1

Goldstein Classical Mechanics Notes

Michael Good
May 30, 2004
1 Chapter 1: Elementary Principles
1.1 Mechanics of a in!le Particle
Classical mechanics incorporates special relati"ity. #Classical$ refers to the con%
tradistinction to #&'ant'm$ mechanics.
(elocity:
)inear moment'm:
*orce:
" +
dr
. dt
p + m".
* +
dp
. dt
,n most cases, mass is constant and force is simplified:
* +
d
-m". + m
d"
+
ma.
/cceleration:
dt dt
2
dt
2
.
Ne0ton$s second la0 of motion holds in a reference frame that is inertial or
Galilean.
/n!'lar Moment'm:
1or&'e:
) + r p.
1 + r *.
1or&'e is the time deri"ati"e of an!'lar moment'm:
a +
d
r
2or3:
1 +
d)
.
dt
4
2
2
12
+ * dr.
1
,n most cases, mass is constant and 0or3 simplifies to:
2
12
+ m
4
2
d"
4
2
"dt + m "

d"
dt + m
4
" d"
1
dt
1
dt
1
m
2 2
5inetic Ener!y:
2
12
+ -" " . + 1
2
1
1
1 +
m"

2
1he 0or3 is the chan!e in 3inetic ener!y.
/ force is considered conser"ati"e if the 0or3 is the same for any physically
possi6le path. ,ndependence of 2
12
on the partic'lar path implies that the
0or3 done aro'nd a closed cir'it is 7ero:
,
* dr + 0
,f friction is present, a system is non%conser"ati"e.
Potential Ener!y:
* + ( -r..
1he capacity to do 0or3 that a 6ody or system has 6y "it're of is position
is called its potential ener!y. ( a6o"e is the potential ener!y. 1o e8press 0or3
in a 0ay that is independent of the path ta3en, a chan!e in a &'antity that
depends on only the end points is needed. 1his &'antity is potential ener!y.
2or3 is no0 (
1
(
2
. 1he chan!e is %(.
Ener!y Conser"ation 1heorem for a Particle: ,f forces actin! on a particle
are conser"ati"e, then the total ener!y of the particle, 1 9 (, is conser"ed.
1he Conser"ation 1heorem for the )inear Moment'm of a Particle states
that linear moment'm, p, is conser"ed if the total force *, is 7ero.
1he Conser"ation 1heorem for the /n!'lar Moment'm of a Particle states
that an!'lar moment'm, ), is conser"ed if the total tor&'e 1, is 7ero.
2
2 1
2
2
1.2 Mechanics of Many Particles
Ne0ton$s third la0 of motion, e&'al and opposite forces, does not hold for all
forces. ,t is called the 0ea3 la0 of action and reaction.
Center of mass:
: +
P



m
i
r
i
P
m
i
P
m
i
r
i
+ .
M
Center of mass mo"es as if the total e8ternal force 0ere actin! on the entire
mass of the system concentrated at the center of mass. ,nternal forces that o6ey
Ne0ton$s third la0, ha"e no effect on the motion of the center of mass.

d
2
:
*
-e.
M
dt
2
+
;
*
-e.
i
Motion of center of mass is 'naffected. 1his is ho0 roc3ets 0or3 in space.
1otal linear moment'm:
P +
;
m
i
i
d r
i
dt
+ M
d:
.
dt
Conser"ation 1heorem for the )inear Moment'm of a ystem of Particles:
,f the total e8ternal force is 7ero, the total linear moment'm is conser"ed.
1he stron! la0 of action and reaction is the condition that the internal forces
6et0een t0o particles, in addition to 6ein! e&'al and opposite, also lie alon!
the line <oinin! the particles. 1hen the time deri"ati"e of an!'lar moment'm
is the total e8ternal tor&'e:
d)
+ N
-e.
.
dt
1or&'e is also called the moment of the e8ternal force a6o't the !i"en point.
Conser"ation 1heorem for 1otal /n!'lar Moment'm: ) is constant in time
if the applied tor&'e is 7ero.
)inear Moment'm Conser"ation re&'ires 0ea3 la0 of action and reaction.
/n!'lar Moment'm Conser"ation re&'ires stron! la0 of action and reaction.
1otal /n!'lar Moment'm:
) +
;
r
i
p
i
+ : M " 9
;
r
0
p
0
.
i i
i i

i
.
1otal an!'lar moment'm a6o't a point = is the an!'lar moment'm of mo%
tion concentrated at the center of mass, pl's the an!'lar moment'm of motion
a6o't the center of mass. ,f the center of mass is at rest 0rt the ori!in then the
an!'lar moment'm is independent of the point of reference.
1otal 2or3:
2
12
+ 1
2
1
1
0here 1 is the total 3inetic ener!y of the system: 1 +
1
P
m
i
"
2
.
1otal 3inetic ener!y:
1
;
2
1
2
1
;
2 i i
2
1 +
2
m
i
"
i
+
2
M " 9
2
i
m
i
"
0
.
i
5inetic ener!y, li3e an!'lar moment'm, has t0o parts: the 5.E. o6tained if
all the mass 0ere concentrated at the center of mass, pl's the 5.E. of motion
a6o't the center of mass.
1otal potential ener!y:
( +
;
(
i
9
i
1
;
2
i,<
i+<
(
i<
.
,f the e8ternal and internal forces are 6oth deri"a6le from potentials it is
possi6le to define a total potential ener!y s'ch that the total ener!y 1 9 ( is
conser"ed.
1he term on the ri!ht is called the internal potential ener!y. *or ri!id
6odies the internal potential ener!y 0ill 6e constant. *or a ri!id 6ody the
internal forces do no 0or3 and the internal potential ener!y remains constant.
1.3 Constraints
holonomic constraints : thin3 ri!id 6ody, thin3 f -r
1
, r
2
, r
3
, ..., t. + 0,
thin3 a particle constrained to mo"e alon! any c'r"e or on a !i"en
s'rface.
nonholonomic constraints : thin3 0alls of a !as container, thin3
particle placed on s'rface of a sphere 6eca'se it 0ill e"ent'ally slide do0n
part of the 0ay 6't 0ill fall off, not mo"in! alon! the c'r"e of the
sphere.
1. rheonomo's constraints : time is an e8plicit "aria6le...e8ample: 6ead
on mo"in! 0ire
2. scleronomo's constraints : e&'ations of contraint are N=1 e8plicitly
de% pendent on time...e8ample: 6ead on ri!id c'r"ed 0ire fi8ed in space
>iffic'lties 0ith constraints:
i
1. E&'ations of motion are not all independent, 6eca'se coordinates are no
lon!er all independent
2. *orces are not 3no0n 6eforehand, and m'st 6e o6tained from sol'tion.
*or holonomic constraints introd'ce !enerali7ed coordinates. >e!rees of
freedom are red'ced. ?se independent "aria6les, eliminate dependent coordi%
nates. 1his is called a transformation, !oin! from one set of dependent "aria6les
to another set of independent "aria6les. Generali7ed coordinates are 0orth0hile
in pro6lems e"en 0itho't constraints.
E8amples of !enerali7ed coordinates:
1. 10o an!les e8pressin! position on the sphere that a particle is constrained
to mo"e on.
2. 10o an!les for a do'6le pend'l'm mo"in! in a plane.
3. /mplit'des in a *o'rier e8pansion of r
<
.
4. @'anities 0ith 0ith dimensions of ener!y or an!'lar moment'm.
*or nonholonomic constraints e&'ations e8pressin! the constraint cannot 6e
'sed to eliminate the dependent coordinates. Nonholonomic constraints are
A/:>E: 1= =)(E.
1.4 >$/lem6ert$s Principle and )a!ran!e$s E&'ations
>e"eloped 6y >$/lem6ert, and tho'!ht of first 6y Berno'lli, the principle that:
;
-a.
i

dp
i
. Cr + 0
dt
i
1his is "alid for systems 0hich "irt'al 0or3 of the forces of constraint "an%
ishes, li3e ri!id 6ody systems, and no friction systems. 1his is the only restric%
tion on the nat're of the constraints: 0or3less in a "irt'al displacement. 1his
is a!ain >$/lem6ert$s principle for the motion of a system, and 0hat is !ood
a6o't it is that the forces of constraint are not there. 1his is !reat ne0s, 6't it
is not yet in a form that is 'sef'l for deri"in! e&'ations of motion. 1ransform
this e&'ation into an e8pression in"ol"in! "irt'al displacements of the !ener%
ali7ed coordinates. 1he !enerali7ed coordinates are independent of each other
for holonomic constraints. =nce 0e ha"e the e8pression in terms of !enerali7ed
coordinates the coefficients of the C&
i
can 6e set separately e&'al to 7ero. 1he
res'lt is:
;
d D 1 D 1
{E
dt
-
D&F
.
D&
G @
<
}C&
<
+ 0
-*

i
< <
)a!ran!e$s E&'ations come from this principle. ,f yo' remem6er the indi%
"id'al coefficients "anish, and allo0 the forces deri"a6le from a scaler potential
f'nction, and for!i"e me for s3ippin! some steps, the res'lt is:
d
-
D )
.
D )
+
0
dt D&F
<
D&
<
1.H (elocity%>ependent Potentials and 1he >issipation
*'nction
1he "elocity dependent potential is important for the electroma!netic forces on
mo"in! char!es, the electroma!netic field.
) + 1 ?
0here ? is the !enerali7ed potential or "elocity%dependent potential.
*or a char!e m"oin! in an electric and ma!netic field, the )orent7 force
dictates:
* + &EE 9 -" B.G.
1he e&'ation of motion can 6e der"ied for the 8%dirction, and notice they
are identical component 0ise:
m8I + &EE
8
9 -"
B.
8
G.
,f frictional forces are present-not all the forces actin! on the system are
deri"a6le from a potential., )a!ran!e$s e&'ations can al0ays 6e 0ritten:
d
-
D )
.
D )
+ @
.
dt D&F
< D&
<
<
0here @
<
represents the forces not arisin! from a potential, and ) contains
the potential of the conser"ati"e forces as 6efore.
*riction is commonly,
*
f 8
+ 3
8
"
8
.
:aylei!h$s dissipation f'nction:
1
;
2 2 2
*
dis
+
2
i
1he total frictional force is:
-3
8
"
i8
9 3
y
"
iy
9 3
7
"
i7
..
*
f
+
"
*
dis
2or3 done 6y system a!ainst friction:
d2
f
+ 2*
dis
dt
1he rate of ener!y dissipation d'e to friction is 2*
dis
and the component of
the !enerali7ed force res'ltin! from the force of friction is:
D *
dis
@
<
+ .
D&F
<
,n 'se, 6oth ) and *
dis
m'st 6e specified to o6tain the e&'ations of motion:
d
-
D )
.
D )
+
D *
dis
.
dt D&F
<
D&
<
D&F
<
1.J /pplications of the )a!ran!ian *orm'lation
1he )a!ran!ian method allo0s 's to eliminate the forces of constraint from the
e&'ations of motion. calar f'nctions 1 and ( are m'ch easier to deal 0ith
instead of "ector forces and accelerations.
Proced're:
1. 2rite 1 and ( in !enerali7ed coordinates.
2. *orm ) from them.
3. P't ) into )a!ran!e$s E&'ations
4. ol"e for the e&'ations of motion.
imple e8amples are:
1. a sin!le particle is space-Cartesian coordinates, Plane polar coordinates.
2. at0ood$s machine
3. a 6ead slidin! on a rotatin! 0ire-time%dependent constraint..
*orces of contstraint, do not appear in the )a!ran!ian form'lation. 1hey
also cannot 6e directly deri"ed.