebraic sum of the moments
of the forces acting on either side of the section of a beam
about an axis through the center of the gravity of the section
5 | S t r u c t u r a l
BORED PILE 2bearing pile3- a concrete pile which
concreted either with a casing or without a casing at its
permanent location. )his is a cast in place pile
CAISSON - a watertight, cylindrical or rectangular chamber
used to in under water construction to protect workers from
water pressure and soil collapse
CEMENT GUN - is an e5ector operated by compressed air
to force gunite into cavities or cracks in rocks or cement
works
CHUTE - is an open-top through which bulk materials are
conveyed and by gravity
COFFER DAM - a temporary dam- like structure
constructed which excludes water from the site of the
foundation during its excavation and construction
CONSTRUCTION OINT - the vertical or hori?ontal face in
a concrete structure where concreting has been stopped
and continued later
COLD OINT- formed when a concrete surface hardens
before the next batch o f concrete is placed
CREEP- the tendency of most material to move or deform
over time under a constant load )he amount of movement
varies enormously depending upon the material. )he area
that is highly stressed will move the most. )he movement
causes stresses to be redistributed.
COUNTER 2inner in retaining wall3- a cantilever wall that is
reinforced with a masonry structure extending upward from
the foundation or from the inner face of the retaining wall to
provide additional resistance to thrust and are placed at
regular intervals. 2buttress if outer3
COFFER DAM- a temporary watertight enclosure around an
area of water or water bearing soil, in which construction is
to take place, bearing on a stable statum at or above the
foundation level of new construction. )he water is pumped
from within to permit free access to the area
DIAPHRAGM- a hori?ontal or nearly hori?ontal system
including hori?ontal bracing system, that act to transmit
lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements
DIAPHRAGM STRUT - a structural member of a hori?ontal
bracing system that takes axial tension or compression. It is
parallel to the applied load that collects and transfers shear
to the vertical resisting elements or distributive loads within
the hori?ontal bracing system
DIVING BELL- a watertight bell- shaped steel chamber
which can be lowered to or raised from a fresh or seawater
bed crane. It is opened at the bottom and filled with
compressed air so that men can prepare foundations and
undertake similar construction work under water.
DOWEL - a short steel bar extending from one concrete
element to another as for instance a concrete foundation to
a concrete column. It may or may not transfer direct stress
DRIFT BOLT- is a long pin of steel or wood, made with or
without the head, driven through the timber and into an
ad5acent timber to hold them together and to transmit
stresses
EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION - a 5oint designed to take
expansion and contraction
EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION - the designed break in a
structure to allow for the drying and temperature shrinkage
of concrete, brickwork of similar material, thereby
preventing the formation of harmful cracks
FATIGUE - is a phenomenon of failure under repeated
stresses. * fact, based experience and experiments, is well
known that stresses which are applied to a body a few times
without causing apparent structure in5ury may, if applied
repeatedly or causing a great number of times, causes
failure
GUNITE - is a rich cement mortar which is applied by
spraying under high air pressure
GRADE BEAM - a concrete beam placed directly on the
ground to provide foundation for the superstructure
GRANOLITHIC FINISH - a surface layer or granolithic
concrete which maybe laid on a base of either fresh or
hardened concrete
GRILLAGE - is a footing which consist of steel beams
arranged to distribute a concentrated load to the supporting
masonry or soil
DISTRIBUTION OF HORIZONTAL SHEAR - design
analysis reEuirement, considered as the basis for the
structural design of structures where the total lateral forces
are distributed to the various vertical elements of the lateral
force resisting system in proportion to their rigidities
considering the rigidity of the hori?ontal bracing system or
diaphragm
HYBRID STEEL GIRDER - is a fabricated metal beam
composed of flanges with a material of a specified minimum
yield strength different from that of the web plate
INTENSITY - the measure of the damage level of an
earthEuake 2sub5ective to visual assessment3
INFLECTION POINT- a point in the moment diagram where
it changes from positive to negative moment of vise versa
and the value of the moment at this point is ?ero
ETTING - a method of driving piles or well points into the
sand in the situations where a pile hammer might not be
suitable owing to the risk of damage by vibration to the piles
of ad5acent buildings
LINTEL BEAM - a beam especially provided over an
opening for a door, window, to carry the wall over the
opening
MAGNITUDE - the measure of the energy released by an
earthEuake 2measured by instrument3
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY - is the constant which, within
the proportional limit, express ratio between the unit stress
to the unit strain. It is the measure of the relative abilities of
the different materials of construction to resist deformation
under stress within proportional limit
MODULUS OF RESILIENCE - is a measure of the capacity
of the material to absorb energy without danger of being
permanently deformed
MOMENT OF RESITANCE- is the internal resisting moment
of a beam. It is opposite in sense to the bending moment
but of the same magnitude
6 | S t r u c t u r a l
MORTAR- is a mixture, composed of one part of ,ortland
cement and one part of clean sand, used as a filter
MULLION- is a vertical member between two portions of
window sash usually designed to resist wind load and not
vertical load. It is different from muntin, which is smaller
member which separates the panels of glass within the
whole sash.
NON- BEARING WALL - is wall that carries no load other
than its own weight
ORTHOGONAL EFFECT - the effect on the structure due to
extreme lateral 2earthEuake3 motions acting in directions
other than parallel to the direction to the direction of
resistance under consideration
PARTY WALL- is a wall used or adopted for 5oint service
between two buildings
PLASTER CEMENT FINISH- a mixture of ,ortland cement,
with water and sand applied to surfaces such as walls
ceilings in a plastic state, later it sets to form a hard surface
POINTING - in masonry, the final treatment of 5oints by the
troweling of mortar or putty like filler into 5oints
PORTAL METHOD - method of analy?ing indeterminate
modular building frames by assuming hinges at the center
of beam spans and column heights or the interior column
carries twice as much shear as the exterior column
PORTLAND CEMENT - is the product obtained by finely
pulveri?ing clinker produced by calcining to incipient fusion
an intimate and properly proportioned mixture of
argillaceous and calcareous materials with no additions
subseEuent to calcinations except water and calcined or
uncalcined gypsum
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT - is the highest unit stress for
which the deformation of a body is proportional to the
stress. /eyond this point, permanent deformation occurs
REDUNDANT MEMBER - is any framed structure or truss,
is one which maybe omitted in the structure without affect in
the possibility of analy?ing the frame or truss by ordinary
static method of computations such as the counter diagonal
truss
RIP-RAP - consist of rough stones of various placed
compactly or irregularly to prevent scour by water and
protect material which maybe washed out by the water
SAGROD- structural member in the steel truss framing that
counteracts forces in compression because of high
probability of the purlins to deflect and bend down during
purlin installation.
SAND DRAIN- it is provided to help in the compaction of
natural soil which provide channels through which water can
escape much more rapidly then through the clay itself. )he
weight of the drain itself helps in the compaction.
SHEAR WALL- a wall designed to resist lateral forces
parallel to the plane of a wall
SOFFIT- is the concave surface of an arch
SPANDREL BEAM- is a beam from column to column,
carrying an exterior wall in a skeleton building
STIFFNESS RATIO 2J3 in moment distribution method- 2as
used in analysis of indeterminate structures3 is the ratio of
moment of inertia of the cross section of its length
STRESS- is the cohesive force in a body, which resists the
tendency of an external force to change the shape of the
body
STRAIN OR DEFORMATION- is the change in the shape of
any material when sub5ected to the action force
TIE BAR- a deformed bar, embedded in a concrete
construction at a 5oint and designed to hold a butting edges
together, not designed for direct load transfer
TORSION OR MOMENT OF INERTIA- is a Euality which
measures the resistance of the mass to being revolved
about a line
TRANSFORMED SECTION- is one in which the flexural
steel is conceived to be replaced by large area of imaginary
concrete which can take tension. )his gives a
homogeneous section of concrete to which ordinary beam
analysis may be applied
TREMIE- is a watertight pipe 766 mm to ;66 mm in
diameter with a flared top used in depositing concrete under
water
UNDERPINNING- is an art of placing new foundation under
old foundation
VIBRATOR- is an oscillating power operated machine used
to agitate fresh concrete so as to eliminate gross voids
including entrapped air and to produce intimate contact with
form surfaces and embedded materials
VOID- CEMENT RATIO- is the ratio of volume of air plus
water to the volume cement
WALL FOOTING- a continuous type of spread footing the
supports vertical load, the weight of the wall itself and the
weight of the footing
WATER CEMENT RATIO- the ration of the amount of water,
to the amount of cement in a concrete or mortar mixture
WEB CRIPPLING- local failure of a thin web plate of a steel
beam or girder in the immediate vicinity of a concentrated
load
ASD- allowable stress design
LRFD- load resistance factor design
SEISMIC DESIGN PROVISION
ARTIFICIAL RIGIDITY- will cause torsion 2twisting3
BASE- is the level at which the earthEuake motions are
considered to be imparted to the structure
BASE SHEAR- is the total designed lateral force or shear at
the base of the structure
BEARING WALL SYSTEM 2shear type3- is a structural
system without a complete vertical load carrying space
frame
BOUNDARY ELEMENT- is an element at edges of opening
or at the perimeters of shear walls or diaphragm
7 | S t r u c t u r a l
BRACED FRAME- is an essentially vertical truss system of
the concentric or eccentric type which is provided to resist
lateral forces
BUILDING FRAME SYSTEM- is an essentially complete
space frame which provides supports for gravity loads
CONCENTRIC BRACED FRAME- is a braced frame in
which the members are sub5ected primarily to axial forces
COLLECTOR- is a member or an element provided to
transfer lateral forces from a portion of a structure to the
vertical elements of the lateral force resisting system
DIAPHRAGM- is a hori?ontal or nearly hori?ontal system
2including hori?ontal bracing system3 acting to transmit
lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements
DIAPHRAGM STRUT - also known as tie or collector, is the
element of a diaphragm parallel to the applied load which
collects and transfer diaphragm shear to the vertical
resisting elements or distribute loads within the diaphragm.
(uch members may also take axial tension or compression.
DIAPHRAGM CHORD- is the boundary element of a
diaphragm or a shear wall which is assumed to take axial
stresses analogous to the flanges of the beam
DUAL SYSTEM- is a combination of a (pecial or
Intermediate +oment "esisting (pace %rame and (hear
walls or /raced %rame
ESSENTIAL FACILITIES- are those structures which are
necessary for emergency post- earthEuake operations
FLEXIBLE ELEMENT- an element or system is one whose
deformation under lateral load significantly larger than
ad5oining parts of the system
HARMONIC MOTION- the coincidence of the natural period
of structural with the dominant freEuency in the ground
MOMENT RESISTING FRAME- is a space frame in which
the members and 5oints are capable of resisting forces
primarily by flexure
ORTHOGONAL EFFECT- is the effect of the structure due
to earthEuake motions acting in directions other than
parallel to the direction of resistance under consideration
P- DELTA EFFECT- is the secondary effect on shears and
moments of frame members induced by the vertical loads
acting on the laterally displaced building frame
PERT-CPM 2,rogram valuation "eview )echniEue- 4ritical
,ath +ethod3 - it is a presentation of pro5ect plan by a
schematic diagram or network that depicts the seEuence
and interrelation of all the component parts of the pro5ect,
and the logically analysis and manipulation of this network
in determining the best overall program of operation.
PLATFORM- is the lower rigid portion of a structure having
vertical combination of structural system
PNEUMATIC MORTAR- mortar applied to a surface with a
cement gun in the same manner as gunite, with such mortar
has a cube crushing strength of =6.;D +pa at =D days with
water' cement ratio of 6.<A
SHEAR WALL- is a wall designed to resist lateral forces
parallel to the plane of the wall 2sometimes referred to or a
structural wall3
SOFT STOREY- is a storey whose lateral stiffness is less
than C6@ of the stiffness of the storey above
SOIL- STRUCTURE RESONANCE- is the coincidence of
the natural period of structure which dominant freEuency in
the ground motion
STRENGTH is the usable capacity of a structure or its
members to carry loads within the deformation limits
prescribed in the code
SOIL STABILIZATION- is the process of improving the
properties of a soil to make it more suitable for a particular
purpose
SPACE FRAME- is a three dimensional structural system
without bearing walls composed of members interconnected
so as to function as a complete self contained unit with or
without the aid of hori?ontal diaphragms or bracing systems
STOREY- is the space between levels. (torey x is the
storey below level x
STOREY SHEAR- is the summation of design lateral forces
above the storey under consideration
STOREY DRIFT- is the displacement of one level relative to
the level above or below
STOREY DRIFT RATIO- is the storey drift divided by the
storey height
STRUCTURE- is an assemblage of framing members
designed to support gravity loads and resist lateral forces.
)hey maybe categori?ed as building or non- building.
RAINWATER LEADER- it is another term of a downspout. It
is a vertical pipe, often of sheet metal, used to conduct
water from a roof drain or gutter to the ground.
TORSION RIGIDITY- 2s used in seismic design3 refers to
the relative stiffness of the structure to resist torsional stress
TOWER- is the upper flexible portion of a structure having a
vertical combination of structural system
VERTICAL LOAD CARRYING SPACE FRAME- is a space
frame designed to carry all vertical 2gravity3 loads
WEAK STOREY- is a storey whose strength is less than
D6@ of the strength of the storey
SEISMIC REQUIREMENT FOR
TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT
:. maximum spacing of hoops shall not exceed =<
times the diameter of the hoop bars
=. maximum spacing of hoops shall not be D times
the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bars
7. maximum spacing of hoops shall not be more than
d'<
<. the first hoop shall be located not more than A6
mm from the face of the supporting member
8 | S t r u c t u r a l
GRADING AND EARTHWORK
AS GRADED- is the extent of surface conditions on
completion of grading
BEDROCK- is in-place solid rock
BENCH- is a relatively level step excavated into earth
material on which fill is to be placed
BURROW- is earth material acEuired from an off site
location for use in grading on a site
COMPACTION- is the densification of a fill by mechanical
means
EARTH MATERIAL- is any rock, natural soil or fill or any
combination
EROSION- is the wearing away of the ground surface as a
result of the movement of the wind, water or ice
EXCAVATION- is the mechanical removal of the earth
material
FILL- is a deposit of earth material placed by artificial
means
GRADE- is the vertical location of the ground surface
EXISTING GRADE- is the grade prior to the grading
FINISH GRADE- is the final grade of the site that conforms
to the approved plan
GRADING- is any excavating or filling or combination
thereof
KEY- is a designed compacted fill placed in a trench
excavated material beneath the toe of a proposed fill slope
REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
ADMIXTURE- a material used as ingredient of concrete and
added to concrete before or during its mixing to modify its
properties
AGGREGATE- granular material such as sand gravel stone
and iron blast furnace slag used with a cementing medium
to form a hydraulic cement concrete or mortar
AGGREGATE LIGHTWEIGHT- aggregate with a dry, loose
weight of :66 kg'm or less
ANCHORAGE- in post tensioning, a device used to anchor
tendon to concrete member, in pre-tensioning, a device
used to anchor a tendon during hardening of concrete
BONDED TENDON- pre-stressing tendon that is bonded to
concrete either directly or through grouting
COLUMN- member with a ratio to least lateral dimension of
7 or greater used primarily to support axial compressive
load
COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS -
concrete flexural members of pre-cast and'or cast in place
concrete elements but so interconnected that all elements
respond to loads as a unit
CONCRETE - mixture of ,ortland cement or any other
hydraulic cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and
water, with or without admixtures
SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
!"# - compressive strength of concrete used in design
expressed in megapascals 2+pa3. 0henever the Euantity
%K
c
is under a radical sign, sEuare root of numerical value
only is intended, and result has units of megapascals 2+pa3.
CONCRETE$ STRUCTURAL LIGHT WEIGHT- concrete
containing lightweight aggregate and has an air-dry unit
weight not exceeding :B66 kg'm
7.
lightweight concrete
without natural sand is termed all- light weight concrete and
lightweight concrete in which of the fine aggregate consists
of normal weight sand is termed sand- lightweight concrete.
CURVATURE FRICTION- friction resulting from bends or
curves in the specified pre-stressing tendon profile
DEFORMED REINFORCEMENT - deformed reinforcing
bars, bar mats, deformed wire fabric and welded deformed
fabric.
DEVELOPMENT LENGTH - length of embedded
reinforcement reEuired to develop the design strength of
reinforcement at a critical section
EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF SECTION !%# - distance measure
from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension
reinforcement
EFFECTIVE PRESTRESS- stress remaining in prestressing
tendons after all losses has occurred, excluding effects of
dead load and super imposed load
EMBEDMENT LENGTH- length of embedded
reinforcement provided beyond a critical section
ACKING FORCE- in prestressed concrete, temporary
force exerted into prestressing tendons
DEAD LOAD !DL# - dead weight supported by a member.
$oads of constant magnitude that remains in one position.
LIVE LOAD !LL# I loads that may change in magnitude and
position
FACTORED LOAD- load multiplied by appropriate load
factors, used to proportion a members by the strength
design method.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY- ratio of normal stress to
corresponding strain for tensile or compressive stresses
below proportional limit of material
MODULUS$ APARENT 2concrete3- also known as long term
modulus, is determined by using the stress and strain
obtained after the load has been applied for a certain length
of time
MODULUS$ INITIAL 2concrete3- the slope of the stress
strain diagram at the origin of the curve
MODULUS$ SECANT 2concrete3- the slope of the line
drawn from the origin to appoint on the curve somewhere
between =A@ and A6@ of its ultimate compressive strength
MODULUS$ TENGENT 2concrete3- the slope of tangent to
the curve to some point along the curve
9 | S t r u c t u r a l
PEDESTAL- an upright compression member with a ratio of
unsupported height to average least lateral dimensions of
less than 7
PLAIN CONCRETE- concrete that does not conform to the
definition of reinforced concrete
PLAIN REINFORCEMENT- reinforcement that does not
conform to the definition of deformed reinforcement
POST TENSIONING- method of prestressing in which the
tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened
PRECAST CONCRETE- plain or reinforced concrete
element cast elsewhere than its final position in the
structure
POSTENSIONING- method of prestressing concrete which
the tendons are tensioned before concrete is placed
REINFORCED CONCRETE- designed on the assumption
that two materials act together in resisting forces
SPIRAL REINFORCEMNT- continuously wound
reinforcement in the form of a cylindrical helix
STIRRUP - reinforcement used to resist shear and torsion
stresses in a structural memberH typically bars, wires or
welded wire fabric 2smooth or deformed3 either single leg or
bent into $, . or rectangular shapes and located
perpendicularly to or at angle to longitudinal reinforcement
2)he term stirrups is usually applied to lateral reinforcement
in flexural members and the term ties to those in
compression members.3
DEIGN STRENGTH- nominal strength reduction factor, L
NOMINAL STRENGTH- strength of a member or cross-
section before application of any strength reduction factors
REQUIRED STRENGTH - strength of a member or cross
section reEuired to resist factored loads or related internal moments
and forces in such combinations
TENDON- steel element such as wire, cable, bar, rods or
strand, or a bundle of such elements used to impart
prestress to concrete
TIE- loop or reinforcing bar or wire enclosing longitudinal
reinforcement
TRANSFER - act of transferring stress in prestressing
tendons from 5acks or pretensioning bed to concrete
member
WALL - member, usually vertical, used to enclose or
separate spaces
WOBBLE FRICTION - in prestressed concrete, friction
caused by unintended deviation of prstressing sheath or
duct from its specified profile
YIELD STRENGTH - specified minimum yield strength or
yield point or reinforcing in +pa
BALANCED DESIGN - a design so proportioned that the
maximum stress in concrete 2with strain of 6.6673 and steel
2with strain of %y's3 are reached simultaneously once the
ultimate load is reached, causing them to fall simultaneously
UNDERREINFORCED DESIGN - a design in which the
steel reinforcement is lesser than what is reEuired for
balanced conditioned. %ailure under this condition is ductile
and will give warning to the user of thee structure to
decrease the load
OVERREINFORCED DESIGN- a design in which the steel
reinforcement is more than what is reEuired for balanced
condition
AGGREGATES
%ine aggregates- sand
are those that passes through a No.< sieve
2about ;mm in si?e3
4oarse aggregate -gravel or crushed stone
4oarse aggregate shall not be less thanH
:'A the narrowest dimension
between sides of forms
:'7 the depth of slabs
minimum clear spacing between individual reinforcing
bars or wires, bundle of bars or prestressing tendons or
ducts
CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR
REINFORCEMENT
&' (( -for concrete cast and
permanently exposed to earth such
as footings
)*-'* (( for concrete members exposed
to weather
)* (( concrete cover of pipes,
conduits or fittings and exposed to
weather
)* (( for beams and columns
+* (( for concrete not exposed to
weather or in contact with
ground, such as slabs, walls
and 5oists
FOR BUNDLED BARS

a. groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in
contact as a unit shall be limited to < in any one
bundle
b. bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or
ties
c. bars larger than 7=mm shall not be bundled in
beams
d. individual bars within a bundle terminated within
the span of flexural members should terminate at a
different points at least <6db stagger
)he minimum concrete cover for bundled bars shall beH
Eual to the eEuivalent diameter of the bundle but
not exceeding A6 mm
10 | S t r u c t u r a l
CA mm- for concrete cast against and permanently
exposed to earth
STANDARD HOOKS
*. :D6F bend plus <d
b
extension but not less
than ;A mm at free end
/. B6F bend plus :=d
b
extension, at free end
of bar
4. for stirrups and tie hooksH
:; mm bar and smaller, B6F bend plus ;d
b
extension at free end of bar or
=6 mm and =A mm bar, B6F bend plus ;d
b
extension at free end of bar or
=A mm bar and smaller, :7AF bend plus ;d
b
extension at free end of bar
MINIMUM BEND DIAMETER
)he diameter of bend measured on the inside of the bar
shall not be less than the followingH
2a.3 ;d
b
for :6 mm to =A mm bar
2b.3 Dd
b
for :6 mm to =D mm bar
2c.3 :6d
b
for :6 mm to 7; mm bar
)%
,
minimum inside diameter of bend of
stirrups and ties for 16 mm bar and smaller in
diameter
ONE- WAY SLAB
* one-way slab is considered as wide shallow rectangular
beam. )he reinforcing steel is usually spaced uniformly over
its width. )he flexural reinforcement of a one-way slab
extends in one direction only.
+aximum flexural reinforcement spacingH
7 times the slab thickness or <A6 mm
+inimum thickness of one-way slabH
(olid one-way slab
$'=6 - simply supported
$'=< - one end continuous
$'=D - both end continuous
$':6 - cantilever
M (pan length $ is in millimeter
"ibbed one-way slab
$':; - simply supported
$':D.A - one end continuous
$'=: - both end continuous
$'D - cantilever
LOAD FACTORS
dead load, !$NNNNNNN. :.<6
live load, $$NNN.NNNNN :.C6
wind load, 0$NNN...NNN.. :.C6
earthEuake, NNNNNNN. :.DC
earth or water pressure, HNN :.C6
STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTOR -
%lexure w'o axial load 6.B6
*xial tension O axial tension w' flexure 6.B6
(hear and torsion 6.DA
*xial compression O axial compression w' flexure a.
spiral reinforcement 6.CA
b. tie reinforcement 6.C6
/earing on concrete 6.C6
"P.I"! ()"NG)H, . or ,u
"eEuired strength . to resist dead load !$ and live load $$
is
.9 :.<!$ Q :.C$$
0ind load 0 are included in design
.9 6.CA 2:.<!$ Q :.C$$ Q :.C03
arthEuake loads or forces are included in design
.9 6.CA 2:.<!$ Q :.C$$ Q :.DC3
0here structural effect ) of differential settlement, creep,
shrinkage or temperature change are significant in design
.9 6.CA 2:.<!$ Q :.<) Q :.C$$3
but reEuired strength . shall not be less than
.9 :.< 2!$ Q )3
SIZES AND SPACING OF
MAIN BARS AND TIES
:. 4lear distance between longitudinal bars shall be
not less than :.A db nor <6 mm
=. .se :6 mm diameter ties for 7= mm bars or
smaller and at least := mm in si?e for 7; mm and
bundled longitudinal bars
7. 1ertical spacing of ties shall be the smallest of the
followingH
a. :; x db 2db 9 longitudinal bar diameter3
b. <D x tie diameter
c. least dimension of columns
<. )ies shall be arrange such that every corner and
alternate longitudinal bar shall have lateral support
provided by the corner of the tie with an included
angle of not more than :7AF and no bar shall be
farther than :A6 mm clear on each side along the
tie from such a laterally supported bar. 0here
longitudinal bars are located around the perimeter
of a circle tie is allowed.
MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR
DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMNT
:. not less than := db
=. not less than :':; clear span
7. not less than d
whichever is greater
11 | S t r u c t u r a l
CRITERION FOR CONDUITS AND PIPES
EMBEDDED IN CONCRETE
a. 4onduits and pipes embedded in slab, the wall or
beam shall not be larger in outside dimension than
:'7 the overall thickness of slab, wall or beam
b. "einforcement with an area not less than 6.66=
times the area of cross- section shall be provided
normal to piping
c. 4onduits and pipes with their fittings, embedded
within a column shall not displace more than <@ of
the area of the cross section on which strength is
calculated
d. 4oncrete cover for pipes, conduits and fittings shall
not be less than <6 mm for concrete exposed to
earth or weather
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH BOLTED
CONNECTION
:. high-strength bolted parts shall fit solidly together
when assembled and shall not be separated by
gaskets or any other interposed compressive
material.
=. /olts tightened by means of a calibrated wrench
shall be installed with a hardened washer under
the nut or bolt head whichever is the element
turned in tightening.
7. 0hen assembled, all 5oint surfaces, including
those ad5acent to the washer, shall be free of
scale, except tight mill scales, dirts and burns.
<. (urface in contact with the bolt head and nut head
shall have slope of not more than :H=6 with respect
to a plane normal to the bolt axis.

12 | S t r u c t u r a l