Physics 71 Final Exam Reviewer

Diandrew Lexter L. Dy
This is a very condensed reviewer for the Finals. This is
essentially just writing all the needed equations, with some
concepts. Exercises are suggested from our previous prob-
lem sets, quizzes, and long exmas. This summary in nature
can be used as a guide for things you have to learn for the
exam. If you cannot understand it, then reading Young and
Freedman would be helpful.
1 Ch 1: Units, Physical Quantities and
Vectors
The rst chapter deals with preliminary topics for physics.
This is not included in the exam, but the skills discussed
here are prevalent all throughout the remaining chapters of
Young and Freedman, as well as Physics in general. Let s
briey discuss the important skills:
1.1 What is Physics?
Such an important question that has various interpretations.
In the words of my arrogrant physicist friend, Physics is
everything!. I however think Physics is Math in disguise,
while Mathematicians think they are Philosophers, Philoso-
phers want to be Psychologists, Psychologists goal is to
explain Biology, Biologists envy Chemists, and Chemistry
wants to be Physics (so circle!). Now what about the En-
gineers? Engineers want to be in Science, but they are too
busy getting rich. Architects think they are gods.
1.2 Units
Units are important for experimentalist and engineers be-
cause they want to base the physical variables by some
standard measurement. These standard scales however are
based on convention, the most popular and useful of which
are S.I. units.
The S.I. units used for Physics are as follows:
Variable Units
length meter [m]
time seconds [s]
mass kilogram [kg]
Force Newton [N]
Energy Joule [J]
Power Watt [W]
Pressure Pascal [Pa]
The fundamental units are the rst three: length, time
and mass. The rest of the variables has units that are ex-
pressible in terms of the fundamental units. The reason
they introduce these units is probably convenience.
Familiarization of units for the variables has important
consequences in any Physics exam. First, you can guess the
formula for the variable by looking at the units. For exam-
ple, power is in Watts, which is
[
J
s
]
. So you can probably
guess that:
Power =
energy
time
, (1.1)
which is the correct expression for average power. You can
also guess the force and speed relation of average power.
However, this method will not work when there are unitless
constants involved. For example, the escape speed should
be in
[
m
s
]
, and must involve G, with units [G] =
[
m
3
kgs
2
]
.
Noting that [G mass/distance] =
[
m
2
s
2
]
, you can probably
guess that:
v
esc
=

Gm
r
. (1.2)
This formula however is o by a factor of

2, hence is wrong.
You can still probably get away by guessing the formula
because the exam is multiple choice, thus you can probably
guess the factor.
You can also guess the correct answer in multiple choice
exams by the correct units. If the question requires work
(pun intended), your answer should be in Joules, and you
may discard the choices with dierent units. Remember,
guessing is an art and a science, and is not just completely
random.
An amazing example of guessing, and my favorite prob-
lem so far, is in your third exam, the Launch problem (some-
where at the end). The problem states that you launch a
projectile at 4
[
km
s
]
from the ground, and you are asked of
its speed at a height 20km o the ground. The solution
here is through energy conservation, then nd speed after a
(slightly) long algebra and calculator exercise (that is why it
is someewhere at the end). However, you could have guessed
the answer by simply looking at the choices. Looking at the
choices, you can see that only one option has speed lesser
than the initial speed. And intuitively, the speed should
decrease at the top.
So in short: guessing works sometimes, and can also
be used as a check to your answers. Why am I babbling
about this? Maybe because I realized that guessing is an
important skill, and must be taught! Sorry, I should have
discussed this before, never too late I hope.
One of the advantages of SI units are the SI prexes that
are all based on powers of 10. In Physics 71, the important
prexes are:
Prex power syntax (in meter)
kilo 10
3
km
centi 10
2
cm
The rest of the prexes will be useful later in your
Physics career. Hence conversion of units is a breeze! The
time conversion however obeys the following rules:
time in seconds
1 minute [min] 60 [s]
1 hour [hr] 60 min =3600 [s]
1 year [yr] 525600 moments!
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 1.2 1
And also for days, months and other time quantities. This
peculiarity of time is that it isnt really S.I. because of the
base 10 wasnt converted. Maybe its too dicult to change
the times. Theoretical physicists dont care however, as
sometimes they will just measure time in meters, hence the
SI base 10 property still works!
1.3 Scalars and Vectors
Scalars are quantities without direction, while vectors have
direction. Several vectors can be added using the parallelo-
gram rule.
Vectors can be broken down into components. We usu-
ally use Cartesian components, where the basis (unit vec-
tors) are perpendicular to each other. Hence we can express
any vector in three space dimensions as:
V = V
x

i +V
y

j +V
z

k (1.3)
where

i,

j,

k are the basis unit vectors, while V

x
, V
y
, V
z
are
the components of V, which are scalar numbers (can be
negative!). The magnitude of the vector can be solved using
the Pythagorean theorem:
V = |V| =

(V
x
)
2
+ (V
y
)
2
+ (V
z
)
2
. (1.4)
The magnitude V is never negative! The direction can also
be solved. For a vector F = F
x

i + F
y

j, the usual angle is

solved as:
= Arctan
F
y
F
x
(1.5)
For vectors, important operations include: inner prod-
uct (e.g. W = F s) or cross product (e.g. = r F). Fa-
miliarization of these operations are important in the next
chapters.
That ends Chapter 1!
2 Ch 2: Motion along a straight line
2.1 Dictionary
Consider an object moving in a straight line. The motion
of the object hence can be described by its position at all
times, x(t). This position can be any real number (can be
negative!). From x(t), we can dene displacement, dened
as:
displacement
t
1
to t
2
= x(t
2
) x(t
1
) = x. (2.1)
Hence displacement is dependent only at the endpoints of
the position, and the sign implies the direction (positive
means its going to more positive position). This is dierent
than our notion of distance, where we add magnitude of dis-
placements even with a change of direction. Rule of thumb:
Going in a full circle: zero displacement, distance > 0.
We next dene velocity v
x
as:
velocity: v
x
=
dx
dt
. (2.2)
This quantity is a vector (v
x
is actually the component,
direction is

i) with the sign implying direction (can be neg-

ative). We dene speed v (no subscript) as:
speed: v = |v
x
| . (2.3)
Now we can also add instantaneous as an adjective to
the velocity and speed because it is evaluated at one time.
Because derivatives are hard to imagine, we can dene the
average velocity and speed from time t
1
to t
2
as:
ave. velocity: v
x,ave,(t
1
to t
2
)
=
x(t
2
) x(t
1
)
t
2
t
1
=
x
t
.
ave. speed: v
ave
= |v
x,ave
| . (2.4)
Note that in the limit that the interval t
1
to t
2
becomes
innitesimal t
2
t
1
= t, then the denition of average
velocity becomes velocity!
We nally dene acceleration as:
acceleration: a
x
=
dv
dt
=
d
2
x
dt
2
. (2.5)
and the average counterpart:
ave. acceleration: a
x,ave,(t
1
to t
2
)
=
v(t
2
) v(t
1
)
t
2
t
1
=
v
t
.
(2.6)
These formulas are important and must be memorized!
Trivia:
da
dt
is a jerk.
Examples
You can nd several examples in Young (see the syllabus).
In the rst exam, understand Kinematics, Hindi Tamad and
Stopping Distance.
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 2.2 2
2.2 Plotting x t, v
x
t, a
x
t diagrams
To picture the properties of moving objects, we can intro-
duce graphs. These are the 2D graphs that we did with the
horizontal axis as time, and the vertical axis can either be
the position (x), velocity v
x
and acceleration a
x
.
Important concepts include that the derivative of a func-
tion is related to the slope of the graph. For example, the
velocity at t
1
is the slope of the x t graph at t
1
.
Examples
You can nd several examples in Young (see the syllabus).
In the rst exam, understand X vs T, Plot I and Plot II.
Also read about Problem Set 1, where most of the numbers
are about diagrams.
2.3 Motion with constant acceleration
Let us rst consider when v
x
is a constant. Then we obtain
(by integration) the position at time t
1
as:
x(t
1
) = x(t
0
) +v
x
(t
1
t
0
) (2.7)
where t
0
is the initial time, hence x(t
0
) is the initial position.
This is hence relatively easy to memorize, but also easy to
derive by integration.
Next, we consider the case where a
x
is a constant (inde-
pendent of time, hence is not a jerk!). We then obtain the
equations of motion at time t
1
:
x
1
= x
0
+v
x0
(t
1
t
0
) +
1
2
a
x
(t
1
t
0
)
2
(2.8)
v
x1
= v
x0
+a
x
(t
1
t
0
) (2.9)
(v
x1
)
2
= (v
x0
)
2
+ 2a
x
(x
1
x
0
) (2.10)
where we introduce the notation: x
0
= x(t
0
) as the initial
position and v
x0
= v
x
(t
0
) as the initial velocity, while x
1
=
x(t
1
), v
x1
= v
x
(t
1
).
Note that these equations should be familiar to you. I
usually derive these equations by integration, but you can
also memorize! In practice, I can survive constant accelera-
tion problems with these three equations, and I just derive
other things by algebra. I hate memorizing! Another possi-
bly important relation is the average formula:
x
1
x
0
=
v
x1
+v
x0
2
(t
1
t
0
), (2.11)
which can be derived from the previous three/
For freely falling bodies, we can approximate the motion
as with acceleration constant a
y
= g. Note that we refer
the y-axis because it is associated with going up! Hence, we
just replace a
x
and x in the above equations as:
y
1
= y
0
+v
y0
(t
1
t
0
)
1
2
g(t
1
t
0
)
2
(2.12)
v
y1
= v
y0
g(t
1
t
0
) (2.13)
(v
y1
)
2
= (v
y0
)
2
2g(y
1
y
0
) (2.14)
Note: These equations should be natural to you! Like
breathing...
Examples
We have done lots of examples for this (too many to men-
tion). See PS1,2,3 and Q2,3 for example. In your exam,
Stopping Distance, Skid marks, Catch, In free fall are im-
portant examples.
That ends Ch 2!
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 2.3 3
3 Ch 3: Motion in 2 or 3D
We now extend our discussion of the previous chapter to
higher dimensions.
3.1 Dictionary
Again we introduce the position, but this time in 3D as:
r = x

i +y

j +z

k. (3.1)
From hereon, if you want to consider 2D, then dont include
the third component, or set z = 0. We can also dene
displacement as:
displacement
t
1
to t
2
= r(t
2
) r(t
1
) = r. (3.2)
We next dene velocity v as:
velocity: v =
dr
dt
=
dx
dt

i +
dy
dt

j +
dz
dt

k. (3.3)
Hence we can dene the components v
x
, v
y
, v
z
of velocity.
We next dene speed v as:
speed: v = |v| =

(v
x
)
2
+ (v
y
)
2
+ (v
z
)
2
. (3.4)
We can also dene the average velocity and speed from time
t
1
to t
2
as:
ave. velocity: v
ave,(t
1
to t
2
)
=
r(t
2
) r(t
1
)
t
2
t
1
.
ave. speed: v
ave
= |v
x,ave
| . (3.5)
We nally dene acceleration as:
acceleration: a =
dv
dt
=
d
2
r
dt
2
. (3.6)
and the average counterpart:
ave. acceleration: a
ave,(t
1
to t
2
)
=
v(t
2
) v(t
1
)
t
2
t
1
. (3.7)
These denitions are important and must be memorized!
Examples
See young, Problem sets, in Quiz:Acceleration, Aave, Save
3.2 Projectile Motion
A projectile is dened as any body given an initial velocity
and its trajectory is purely governed by gravity and possibly
air resistance. The rule of thumb here is: solve horizontal
and vertical components separately, the horizontal motion
has constant velocity while the vertical motion is constant
acceleration (g). The equations are therefore:
x(t
1
) = x(t
0
) +v
x
(t
1
t
0
) (3.8)
y
1
= y
0
+v
y0
(t
1
t
0
)
1
2
g(t
1
t
0
)
2
(3.9)
v
y1
= v
y0
g(t
1
t
0
) (3.10)
(v
y1
)
2
= (v
y0
)
2
2g(y
1
y
0
), (3.11)
where the x refers to the horizontal position, while y is the
vertical position.
From experience, the usual problems usually start with
the object given an initial speed at a certain angle. From
these initial conditions, you should be able to deduce the
initial velocity components v
0x
, v
0y
. The projectile then fol-
lows a trajectory, and several properties of the projectile
can be asked. For example, you may be asked the time
of to reach maximum height, the time of ight, the range,
the maximum height and the speed at certain points among
others. You may be also asked from several scenarios, which
can include on a at ground or from a certain height. You
should be able to solve them quickly. Here are my tips:
1. Determine the time immediately! Time is precious
for these problems, and is usually the rst thing to solve for
these problems.
2. A sketch usually helps, especially with complicated
problems.
3. Practice! And practice quickly..
Examples: You have to recall how to solve several prob-
lems about projectile. Know how to compute for maximum
height, the time of ight, the range, the maximum height
and the speed at certain points. I emphasize that you should
never memorize these things, except for the equations of
motion stated above. The reason is that, your memory can
be brutally misleading, especially the range and maximum
height. Focus your memorization powers elsewhere in the
exam.
3.3 Motion in a circle
We now discuss motion in a circle. When an object is mov-
ing in a circle at constant speed v, then its net acceleration
is always directed towards the center of the circle with mag-
nitude:
a
rad
=
v
2
r
(3.12)
where r is the circles radius. Now if the object is increasing
speed along the circular path, then there must be a tan-
gential acceleration a
tan
along the direction of motion, such
that the net acceleration is the vector sum a
rad
+ a
tan
. If
the motion is decreasing speed, then the tangential acceler-
ation must be opposite to the movement. These concepts
can be easier understood through the succeeding gure.
Examples
There are several problems that we did involving motion in
a circle. Among which are in PS4-3, Q2-6, LE1-Circular
Road, Toy Car. You may also be asked about the period of
the motion, which we can get through T = 2r/v.
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 3.4 4
Figure 1: Object moving in a circle with speed increasing.
Notice the direction of the acceleration component vectors.
3.4 Relative motion
The objects velocity is always relative to the one who is
measuring it. In Amsterdam high way for example, they
have a speed limit of 120kph (as opposed to Commonwealth
Avenues 60kph limit). So even though the speed limit is
fast, there is a tendency for the cars to have the same speed
of about 120kph. So if you are in a car, then it seems that
the car in front of you is not moving at all. However, with
respect to the person standing along the road, the cars are
moving very fast. Thus, when speed is mentioned, there
must always be a relative to next to it. In our discussion
of speed so far, it is assumed that the observer is relative.
We now generalize to those moving observers.
We introduce the notation:
v
A|B
= velocity of A relative to the observer B. (3.13)
So in our car example, we have v
car
1
|car
2
= 0 while
v
car
1
|person
= 120kph. We can now compare relative speed
of object A for two observers B, C by the important relation:
v
A|B
= v
A|C
+v
C|B
. (3.14)
Notice the placement of the indices, which is a useful way
of memorizing this equation.
Example
The raindrop problem in a moving car is my favorite exam-
ple for this problem. Also, the boat in a moving stream is
a common problem LE1-River.
That ends Chapter 3!
4 Newtons Laws of Motion
Isaac Newton tried to describe the motion of objects by
describing a new physical variable: Force! Let us rst dene
force as:
The Force is an energy eld created by all living things. It
surrounds us and penetrates us. It binds the galaxy together.
Life creates it, makes it grow. Its energy surrounds us and
binds us. Luminous beings are we, not this crude matter.
You must feel the Force around you; between you, me, the
tree, the rock, everywhere. Yes, even between the land and
the ship. A Jedis strength ows from the Force. But beware
of the dark side. Anger, fear, aggression; the dark side of
the Force are they. Easily they ow, quick to join you in a
ght. If once you start down the dark path, forever will it
dominate your destiny, consume you it will, as it did Obi-
Wans apprentice!
Seriously though, force is the push and pull of any two
objects. In eect it denes how two objects interact and
causes the other to move. We can naively give two types of
foces depending if theres physical contact (contact forces)
and none (non-contact forces). Contact forces include forces
due to pushing, or tensile forces. Non-contact forces include
gravity, which does seem like theres no physical contact.
Newton decided to dene clearly forces through the New-
tons laws of motion through:
Law 1: Inertial reference frame: a = 0.
Law 2: F
net
= ma
net
.
Law 3: Action-reaction: F
a on b
= F
b on a
Here, we introduce the notation that F
a on b
is the force
of object a on another object b. The Newtons laws of mo-
tion are only valid for inertial reference frames. Hence it
should be obvious to you that a rotating reference frame is
not inertial.
For the second law, we emphasize the net subscript! This
means if there are several forces acting on an object, the
net force (or the sum of all the forces) will be related to
the acceleration of the object. The net force is actually
not a physical force, unless of course theres only one force
acting on the object. However, a common mistake of these
problems is confusing between forces and the net force.
The third law, action-reaction, must be given in order to
be consistent with the conservation of momentum that will
be dene.
4.1 Weight, Normal force, Tension
We now dene weight of the object as the force of earth on
the object. For this section, we assume that the acceleration
due to gravity is g, hence the weight is W = mg directed
downwards (by 2nd law).
Weight : W = mg(downwards) (4.1)
From the above denition of weight, then a book on top
of a table must have a weight towards the ground. However,
the book is not accelerating at all towards the ground. This
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 4.1 5
is because there is a force due to the table on the book that
exactly opposes the weight, such that the net force, hence
the net acceleration is zero. This force from the table is
called the normal force.
The normal force is not necessarily equal to the weight!
For example, an object on a frictionless inclined plane, the
two forces are not exactly equal, hence the net acceleration
is downward along the incline.
The tension is the magnitude of the force due to a string
or a rod. The direction of the force is along the length of
the string or rod. Usually, we just consider the end of the
string, where there is a force applied.
4.2 Free Body Diagrams(FBD)
Free body diagrams are an important tool to nd the mo-
tion of the object. This is basically a sketch of an object,
and drawing all the forces acting on the object. Care must
be given on the direction of the forces, and all forces must
be accounted for. After drawing all the forces, then by New-
tons 2nd law, the acceleration of the object can be solved.
You must know how to draw FBD on several situations.
The usual problems include several forces acting on an ob-
ject, and nd the acceleration of the object. Some problems
can also include: given the acceleration, and several forces
except an unknown force, nd the unknown force. These
concepts must be familiar to you.
That ends Ch 4!
5 Ch5: Applying Newtons Laws
5.1 Several examples of Newtons Laws
There are two main types of problems that you can en-
counter in applying Newtons laws: equilibrium problems
and dynamic problems. They are dierentiated as follows:
Equilibrium :F
net
= 0
Dynamic :F
net
= ma
net
= 0. (5.1)
In solving problems, you must know which type are you
solving. The key here is the net acceleration of the object
considered. If it has zero acceleration (e.g. not moving,
constant velocity), then thats an equilibrium problem, and
dynamic otherwise.
After knowing which type, then you can draw the FBD
of the object, then account all the forces, then use Newtons
2nd law to solve for the needed variable.
Examples
Several examples have been discussed in the problem sets
and quizzes. In general, the common problems include:
1. An object attached by a cord or a string. The object
can be suspended or accelerating. You may be asked what
is the acceleration, or the tension, or the weight, etc. See
the pulley examples, or the Atwood machine examples.
2. Inclined plane problems, where objects are on an
incline. You may be asked about the acceleration of the
object, or the angle.
5.2 Friction
In a realistic world, the roughness of the surfaces causes
an opposing force that causes a tendency of objects to slow
down. This is called friction. There are two types of friction
depending on the movement of the object. It could be static
(not moving) and kinetic friction (already moving). You can
better understand it with the following diagram
Figure 2: Friction plots and FBD.
From the diagram, we give important relations to the
kinetic friction f
k
as:
f
k
=
k
f
n
(5.2)
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 5.2 6
where
k
is the coecient of kinetic friction, and f
n
is the
normal force. The direction of the frictional force is opposite
to the motion.
For the static friction f
s
, the relation is:
f
s

s
f
n
(5.3)
where
s
is the coecient of static friction. Notice the in-
equality, such that the static friction depends on the amount
of force you push the object. To see this, imagine pushing a
box on a rough surface. If you push with a small force, then
the box wont move because the static friction opposes your
force equally. Increasing your force would also increase the
static friction, until it reaches
s
f
n
. After that, the box will
move, with a constant kinetic friction. It is important that
you understand these dierences.
Examples
You must be ready with solving frictional problems. You
must understand the concepts, as well as draw FBD like
your LE1-FBD. Memorize the key denitions of frictional
forces.
5.3 Banked curves
Banked curves are a cute application of frictional forces on
road surfaces. The result is:
Figure 3: Banked curves and FBD.
tan =
v
2
gR
(5.4)
which you should be able to derive from the FBD.
That ends Ch 5!
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 5.3 7
Physics 71 Final Exam Reviewer
Diandrew Lexter L. Dy
6 Ch 6: Work and Kinetic Energy
6.1 Work
Work to me is essentially a fancy word for eort. Precisely
though, and in Physics context, it is dened as:
W =

r
2
r
1
F(r) dr (6.1)
where it shows that work is just a line integral, calculus
speaking. In one dimension, this is just:
W =

x
2
x
1
F(x)dx (6.2)
For those who are not really good at integration, what this
means is that work is the area under the curve of an F x
graph. From this, you shouuld be able to compute for the
work given an F t graph! Examples include: LE2 Jess1
and Jess2, plus the Quiz4-9. Be careful that by area under
the graph, there can be negative area also. Understanding
is the key!
When force is a constant, such that F(r) = F, then we
can express work (W) as:
Work: W = F s (6.3)
where s is the objects displacement. Note that work can
be negative, zero and positive, depending on the direction
of F and s. If they are along the same direction, then work
is positive, and if in opposite then it is negative. If they are
perpendicular, then work is zero.
The work concept has been used several examples, in-
cluding LE2 Work I, II and III, Motor Work among others.
Read through Quiz 3 or PS4 for example to familiarize how
to solve work problems.
6.2 Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy (K) is a measure of how energetic an object
is, in the layman sense. It is dened through an objects
mass and speed as:
Kinetic Energy: K =
1
2
mv
2
(6.4)
Note that this denition will always be consistent indepen-
dent on the force of interaction.
6.3 Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
Work-Kinetic energy theorem is a staple and sometimes
overused theorem for several problems encountered in
Physics 71. It states that:
W
net
= K =
1
2
mv
2
f

1
2
mv
2
i
(6.5)
Emphasis is on the net work done on the object, and not
just due to one force.
Examples include: LE2 Jess II or PS 4-4, Q4-2. YOu
should understand when to use this theorem, which is quite
useful and maybe a bit overused.
6.4 Power
Power is the rate of work. A requirement for power is of
course knowledge! Google Ernie Baron + knowledge +
power! Power is dened as:
Power: P =
dW
dt
(6.6)
When force is a constant, we can express this as:
Power, constant force: P = F v (6.7)
In many instances where the force is a constant, you can
use the above formula and hence integration is not needed.
Sometimes though the speed is not given but the average
speed. For this, you may use average power as:
Power, average: P
av
= F v
av
(6.8)
where v
av
is the average velocity dened earlier and you
should memorize by now.
Examples: Several examples include PS4-4, and several
Young examples. Please keep in mind that these denitions
must be memorized because some takes too much time to
derive.
That ends Ch 6!!
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 6.4 8
7 Potential Energy and Energy conserva-
tion
7.1 Potential Energy
The potential energy U(x) is the energy stored from the
force. It is related by the force as:
F
x
=
dU(x)
dx
(7.1)
where we just consider one dimension for simplicity. Hence
the force is negative to the slope of the U x graph.
From this expression, we can nd the position where its
in equilibrium, or when force is zero. This is when the slope
is zero. We can however classify these equilibrium points
through its concavity. These are:
1. Stable equilibrium: U-x graph is concaved up!
d
2
U/dx
2
> 0.
2. Unstable equilibrium: U-x graph is concaved down!
d
2
U/dx
2
< 0.
3. Neutral equilibrium: U-x graph has zero concavity:
d
2
U/dx
2
= 0
Finally, we stress that we can express U in terms of the
force as:
U = U
0

x
F
x
dx

. (7.2)
This result is useful to nd the expression of U, although it
is probably beyond the coverage of Physics 71. Here U
0
is
some reference potential energy at some position.
7.2 Conservative forces
Let us rst dene conservative force by giving properties
of the solved work. The work done by a conservative force
always has four properties:
1. It can be expressed as the dierence between the
initial and nal values of a potential-energy function.
2. It is reversible.
3. It is independent of the path of the body and depends
only on the starting and ending points.
4. When the starting and ending points are the same,
the total work is zero.
Forces that contradict these properties are called non-
conservative forces.
You must remember these properties by heart. And by
remember, try to understand them also.
7.3 Gravitational Potential Energy
The force due to gravity is a conservative force. So far, the
force of an object to the gravity is dened as the weight
W = mg ith g approximated as constant (g=9.81
[
m
s
2
]
).
From property 1 of the conservative force, we can express
the potential (by integrating (7.2)) as:
U
grav
= mgy (7.3)
where y is the height from some reference point. For this
systems, we can select any height to be the reference point,
and you can choose the location where it is convenient.
7.4 Elastic Potential Energy
The force due to a spring, aka elastic force, is also a con-
servative force. The force is given by F = kx, where x is
the displacement from the equilibrium and k is the springs
constant. F here is a restoring force, something that should
be familiar to you by now.
From property 1 of the conservative force, we can express
the potential (by integrating (7.2)) as:
U
el
=
1
2
kx
2
. (7.4)
7.5 Energy Conservation
Similar to the work-kinetic energy theorem, we can express
work from a conservative force as:
W
x
1
to x
2
= U(x
1
) U(x
2
) = U (7.5)
With W
net
= K, then we can derive the conservation
of energy for conservative forces:
K
2
+U
2
= K
1
+U
1
(7.6)
where the subscript two refers to a state that could be dier-
ent than state one (say a dierent position). Also, U refers
to all potential energy form conserved forces. If gravity and
spring are present, then U = U
el
+U
grav
. This result is also
called conservation of mechanical energy, because we dene
mechanical energy as K +U.
When non-conservative forces are present, then the po-
tential for these forces are not accounted for just by using
(7.7). For these systems, we introduce W
others
as the work
done by these nonconservative forces. We thus dene the
conservation of energy for these systems as:
K
i
+U
i
+W
others
= K
f
+U
f
. (7.7)
Here, we make a distinction between the initial state (before
the nonconservative forces are doing the work) and after the
nonconservatve work has been done. Note that the W
others
is in the initial side.
7.6 Examples
Conservation of energy is a very useful tool in solving
physics problems. This is because energy is a scalar quan-
tity, and directions are not involved (as opposed to forces).
The usual questions answered through conservation of en-
ergy is speed, or position. I cannot stress enough how im-
portant this is.
Try to solve several examples using conservation of en-
ergy. This is a bit overused, and hence should be familiar
to you. If not, familiarize yourselves using the exam: June
21, Loop the loop, and so on. Quiz 4 is mainly about this
topic, as well as PS4.
That ends Ch 7!
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 7.6 9
8 Ch8: Momentum,Impulse and Collisions
8.1 Impulse and Momentum Dictionary
We rst dene impulse J on a net force F
net
(t) at a time
interval t
1
to t
2
as:
impulse: J =

t
2
t
1
F
net
(t)dt (8.1)
For constant force, we can express the impulse as:
J = F(t
2
t
1
) = Ft (8.2)
We can also express the impulse in terms of average force
as:
J = F
av
t (8.3)
Next, we dene momentum as:
momentum: p = mv. (8.4)
This implies that we can express Newtons second law for
constant mass systems as
F
net
=
dp
dt
. (8.5)
This expression of the Newtons second law is much more
preferred to most physicist than the F = ma, which is uglier!
Anyway, using the second law, and denition of impulse,
we get the Momentum-impulse theorem:
J = p
2
p
1
= p. (8.6)
This result has massive consequences in solving for the
average force on objects hitting on a wall or the ground.
These are denitions from the Physics dictionary, hence you
have no choice but to memorize these expressions.
8.2 Conservation of Momentum
Momentum is an amazing physics variable because like en-
ergy, it is conserved for isolated systems. By isolated, we
mean that the system is not given an external force (hence
isolated). By the 2nd Law, then
dp
dt
= 0, implying that p of
the system is conserved. This important conservation law
has massive consequences for lots and lots of problems, sim-
ilar to that of conservation of energy. Among which are the
collision problems.
Collision problems are those where objects are collid-
ing! Colliding should be obvious? Sorry.. its late, getting
sleeepy...
Anyway, on collision problems, it is usually assumed that
the system is isolated, such that momentum is conserved.
We can dierentiate collision problems by its kinetic energy
through:
1. Elastic collision: When K
after
= K
before
.
2. Inelastic collision: When K
after
< K
before
.
Inelastic collision
Inelastic collision happens when the kinetic energy of the
system after collision is lesser than before the collision. I
stress that the momentum is still conserved! Recall that
the kinetic energy is K =
1
2
mv
2
. So in order to show
whether the collision is inelastic, then you have to compute
for the sum of kinetic energies of each object before and
after collision, then compare. When the colliding objects
stick together after collision, we call it completely inelastic.
Otherwise, it is just partially inelastic.
In calculating inelastic collision problems, it is usually
sucient to use the conservation of momentum. For com-
pletely inelastic collisions of two objects with mass m
1
and
m
2
, you have to bear in mind that the nal objects mass is
the sum m
1
+ m
2
. Several examples include LE2 Ballistic
pendulum. Understanding how to solve these problems are
important because they are pretty fundamental and easy to
solve.
Elastic collision
Elastic collision happens when the kinetic energy of the sys-
tem after collision is the same as that before the collision.
Again I stress that the momentum is still conserved!
We consider elastic collision of two objects with mass m
1
and m
2
. Now we specialize to the case where m
2
is initially
at rest, and m
1
is approaching at speed v
1i
. Then just by
energy conservation and momentum conservation, then you
should be able to solve the nal speeds of the two objects
as:
v
1f
=
m
1
m
2
m
1
+m
2
v
10
(8.7)
v
2f
=
2m
1
m
1
+m
2
v
10
. (8.8)
Now deriving these equations is a bit tedious in algebra,
hence it might be useful to just memorize them. An aide
to your derivations or memorization is the stop ball case,
where when the two objects have the same mass, then the
nal speed of m
1
should be zero.
When both objects are initially moving, an important
result is the relative velocity:
v
2f
v
1f
= (v
2i
v
1i
). (8.9)
You can also derive this result, or just memorize it.
Examples
We have encountered lots of elastic collision problems.
Among which os LE2 Particles, Q4-7 and Q4-11. We stress
that this is an important concept for this chapter.
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 8.2 10
8.3 Center of Mass
The center of mass of any object is the location where the
weighted average of the mass for a system of particles. The
weighted average formula is just:
r
CM
=

i
r
i
m
i

i
m
i
(8.10)
where m
i
are the masses of individual particles. The center
of mass is not necessarily the geometric center of an object.
However, for highly symmetric objects that are homoge-
nous (uniform density), then these two dierent concepts
are identical (e.g. homogenous sphere, cube).
The center of mass doesnt have to be at the object, e.g.
a homogenous donuts center of mass is at the hole in the
middle.
The center of mass for highly symmetric shapes can be
estimated easily. You can also calculate it by the center of
mass formula above, but it can be dicult.
Familiarize yourselves with this concept through exam-
ples such as: LE2 Smiley.
That ends Ch 8!
9 Ch 9: Rotation of Rigid Bodies
We now discuss rotation. This is dierent than the previous
chapters, where the motion is translational. For these cases,
we shall employ angular variables.
9.1 Dictionary of Angular variables
By angular variables, it means the movement of an object is
along a certain angle, instead of being translational (along
x-axis for example). We dene the position of an object as
s = r (9.1)
where s is the arclength of a circle of radius r over an angle
[in radians]. The displacement s can be thought of as a
change of position in the same way we have:
x x
0
= r(
0
) (9.2)
We therefore can obtain an analogy for these two types of
variables: translational rotational
translational rotational
position: x angular position:
velocity: v
x
=
dx
dt
angular velocity: =
d
dt
acceleration: a
x
=
dv
dt
angular acceleration: =
d
dt
mass: m Moment of Inertia: I
K
tan
=
1
2
mv
2
K
rot
=
1
2
I
2
force: F =
dp
dt
torque: =
dL
dt
= r F
momentum: p angular momentum: L = r p
Note that these variables will be discussed later in this
chapter and the next.
9.2 Constant and rotation
Similar to the result for constant v, we obtain the equations
of motion for constant as:
(t
1
) = (t
0
) +
x
(t
1
t
0
) (9.3)
where t
0
is the initial time, hence (t
0
) is the initial position.
Note that the resemblance to the translational analog should
be obvious to you.
Next, we consider the case where is constant of which
we have the equations of motion at time t
1
:

1
=
0
+
0
(t
1
t
0
) +
1
2
(t
1
t
0
)
2
(9.4)

1
=
0
+(t
1
t
0
) (9.5)
(
1
)
2
= (
0
)
2
+ 2(
1

0
) (9.6)
where we introduce the notation:
0
= (t
0
) as the ini-
tial position and
0
= (t
0
) as the initial velocity, while

1
= (t
1
),
1
= (t
1
). Again, the resemblance to the
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 9.2 11
translational should be obvious to you. These equations
should be easy to derive once you know the translational
case: just change the translational variables to the rota-
tional variables.
Finally, we stress that from the analogous relation be-
fore: s = r that the velocity and angular velocity are
related by:
v =r
a
rad
=r. (9.7)
Here, we emphasize a
rad
because it is possible to have an
a
tan
depending on how is changing.
A trick in solving these types of problem is units. When
you are asked about angular speed, then your units should
be in
[
rad
s
]
, while if its speed, it should be
[
m
s
]
. For that
reason, in solving these types of problems, you must also
solve for the units. This is helpful because sometimes you
forget to multiply r, and that you will notice your answers
is missing a meter in the units. So my tip here is units!
Examples
Familiarize yourselves by looking at Young, or LE2 Sushi
problems.
9.3 Rotational Kinetic energy
There is also the rotational counterpart for kinetic energy,
dened as:
K
rot
=
1
2
I
2
(9.8)
where I is the moment of inertia, which is dierent depend-
ing on the geometry of the rotating rigid object. You can
determine the moment of inertia through integration, but
you can also refer to a table:
Figure 4: Moment of inertia for several geometries.
You have to know how to calculate the moment of inertia
given the formulas above.
The total kinetic energy of an object is the sum of its
rotational and translational i.e. K
tot
= K
trans
+ K
rot
. For
an object that is just rotating on an axis, the total kinetic
energy is just the rotational. If it is also moving translation-
ally, e.g. the center of mass is moving linearly at a distance,
then you have to add the translational kinetic energy.
9.4 Parallel Axis Theorem
Sometimes you are only explicitly given the formula of the
moment of inertia at a certain po . However you can solve
for the moment of inertia about a parallel axis through:
I
p
= I
cm
+Md
2
(9.9)
where M is the mass of the rigid object, and d is the distance
of the parallel axis to that of the center of mass. You should
try using parallel axis on several geometries, like solving the
parallel axis at the end of a rod, or a sphere. Try reviewing
most of PS5. This is an integral part!
9.5 Conservation of Energy
Conservation of energy also holds for these systems. You
must be careful though of accounting all of the kinetic en-
ergy. A common mistake is just considering the transla-
tional or rotational kinetic energy to the energy, which leads
to a mistake in the calculation. Please be careful about this!
Examples: Try to solve PS5 again, also LE2: Axis, Rank
the Cylinders and Disks and Rolling down, Ball 1 and Ball
2 problems are useful concepts that you have to know!
That ends Ch 9!
10 Ch 10: Dynamics of Rotational Motion!
This is just a continuation of Ch 9 for rotation.
10.1 Torque
Torque is the rotational analogue of force. Recall that F =
ma, of which we obtain the analogue:
torque: = I = r F (10.1)
Here, has direction along the axis of rotation. In the
second denition = r F, r is the moment arm, which
is the position vector from the axis of rotation to the point
where the force F is acted upon.
The direction of the torque is obtained by the right hand
rule. The cross product can be computed either of the three
relations:
= rF sin = r

F = rF

(10.2)
In the rst equality, is the angle between r and F vec-
tors. You must know how to nd the angle! This approach
can be dicult if you dont know how to nd the angle.
The second and third approach are equivalent, that is
nd the component of any of r or F that is perpendicu-
lar to the other and just multiply them. This approach is
sometimes easier and faster, and I highly recommend you to
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 10.1 12
study it! To nd the direction, you just use the right-hand
rule.
Examples for torque problems can be found in Young or
LE3 Torques. Static equilibrium problems in Chapter 11
also uses torque a lot!
10.2 Rolling without slipping
A circular object (cylinder or sphere) rolling in a surface can
either slip (i need this!) or can be rolling without slipping
(or in tagalog.. puyat! like what I am doing right now,
thank you very much! :))
When the circular object of radius r is rolling without
slipping, then the center of mass obeys:
s
cm
=r
v
cm
=ra
cm
= r (10.3)
The total kinetic energy is then K
tot
= K
trans
+ K
rot
!
You have to include the translational as well!
When an object is rolling without slipping, there should
be friction involved. This is a static friction, not kinetic
friction! And since it is a static friction, the work done
by this friction is zero (displacement is zero!). Hence the
mechanical energy will not diminish and the object will roll
forever (even though theres friction!) Try to understand
these concepts, or at least keep telling it to yourselves until
these become true.
When an object is rolling with slipping, friction can
cause the object to slow down until friction is enough such
that the rolling without slipping condition will hold. If there
are no friction, then the object will slip forever (which i wish
i could do.. but im not yet suicidal though.. its really late..
sorry.. almost done!).
10.3 Dynamics of rotational motion
In the same way that FBD + Newtons second law are used
in the translational counterpart, so will it work in the rota-
tional, but note that the Newtons second law counterpart
has the form:

net
= I
net
(10.4)
Knowing this, you should be able to solve the yo-yo prob-
lem, objects rolling down an incline problem, pulley prob-
lems (LE2 Pulley 1,2). These concepts to be honest are
dicult to understand. However, with practice comes famil-
iarity. Familiarity breeds correctness. It may also lead to
contempt, but you dont have much choice do you?? Thats
too sad. I dont like rotation also.. nakakahilo e.
10.4 Work and Power in Rotation
Again, we can calculate work in rotation analogous to the
translational part. We do this through:
W =

z
d (10.5)
where
z
is the torques only component along the axis of
rotation. There is also a work-kinetic energy counterpart:
W = K
rot
= K
rot,2
K
rot,1
(10.6)
which is very useful (LE2-Merry2).
We can also dene rotational power for constant torque
analogously as:
P = (10.7)
which resembles P = F v.
10.5 Angular momentum
Angular momentum is dened similarly as:
L = r p = I (10.8)
Notice that it is similar to torque in the sense that the mo-
ment arm r is multiplied by its translational counterpart.
The Newtons second law in rotation can be expressed
as:

net
=
dL
dt
(10.9)
which should resemble something familiar. Thus when the
net external torque of a system is zero, then L is a constant,
and hence conserved.
Solving through conservation of angular momentum
should be similar to that of momentum, but with an added
cross product. In many cases, r and p are perpendicular,
and that you just multiply in magnitude. You must be care-
ful in the direction though (use right-hand rule), as there
might be a sign error otherwise. You may also use I de-
nition, which is useful for rotating objects.
This is probably the most dicult thing to comprehend
in the exam, yet very easy to calculate algebraically. Try
to read more about Young, and study LE2 stick. These
problems are also important, and must be understood!
That ends Chapter 5
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 10.5 13
Physics 71 Final Exam Reviewer
Diandrew Lexter L. Dy
This is a very condensed reviewer for the third Long
exam. This is essentially just writing all the needed equa-
tions, with some concepts. Exercises are suggested from our
previous problem sets and Quizzes. This summary in nature
can be used as a guide for things you have to learn for the
exam. If you cannot understand it, then reading the text
would be helpful.
11 Ch 12: Static Equilibrium and Elastic-
ity
This is the rst Chapter for the Third long.
11.1 Static Equilibrium
For this section, you have to know what is static equilibrium.
Basically, static equilibrium are situations when objects are
not moving at all. Not even rotating, or moving at a
constant speed. The two conditions of static quilibrium are:
F
net
= 0; (11.1)

net
= 0 [at all points] (11.2)
To dierentiate this from equilibrium depends on how
you dene equilibrium. Young didnt elaborate, hence we
state that an object in equilibrium when it is moving trans-
lationally at constant speed. Dont worry about this pos-
sible confusion, because I made sure that your exam, you
only have to worry about static equilibrium, which has a
precise denition.
11.2 Center of Gravity
A related topic is the center of gravity. This is related to
the center of mass, but this time its the gravity that is
being averaged over. More precisely, given a collection of
n particles, then the center of gravitys location is calculated
using:
r =

n
i=1
r
i
W
i

n
i=1
W
i
(11.3)
where for object i, r
i
is its position and W
i
is its weight,
which is just m
i
g
i
. When the acceleration due to gravity, g
i
,
is constant for all particles, then the position of the center
of gravity reduces to:
r =

n
i=1
r
i
m
i

n
i=1
m
i
(11.4)
which is just the center of mass location. Hence the center of
gravity corresponds to the center of mass when g is constant
for all particles. This is true when the objects are near the
surface of the earth, where the g = 9.81
[
m
s
2
]
is roughly
constant.
We can also nd the center of gravity by noting that
there is no net torque when the object is balanced at the
center of gravity. This is what I usually use because I usually
forget the average formula above.
Examples for Static Eq and CoG
You have to familiarize yourselves with some possible prob-
lems that you can encounter for static equilibrium. Types
of problems for this section include:
1. See-saw problems
These are important problems because its pretty basic
and unconvoluted. Examples include (PS6-1, PS6-2, PS6-3,
PS6-5, PS6-6, PS6-13, PS6-16). You really have to know
how to solve these problems before the exam, and while
these problems might be repetitive in nature, they can be
useful.
Note that for many problems above, you can survive
using only the condition
net
= 0. For other problems, you
may have to use F
net
= 0. These problems include Q6-3, PS
6-14, PS 6-15. You dont have to solve each problem though,
just know how to solve them, and solve them quickly.
2. Hanging beam problems
These problems are usually a beam attached to a hinge
on a wall and supported by a string to keep it in static equi-
librium. Problem examples include PS 6-11, PS 6-15, Q6-1.
These questions most of the time requires trigo, because the
string is usually at an angle. Determining the angle is at
times the tricky part for these types of problem.
A skill involved for these problems is nding the per-
pendicular component of the tension, so that you can just
multiply it with the level arm r, hence the calculation is way
easier. This skill is important if you wish to solve the prob-
lems quickly, and hence gives you enough time to review the
answer.
3. Ladder problems These problems are quite convu-
luted in nature, because it requires you to solve a system of
equations. Problem examples include: PS6-7 to 10, PS6-19.
11.3 Elasticity
Objects are not rigid realistically, and they are at times
stretched, squeezed or twisted in the presence of a force.
For an object given a force F

perpendicular to its cross

sectional area A, we can dene tensile stress as:
Tensile stress =
F

A
(11.5)
and we can also dene tensile stress as:
Tensile strain =
l
l
0
(11.6)
where l
0
is the original length of the object, and l is
the amount of stretching and compression. We next dene
Youngs modulus Y as:
Y =
Tensile stress
Tensile strain
. (11.7)
In many objects, the Youngs modulus are relatively con-
stant. We can similarly dene bulk stress, bulk strain and
bulk modulus when the force is all around the object, and
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 11.3 14
which we obtain the relations:
Bulk stress =
F

A
; Bulk strain =
V
V
0
Bulk modulus =
Bulk stress
Bulk strain
. (11.8)
And similarly for shear stress:
Shear stress =
F

A
; Shear strain =
l
l
0
Shear modulus =
Shear stress
Shear strain
. (11.9)
In many objects, we can treat the modulus as constant.
This is okay for small l. For larger l however, Y is not
constant, and the behavior of stress vs strain is not linear.
It has the shape as shown in Figure below
Figure 5: Stress vs strain of a metal
You have to understand this gure. Point a is the point
where the strain is still proportional to the strain. The
region between a and b is a bit curved, but will not deform
once released. Beyond b, plastic deformation follows, where
there is permanent deformation once the object is relieved
of stress. Finally, at point d, the object breaks.
Examples
Examples of this part involves mainly plugging the deni-
tion of stress or strain, or manipulating the equations to
nd the needed variable. Examples include PS7-1 to 5 and
Q6-4. While some problems may require you to use previous
knowledge or FBD like the elevator problem PS7-4.
These examples are basic in nature, and does not re-
quire much derivations, but you have to at least know the
denitions by heart.
That ends Chapter 11
12 Chapter 12: Gravity
We now review gravity. In our level, its classical, starting
with the implications of Newtons law of Gravitation.
12.1 Newtons Law of Gravitation
Given two objects with masses m
1
and m
2
, the magnitude
of the force of m
1
on m
2
is given by:
F =
Gm
1
m
2
r
2
(12.1)
where r is the distance between the two objects and G =
6.67 10
11
Nm
2
/kg
2
is the gravitational constant. This
force is an attractive force, such that the direction of the
force on m
2
is towards m
1
. Also, note that the Newtons
third law holds, because the reactive force has the same form
as that above, that is:
F
m
1
onm
2
= F
m
2
onm
1
=
Gm
1
m
2
r
2
(12.2)
and the direction is opposite with each other (because its
attractive).
Examples
Several examples include the pretty straightforward: PS7-
8 or PS7-16. When there are many objects involved, then
superposition is needed: Q6-7.
12.2 Acceleration due to gravity, mass and
weight
When you consider one of the object as that of the earth,
then we can calculate the force of earth on any object.
The weight of the object is essentially the force by earth,
and hence decreases as the object gets farther from earth.
The acceleration at the surface of the earth on any mass
m
1
can be computed by equating to m
1
g the force due to
earth, hence m
1
cancels and we obtain:
g =
Gm
e
r
2
e
(12.3)
where m
e
= 5.97 10
24
[kg] is the mass of earth, and r
e
=
6.38 10
6
[m] is the average radius of the earth.
In any planet of mass m
p
and radius r
p
, the acceleration
of gravity has a similar form:
g
p
=
Gm
p
r
2
p
. (12.4)
Examples
Examples include comparison of the surface gravity or
weight at several heights: (PS7-6, PS7-22) and that of sev-
eral planets (PS7-7, PS7-20). These problems are very basic
and fundamental in nature, so it should be obvious that this
is one of the many focus in any exam.
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 12.2 15
Note: A common mistake is not including the Earths
radius for r. You have to be careful about this, if some
height is given from the Earths surface, then r = h +r
e
.
12.3 Circular Orbit
Any object (e.g. satellite) can orbit around earth (or any
planet, just change m
e
) in a circular orbit if given the cor-
rect initial speed. The speed can be solved by equating the
centripetal force mv
2
/r with that of the Newtons gravita-
tional force, which we get:
v
c.o.
=

Gm
e
r
e
. (12.5)
You dont have to memorize this equation though. Just
know how to derive it!Its even simpler, and you are sure
about your result.
Examples
Examples can be pretty straightforward (PS7-10a). How-
ever, in many cases, the period is required. Recall that the
period can be derived for circular orbits through T = 2/
where is the angular speed, which is related to the objects
speed by = v/r. These formulas should be natural to you
by now; and if it isnt, then you should try to memorize
them as often as possible.
Examples where orbits are needed include PS7-10, PS7-
14, PS7-21. You should really solve these problems re-
ally quickly! Common problems include unfamiliarity with
the calculator, and also non-inclusion of the earths radius.
Be really careful. Try to solve these problems in under a
minute. And also, be aware if your answer is correct and
makes sense. Note that the answers to these problems are
usually in km/s(for Earth). So answers that are very very
far from these values magnitude-wise could be wrong.
12.4 Energy Methods
In many instances, it is often easier to calculate for speed us-
ing energy methods. Recall that energy is always conserved
for these systems. Also, the kinetic energy still has the form
K =
1
2
mv
2
. The potential energy though is dierent, and
depends in your chosen location where potential is zero. We
will use this point to be innity, that is U() = 0. Hence
the potential energy has the form:
U =
Gm
1
m
2
r
. (12.6)
Note the negative sign, and that the denominator is just r,
while the force is r
2
. Energy methods can then be used by
equating the initial energy with the nal energy.
For circular orbits, we can derive using the solved speed
v =

GM/r that E = U/2 and that K = U/2.

Examples
An object launched like a projectile, which has been covered
in the previous chapters, is dierent in this chapter mainly
because g is no longer constant. PS7-12 is an example of
projectiles, and is an important and basic example.
When the object from the surface is projected with
enough speed such that it just escapes Earth, we call it
escape velocity. Rule of thumb: an object reaches innity
at zero speed and hence the total energy at innity is zero.
Conservation of energy hence implies:
1
2
mv
2

Gm
e
r
e
= 0, (12.7)
hence we obtain the escape speed:
v
esc.
=

2Gm
e
r
e
. (12.8)
Note the factor of

2 dierence with the speed of circular

orbits.
Examples for escape speed problems include PS 7-9,
PS7-15
12.5 Keplers laws
Briey stated.
Kepler law 1: Planets are moving in an ellipse with sun
at the focus.
Kepler law 2: Angular momentum about an axis per-
pendicular to the plane of orbit and through the sun is con-
served.
Kepler law 3: T
2
=
4
2
GM
s
a
3
, where T is the period of
orbit and a is the semi-major axis of the planets orbit.
Now, the important things to learn here is the second
law and third law. Second law are used for problems when
angular momentum can easily be calculated (when moment
arm is perpendicular to the momentum, say when the planet
is at the perihelion (nearest to sun) or aphelion (farthest).
So learn to use it!
The third law can be derived through circular orbits,
then just change r into a. That is, assume its in circular
orbit, then calculate period as T = 2/ = 2r/v with
v =

Gm
e
/r solved previously for circular orbits. This
can also be derived using integration methods, but its too
complicated. Or you can memorize!
Examples
Straightforward application of 2nd law includes Q7-8.
Sometimes, you might need conservation of energy, hence
PS8-4.
Third law has many examples, including: PS8-5 to 9. In
my opinion, once you have the formula, then everything is
just manipulating and calculator exercise. But of course,
thats my humble opinion.
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 12.5 16
13 Ch 14: Fluid Mechanics
Fluids is a nice chapter!
13.1 Density
Density is dened as:
=
mass
Volume
=
m
V
. (13.1)
It is an intrinsic property: it is independent of the size of
an object.
Examples
The calculation of density usually involves calculation of the
volume. Now volume of regular objects like the sphere or
cube should be familiar to you, and thus formulas will not
be given on the exam. Problems include being careless (like
forgetting the formula, or not taking the cube of a factor),
or panicking because there is no time. Examples include
PS8-10 to 11
13.2 Pressure in a uid
Pressure by a liquid is dened as:
p =
F

A
(13.2)
where A is the cross sectional area of the uid, and F

is
the force perpendicular to the area, similar to our denition
of stress. For liquids, pressure varies with depth through:
p = p
0
+gh (13.3)
where h is the depth. We can select p
0
to be exposed to the
earths atmosphere (e.g. sea-level) such that p
0
= p
atm
=
101325 [Pa] = 1 [atm].
The pressure p above is also called absolute pressure. We
also dene gauge pressure as p p
atm
. When p
0
= p
atm
,
then the gauge pressure (p
g
) is:
p
g
= gh (13.4)
Gauge pressure is hence easier to calculate. But be care-
ful. The gauge doesnt include the atmospheric pressure, so
dont include it in your calculations.
Examples
The examples include PS8-12,13. This concept is important,
and you have to study how to solve these problems.
13.3 Buoyant force
When an object is oating or submerged in a uid, then
there is buoyant force brought about by the depth variation
of the pressure. The buoyant force has the form
F = gV
disp

j. (13.5)
Here V
disp
means the volume displaced by water, which is
the volume of the object that is submerged in water. here
is the density of the uid, not the object.
Examples
Familiarize yourselves with this concept through several ex-
amples: PS8-13 to 15, Q7-1, Q7-3, Q7-5. You must know
how to solve these problems before exam!This is important.
13.4 Continuity equation
For incompressible uids, the volume ow rate:
dV
dt
= Av = constant (13.6)
where Ais the cross sectional area and v is the uid speed,
This implies that:
A
1
v
1
= A
2
v
2
(13.7)
This is the continuity equation.
Examples
Examples include: PS 8-18, Q7-2, Q7-5, Q7-6, the shower
head problem done in class. Familiarize yourselves with
these examples as this will be important!
13.5 Bernoulli equation
The Bernoulli equation states that:
P +gh +
1
2
v
2
= constant (13.8)
While this is a long equation, you can think of this as the
uid counterpart for energy conservation, with the mass be-
ing the density. This has important concepts like as speed
of uid increases, the pressure decreases.
Examples
Examples include: PS 8-17, Q7-2, Q7-5. Another important
concept!
This ends Chapter 14!
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 13.5 17
14 Ch 13: Oscillation
Oscillations are by denition objects with back and forth
motion.
14.1 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
Simple harmonic motion has the property that you can ex-
press your equations of motion as:
d
2
x(t)
dt
2
=
2
x(t) (14.1)
where is called the angular frequency. The solution for
this equation is:
x(t) = Acos(t +) (14.2)
where is some phase angle that is determined at the initial
position of the object. We can select this to be zero, which
implies that x is initially at its amplitude:x(0) = A.
The plot of x(t) is sinusoidal. From the graph, you
should be able to nd the period and the amplitude. The
angular frequency can then be computed by T = 2/. See
Example: PS9-1
The objects speed and acceleration can then be solved
straightforwardly by dierentiating the position with time.
Hence:
v(t) =
dx
dt
= A sin(t +) (14.3)
a(t) =
d
2
x
dt
2
= A
2
cos(t +) (14.4)
We therefore see that a =
2
x at all times. Also,
we note that when the position is maximum in magnitude
(and hence also acceleration), then the speed is a minimum.
And also vice versa. This is because when cos is max (in
magnitude), then sin is minimum (in magnitude).
The energy of SHM can be computed by noting that
when the kinetic energy is zero, the x = A, hence E = U =
1
2
kA
2
, where k = m
2
. This energy remains constant at all
times. The kinetic energy is maximum when U = x = 0, or
when the system is at equilibrium.
Shadow
The shadow of an object moving in uniform circular motion
exhibits SHM. We can see this from the diagram below:
The shadow then is the x-component of the position of
the object. Hence x = r cos . Noting that the angular
speed
s
= v/r is a constant, then we can express =

s
t +
0
. Hence the shadow has the solution:
x(t) = r cos(
s
t +
0
). (14.5)
From the solution to SHM (14.2), we see that =
0
and
=
s
and the amplitude is r. Hence the shadow exhibits
SHM.
Figure 6: Shadow of an object in uniform circular motion
exhibits SHM
Spring-mass system
Spring-mass system exhibits SHM, with
2
=
k
m
, where k
is the springs constant and m is the objects mass. The
period is hence:
T =
2

= 2

m
k
(14.6)
You must memorize these formulas, or derive it from FBD.
The latter is however not advisable for the exam because it
takes too much time.
The spring-mass system has the same period if it is mov-
ing horizontally or vertically.
Examples include: PS8-3, PS8-4.
Simple pendulum
For simple pendulum of small oscillations, we have
2
=
g
l
,
where l is the length of the spring. The period is hence:
T =
2

= 2

l
g
(14.7)
You must memorize these formulas!!Very important! I think
am more familiar with the period, because it is used very
often. Then from that, I just calculate the frequency from
T = 2/.
Examples include: PS8-6, PS8-8. You really must un-
derstand this part. Otherwise, you dont have much hope
for this part of the exam.
Physical pendulum
For physical pendulums, or for rigid bodies of small oscilla-
tions, we have
2
=
mgd
I
, where m is the mass of the rigid
object, d is the distance of the axis of rotation to the center
of mass, and I is the moment of inertia about the axis. The
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 14.1 18
period is hence:
T =
2

= 2

I
mgd
(14.8)
It doesnt have to be said, but I will say it anyway.. this is
important!
Examples include: PS8-9, PS8-12. These examples are
really important, so please understand them!
Damped Oscillation
This part is more conceptual. For SHM, the amplitude does
not decrease with time, which is not the case when friction
is present. When the amplitude decays in time, then this
is what we call damped oscillation. For several models, the
frictional force has the form bv such that the equations of
motion has the form:
d
2
x
dt
2
=
2
x b
dx
dt
(14.9)
Note that b is the damping parameter. When b is large,
then the systen is more damped, or high in friction. The
solution to this equation is:
x(t) = Ae
b/2m
cos(

t +) (14.10)
where

has the form:

k
m

b
2
4m
2
. (14.11)
You dont have to memorize these equations for the third
exam, because its a bit convoluted I must say. But you
have to understand the following cases:
Case b = 0: then it is SHM.
Case b < 2m, then

is real and greater than zero. This

is called underdamping.
Case b = 2m, then

is zero. This is called critical

damping.
Case b > 2m, then

is imaginary. This is called over-

damping.
Also, you have to understand the plots for these cases as
shown below.
Figure 7: Oscillation for dierent damping
What this means is that underdamping oscillates but
with amplitude decaying to zero. The critical damping how-
ever does not oscillate and the amplitude immediately goes
to zero. For overdamping, the rate of decay is slower than
that of critical damping, but it also doesnt oscillate but
just decays.
Forced Oscillation
Oscillations can also be driven, that is you can simultane-
ously give a force on the object together with the restoring
force. An interesting scenario occurs when the force is also
sinusoidal, that is of the form F = F
0
cos(
D
t), where
D
is the driving angular frequency. When this happens, then
we obtain an amplitude plot with
D
as:
Figure 8: Amplitude vs driving frequency for dierent
damping parameters
We therefore see that as
D
approach the natural angu-
lar frequency (angular frequency without damping or driv-
ing force, or that solved using SHM), then the amplitude
peaks! This peaking of the amplitude is called resonance,
hence the resonance frequency is also the natural frequency.
Note that: frequency is f and angular frequency is .
This is important! Do not be confused about this. They are
related by = 2f, such that T = 1/f.
That ends Chapter 13!
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 14.1 19
15 Ch 15: Mechanical Waves
Mechanical waves are waves that travel in a medium. They
have the form
f(x vt); wave propagating to the positive x
f(x +vt); wave propagating to the negative x (15.1)
For sinusoidal mechanical waves, it has the form:
y(x, t) = Acos(kx t +) or Acos(kx +t +) (15.2)
depending on the propagation of the wave. We call still
as the angular frequency, while k is the wave number. We
dene = 2/k as the wavelength of the wave, which is
similar to the period but with the space instead of time. The
speed of propagation of the wave is dened as v = /k = f.
Let us list the important formulas:
k =
2

= 2f
T =
1
f
=
2

v =

k
= f. (15.3)
These are equations that you have to learn by heart!
When given a plot of y vs x and y vs t, you should be able
to determine easily the amplitude, the period and the wave-
length. After this, you should be able to compute f, k, , v.
Do this quickly!Remember, if it takes you a minute to nd
any of the variables, then you are too slow, and hence needs
more practice.
Examples: See PS10-1, PS10-3 for example. Do this
quickly! Solve each in under two minutes, and you should
be ne. Remember, practice makes cliches!!
15.1 Types of Mechanical Waves
Types of Mechanical waves: Transverse waves and Longitu-
dinal waves.
Transverse waves are those where the particles in the
medium move in a transverse direction (perpendicular to
the direction of propagation). Hence,
y(x, t) = Acos(kx t +) (15.4)
is a transverse wave, because the particles of the medium is
moving in the y-direction.
Longitudinal waves are however, when the movement is
on the same direction of the direction of propagation.
Note about transverse waves:
The propagation speed is the speed of the movement of
the pulse. The medium did not move in the propagation
direction, but just in the y direction. But there is a seeming
motion of the pulse, because the crest seems to move.
We can also dene transverse speed as the speed of the
particles of the medium. This is just v
y
= dy/dt. This is
not the same as the propagation speed!
15.2 Transverse wave on a string
When a string with tension is given a transvers speed v
y
,
then there is a speed of the transverse wave, or propagation
speed, v given by:
v =

F
T

(15.5)
where = mass/length = m/L is the mass density of the
string. Here F
T
is the tension of the string.
The average power due to the string is given by:
P
av
=
1
2

F
T

2
A
2
(15.6)
where is the angular frequency of the wave, and A is its
amplitude. There is also the maximum power P
max
= 2P
av
.
Dont bother too much with P
max
, just P
av
.
The loudness of the sound of the string is described by
the intensity, dened by:
I =
P
av
4r
2
(15.7)
where r is the distance of the listener to the source of the
sound. These formulas are important and must be memo-
rized, because it will be too involved to derive them.
Examples
Several examples that require some or all of these formu-
las include PS10-4,5 PS 10-14,15. You have to know these
problems, because they are important!
15.3 Standing waves
When two waves collide, then they superpose, or you just
add them! There are some cases though that after two waves
are added, the resulting wave doesnt seem to propagate,
that is a crest of the wave doesnt move. These cases are
called standing waves. Two waves that have the same fre-
quency and wave number, and same amplitude but moving
in opposite propagation direction can be a standing wave.
We dene the node of a standing wave as the points
which does not move. The antinode are the minimum and
maximum values of the wave, which
Figure 9: Node and antinode
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 15.3 20
Note that you must know how to draw a wave with a
certain number of nodes or antinodes. For example: draw
a string of length L with 10 nodes. You should also be
able to show that the frequency of the same string
with 10 antinodes is higher than that of 10 nodes,
or 5 antinodes or 5 nodes.
15.4 Harmonic frequencies of a string
For a string with both ends xed, you can obtain several
natural frequencies as shown in the diagram below.
Figure 10: Harmonic frequencies
The fundamental wavelength is the largest wavelength
that you can achieve. This happens when
1
= 2L. With
v = f, then we obtain the fundamental frequency as:
f
1
=
v
2L
(15.8)
For other harmonics, we can calculate the wavelength and
the frequencies as:

n
=

1
n
=
2L
n
; f
n
= nf
1
=
nv
2L
; n = 1, 2, 3... (15.9)
The fundamental frequency has the highest amplitude,
and is usually heard most prominently (I A
2
).
You have to memorize these formulas, or just draw the
largest wavelength you can achieve when both ends are
xed. However, it might be easier to derive them.
Examples
Familiarize yourselves with some important examples about
strings. For example: PS 10-2, PS 10-6, PS 10-9, PS 10-13.
That ends Chapter 15!
16 Ch 16.8: Doppler Eect
When a source emitting a frequency is moving, then the
frequency heard by the listener will be dierent than the
frequency from the source. This is Doppler eect.
These are the important concepts you have to under-
stand for Doppler eect: When the source and/or listener
is approaching each other, then the frequency heard by the
listener will increase. If its going away, then its the opposite.
That is:
f
L
> f
s
: approaching
f
L
< f
s
: moving away (16.1)
Next.. you have to remember this factor:
f
L
=
v v
L
v v
s
f
s
(16.2)
where v is the speed of sound in air. Note that we can
choose either plus or minus in both numerator and denom-
inator, depending on whether the direction of movement of
the listener and the source. We just have to remember that
if it is approaching, then the frequency of the listener has to
increase, and when moving away, it has to decrease. Then
we adjust the signs accordingly.
For example, suppose that the listener is going to the x
direction with speed v
L
and the source is going to the +x di-
rection with speed v
s
. Then both movement should cause an
increase in f
L
because both are approaching. Hence to in-
crease, the numerator should add, and denominator should
be negative. Hence the equation is:
f
L
=
v +v
L
v v
s
f
s
(16.3)
Now suppose that the listener is going to the x direction
with speed v
L
and the source is also going to the +x direc-
tion with speed v
s
. Then the listener is going away to the
source, hence causing a decrease of the frequency, so that
we take the minus sign.Hence the equation is:
f
L
=
v v
L
v v
s
f
s
(16.4)
Try it for other cases just to familiarize yourselves.
While these equations look complicated, it is actually not
as convuluted as it seems. You just have to know that:
f
L
> f
s
: approaching
f
L
< f
s
: moving away
f
L
=
v v
L
v v
s
f
s
(16.5)
Examples
Examples include: PS10-10 and 10-11. Try to read more
examples in the book for practice. This is very important!
That ends Ch 16.8!
Dy, D. L. Phys 71 16.0 21