Chap. T.

MECHANICS AND STATICS. S53

13-33. When the friction was across the grain, or at right angles to the direction of the
fibres, oak against oak was -odj--.
The ratios above given are constant quantities, and not
dependent upon the velocities, excepting in the case of elm, when the pressures are very
small, for then the friction is sensibly increased by the velocity.
1334. (II. ) Friction is found to increase with the time of contact. It was ascertained that
when wood moved upon wood in the direction of the fibres, the friction gradually increased,
and reached its maximum in 8 or 10 seconds. When across tl:e grain of the wood, it took
a longer time to reach its maximum.
1335. (III.) For illustration of the friction of metals upon metals after a certain time of
rest, the subjoined experiments were made with two flat uilers of iron, 4 feet long and 2
inches wide, attached to the fixed plank of the apparatus used for the investigation. Four
other rulers, two of iron and two of brass, 15 inches long and 18 lines wide, were also used.
The angles of each of the rulers were rounded ofF, and the rubbing surfaces of the rulers
were 45 square inches.
With iron upon iron and a pressure of 53 lbs., the friction in parts of the pressure was ,-

453 lbs.,

g-
...
1
With iron upon brass and a pressure o^ 52 lbs., the friction in parts of the pressure was
4-2*
.452 lbs.,
J
41"
1336. In these experiments each set gives nearly the same result, though the second
pressures are nearly nine times the first ; from which we learn that, in metals, friction is in-
dependent of the extent of the rubbing surfaces. Coulomb, moreover, found that tlie friction
is independent of the velocities. The ratio of 4 to 1 between the pressure of friction, iii
tlie case of iron moving upon brass, is only to be considered accurate when the surfaces are
new and very large. When they are very small the ratio varies from 4 to 1 to 6 to 1 ; but
this last ratio is not reached unless the friction has been continued more than an hour, when
the iron and brass have taken the highest polish whereof they are susceptible, free of all
scratclies.
1337. IV. In the friction of oak upon oak, when greased with tallow, which was renewed
at every experiment, some days were required for obtaining, when the surfaces were consi-
derable, the maximum of friction or adhesion. It was nearly similar to that without grease,
sometimes rather greater. For iron or copper with tallow, during rest, the increase is not
so considerable as with oak. At first the friction was
^\
of tlie weight, besides a small force
of a pound for every 30 square inches independent of the weight. The friction after some
time changes to
-j^
or
J.
Olive oil alters the condition of the friction to
^,
and old soft grease
to about
|.
1338. V. In the case of friction of bodies, oak upon oak for instance, in motion in the
direction of its fibres, the friction was nearly constant in all degrees of velocity, though with
large surfaces it apjjcared to increase with the velocities ; but when the touching surfaces
were very small compared with the pressures, the friction diminished or the velocities in-
creased. For a pressure of 100 to 4000 pounds on a square foot, the friction is about
^p>
besides for each square foot a resistance of Impounds, exclusive of pressure increasing a
little with the velocity, occasioned perhaps by a down on the surface. If the surface be
very small the friction is lessened. When the narrow surface was cross-grained, the friction
was invariably
-jL.
In the case of oak on fir, the friction was
^L
; of fir on fir, 1 ; of elm on
elm, -^j but varying according to the extent of surface; for iron or copper on wood,
-^j,
which
was at first doubled by increasing the velocity to a foot in a second, but on a continuance
of the operation for some hours it again diminished. For iron on iron, -
; on copper,
-
;
after long attrition, 1 in all velocities. Upon the whole, in the case of m.^st machines. A of
the pressure may be considered a fair estimate of the friction.
1339. In the experiments to ascertain the friction of axles. Coulomb used a sim])le piJley,
where the friction of tha axis and that of the rigidity of the rope produce a joint resislanc".
With guaiacum moving upon iron, the friction was
<;^
or ^r:^ of the weight in all velocities
exclusive of the rigidity of the rope; the mean was , or, with a small weight, a little
greater. In the cases of axles of iron on copper, -j'j or =-777 the velocity is small ; the friction
being always somewhat less than for plane surfaces. With grease, the friction was about
i7g.
With an axis of green oak or elm, and a pulley of guaiacum, the friction with tallow
w.is
j'g; without,
-^
; with a pulley of elm, the quantities in question became
^
and
ji,.
An
axis of box with a pulley of guaiacum gave -.}-j and
/^
; with an elm pulley,
r.g and
.J^.
An
axis of iron and a pulley of guaiacum gave, with tallow,
rjj,. The velocity had I>ut small
A A