INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

COMPUTER NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED MACHINES

undertaken at
BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LTD. (GOINDWAL,TARN TARAN)
Submitted by SARAVPREET SINGH DHILLON UE 95083
Under the Guidance of Mr.Sanjeev Kumar Mr.Tejinder Singh HOD
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF EN
GINEERING & TECHNOLOGY PANJAB UNIVERSITY, CHANDIGARH JUNE -2013 1

DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project work entitled COMPUTER NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED
MACHINES is an authentic record of my own work carried out at BHEL (GO+NDWAL) as
requirements of six months Industrial Training for the award of the degree of B
.E. at University Institute of Engineering & Technology, Panjab University, Chan
digarh under the guidance of Mr.Tejinder Singh and Mr.Sanjeev, during January 4,
2013 to July 3, 2013
SARAVPREET SINGH DHILLON UE 95083
Date : June 12, 2013
Certified that the above statement made by the student is correct to the best of
our knowledge and belief.
Mr.Sanjeev Kumar
Mr.Tejinder Singh HOD
+
+
2

INDEX
OVERVIEW OF THE ORGANISATION
INTRODUCTION POWER TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION (T & D) INDUSTRIES TRANSPORTAT
RENEWABLE ENERGY MISSION INTERNATIONAL OPERATIONS TECHNOLOGY UPGRADATION AND R&
D 1 3 4 4 5 5 6 6
1
PROJECT REPORT
Introduction Configuration of CNC Systems 12
Input Device Machine Control Unit Machine Tool Driving System Feedback Systems D
isplay Unit 13 15 15 16 17 21
9

CNC PART PROGRAMMING PROGRAMMING SYSTEMS CNC POSITIONING SYSTEM INTERPOLATION PR

OGRAMMING FORMAT STEPS FOR CNC PROGRAMMING ELECTRONICS OF A CNC MACHINE CNC CONT
ROLLER COMPONENTS SETUP PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
23 24 27 29 31 37 41 42 44
3

ANALYSIS AND PROGRAMMING OF A VERTICAL MACHINING CENTER 48

MACHINE SPECIFICATIONS PROGRAMM USED IN MANUFACTURING OF TURBINE COUPLINGS STEPS
IN USING THE MACHINE ADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINES REFERENCE
51 53 55 56 57
4

BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LTD.

BHEL was established more than 50 years ago when its first plant was setup in Bh
opal ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment Industry in India. A
dream which has been more than realized with a well recognized track record of p
erformance it has been earning profits continuously since 1971-72 and achieved a
turnover of Rs 2,658 crore for the year 2007-08, showing a growth of 17 per cen
t over the previous year. Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited is countrys Navratna com
pany and has earned its place among very prestigious national and international
companies. It finds place among the top class companies of the world for manufac
ture of electrical equipments.
5

BHEL caters to core sectors of the Indian Economy viz., Power Generation s & Tra
nsmission, Industry, Transportation, Telecommunication, Renewable Energy, Defens
e, etc. BHEL has already attained ISO 9000 certification for quality management,
and ISO 14001 certification for environment management and OHSAS 18001 certific
ation for Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems. The Company today e
njoys national and international presence featuring in the Fortune International
-500 and is ranked among the top 10 companies in the world, manufacturing power g
eneration equipment. BHEL is the only PSU among the 12 Indian companies to figur
e in Forbes Asia Fabulous 50 list.
BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LTD.
An Overview:
6

BHEL today is the largest Engineering Enterprise of its kind in India with excel
lent track record of performance, making profits continuously since 1971-72.
BHEL s vision is to become a world-class engineering enterprise, committed to en
hancing stakeholder value. The company is striving to give shape to its aspirati
ons and fulfill the expectations of the country to become a global player.
BHEL business operations cater to core sectors of Indian Economy like.
ustry Transportation Transmission Defenses etc.

Power Ind

The greatest strength of BHEL is its highly skilled and committed employees. Eve
ry participative style of management all these have engendered development of a
committed and motivated workforce setting new benchmarks in terms of productivit
y, quality and responsiveness. employee is given an equal opportunity to develop
himself and grow in his career. Continuous training and retraining, career plan
ning, a positive work culture.
POWER TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION (T & D)
BHEL offer wide ranging products and systems for T & D applications. Products ma
nufactured include power transformers, instrument transformers, dry type transfo
rmers, series and stunt reactor, capacitor tanks, vacuum and SF circuit breakers
gas insulated switch gears and insulators. A strong engineering base enables th
e Company to undertake turnkey delivery of electric substances up to 400 kV leve
l series compensation systems (for increasing power transfer capacity of transmi
ssion lines and improving system stability and voltage regulation), shunt compen
sation systems (for power factor and voltage improvement) and HVDC systems (for
economic transfer of bulk power). BHEL has indigenously developed the state-of-t
he-art 7

controlled shunt reactor (for reactive power management on long transmission lin
es). Presently a 400 kV Facts (Flexible AC Transmission System) project under ex
ecution.
INDUSTRIES
BHEL is a major contributor of equipment and systems to industries, cement, suga
r, fertilizer, refinances, petrochemicals, paper, oil and gas, metallurgical and
other process industries. The range of system & equipment supplied includes: ca
ptive power plants, co-generation plants DG power plants, industrial steam turbi
nes, industrial boilers and auxiliaries. Water heat recovery boilers, gas turbin
es, heat exchangers and pressure vessels, centrifugal compressors, electrical ma
chines, pumps, valves, seamless steel tubes, electrostatic precipitators, fabric
filters, reactors, fluidized bed combustion boilers, chemical recovery boilers
and process controls.

TRANSPORTATION
BHEL is involved in the development design, engineering, marketing, production,
installation, and maintenance and after-sales service of Rolling Stock and tract
ion propulsion systems. In the area of rolling stock, BHEL manufactures electric
locomotives up to 5000 HP, diesel-electric locomotives from 350 HP to 3100 HP,
both for mainline and shunting duly applications. BHEL is also producing rolling
stock for special applications viz., overhead equipment cars, Special well wago
ns, Rail-cum-road vehicle etc., Besides traction propulsion systems for in-house
use, BHEL manufactures traction propulsion systems for other rolling stock prod
ucers of electric locomotives, diesel-electric locomotives, electrical multiple
units and metro cars. The electric and diesel traction equipment on India Railwa
ys are largely powered by electrical propulsion systems produced by BHEL. The co
mpany also undertakes retooling and overhauling of rolling stock in the area of
urban transportation systems. BHEL is geared up to turnkey execution of electric
trolley bus systems, light rail systems etc. BHEL is also diversifying in the a
rea of port handing equipment and pipelines transportation system.
8

RENEWABLE ENERGY
Technologies that can be offered by BHEL for exploiting non-conventional and ren
ewable sources of energy include: wind electric generators, solar photovoltaic s
ystems, solar lanterns and battery-powered road vehicles. The Company has taken
up R&D efforts for development of multi-junction amorphous silicon solar cells a
nd fuel based systems.

MISSION
The leading Indian engineering enterprise providing quality products systems and
services in the fields of energy, transportation, infrastructure and other pote
ntial areas.
The design and construction of Computer Numerically Controlled(CNC) machines dif
fers greatly from that of conventional machine tools.This difference arises from
the requirements of higher performance levels.The CNC machines often employ the
various mechatronics elements thathave been developed over the years. However,
the quality and reliability of these machines depends on the various machine ele
ments and subsystems of the machines. There are some of the important constituen
ts parts and aspectsof CNC machines to be considered in their designing, for exa
mple Machinestructure, Guideways, Feed drives, Spindle and Spindle bearings, Mea
suringsystems, Controls, Software and Operator interface, Gauging, Toolmonitorin
g.The control of a machine tool by means of stored information throughthe comput
er is known as Computer Numerically Controlled. Theinformation stored in the com
puter can be read by automatic means andconverted into electrical signals, which
operate the electrically controlledservo systems. Electrically controlled servo
systems permits the slides of amachine tool to be driven simultaneously and at
the apporopriate feeds anddirection so that complex shapes can be cut, often wit
h a single operationand without the need to reorient the workpiece.Computer Nume
rically Control can be applied to milling machines,Lathe machines, Grinding mach
ines, Boring machines, Flame cutters,Drilling machines etc. 9

International Operations
BHEL has, over the years, established its references in around 60 countries of t
he world, ranging for the United States in the West to New Zealand in the Far Ea
st. These references encompass almost the entire product range of BHEL, covering
turnkey power projects of thermal, hydro and gas-based types, substation projec
ts, rehabilitation projects, besides a wide variety of products, like transforme
rs, insulators, switchgears, heat exchangers, castings and forgings, valves, wel
l-head equipment, centrifugal compressors, photo-voltaic equipment etc. Apart fr
om over 1110MW of boiler capacity contributed in Malaysia, and execution of four
prestigious power projects in Oman, Some of the other major successes achieved
by the Company have been in Australia, Saudi Arabia, Libya, Greece, Cyprus, Malt
a, Egypt, Bangladesh, Azerbaijan, Sri Lanka, Iraq etc. The Company has been succ
essful in meeting demanding customer s requirements in terms of complexity of th
e works as well as technological, quality and other requirements viz extended wa
rrantees, associated O&M, financing packages etc. BHEL has proved its capability
to undertake projects on fast-track basis. The company has been successful in m
eeting varying needs of the industry, be it captive power plants, utility power
generation or for the oil sector requirements. Executing of Overseas projects ha
s also provided BHEL the experience of working with world renowned Consulting Or
ganisations and inspection Agencies. In addition to demonstrated capability to u
ndertake turnkey projects on its own, BHEL possesses the requisite flexibility t
o interface and complement with International companies for large projects by su
pplying complementary equipment and meeting their production needs for intermedi
ate as well as finished products.
Technology Upgradation and Research & Development
To remain competitive and meet customers expectations, BHEL lays great emphasis
on the continuous upgradation of products and related technologies, and develop
ment of new products. The Company has upgraded its products to contemporary leve
ls through continuous in 10

house efforts as well as through acquisition of new technologies from leading en

gineering organizations of the world. The Corporate R&D Division at Hyderabad, s
pread over a 140 acre complex, leads BHEL s research efforts in a number of area
s of importance to BHEL s product range. Research and product development center
s at each of the manufacturing divisions play a complementary role. BHEL s Inves
tment in R&D is amongst the largest in the corporate sector in India. Products d
eveloped in-house during the last five years contributed about 8.6% to the reven
ues in 2000-2001. BHEL has introduced, in the recent past, several state-of-theart products developed inhouse: low-NQx oil / gas burners, circulating fluidized
bed combustion boilers, high-efficiency Pelton hydro turbines, petroleum depot
automation systems, 36 kV gas-insulated sub-stations, etc. The Company has also
transferred a few technologies developed in-house to other Indian companies for
commercialization.
11

PROJECT REPORT
CNC SYSTEMS
The definition of CNC given by Electronic Industry Association (EIA) is as follo
ws:
A system in which actions are controlled by the direct insertion of numerical dat
a at some point. The system must automatically interpret at least some portion o
f this data.
In a simple word, a CNC system receieves numerical data, interpret the data and
then control the action accordingly.
A Vertical Machining Center
12

INTRODUCTION
Numerical control (NC) is a method employed for controlling the motions of a mac
hine tool slide and its auxiliary functions with input in the form of numerical
data. A computer numerical control (CNC) is a microprocessor-based system to sto
re and process the data for the control of slide motions and auxiliary functions
of the machine tools. The CNC system is the heart and brain of a CNC machine wh
ich enables the operation of various machine members such as slides, spindles, e
tc. as per the sequence programmed into it, depending on the machining operation
s. The main advantage of a CNC system lies in the fact that the skills of the op
erator hitherto required in the operation of a conventional machine is removed a
nd the part production is made automatic. The CNC systems are constructed with a
NC unit integrated with a programmable logic controller (PLC) and some times wi
th an additional external PLC (non-integrated). The NC controls the spindle move
ment and the speeds and feeds in machining. It calculates the traversing path of
the axes as defined by the inputs. The PLC controls the peripheral actuating el
ements of the machine such as solenoids, relay coils, etc. Working together, the
NC and PLC enable the machine tool to operate automatically. Positioning and pa
rt accuracy depend on the CNC system s computer control algorithms, the system r
esolution and the basic mechanical machine accuracy. Control algorithm may cause
errors while computing, which will reflect during contouring, but they are very
negligible. Though this does not cause point to point positioning error, but wh
en mechanical machine inaccuracy is present, it will result in poorer part accur
acy. Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is a specialized and versatile form of Sof
t Automation and its applications cover many kinds, although it was initially de
veloped to control the motion and operation of machine tools. Computer Numerical
Control may be considered to be a means of operating a machine through the use
of discrete numerical values fed into the machine, where the required input te
chnical information is stored on a kind of input media such as floppy disk, hard
disk, CD ROM, DVD, USB flash drive, or RAM card etc. The machine follows a pred
etermined sequence of machining operations at the predetermined speeds necessary
to produce a work piece of the right shape and size and thus according to compl
etely predictable results. A different product can 13

be produced through reprogramming and a low-quantity production run of different

products is justified.
Hitachi Seiki VA35 CNC Machining Center
14

Hitachi Seiki VA35 CNC Machining Center

15

CONFIGURATION OF THE CNC SYSTEM

Fig. shows a schematic diagram of the working principle of a NC axis of a CNC ma
chine and the interface of a CNC control.
CNC system P L C Command value Servo Drive Servo Motor Spindle Head
Encoder
N C
Velocity Feedbac k
Tape Reader Tape Punch Other Devices
Tacho Generator
Lead Screw
Work piece Table
Position Feedback

Inputs
Output
Machine Elements
s
Fig.1 Schematic diagram of a CNC machine tool

Proximity switches Limit switches Relay coils Pressure switches Float switches
A CNC system consists of the following 6 major elements:
a. b. c. d. e. f.
Input Device Machine Control Unit Machine Tool Driving System Feedback Devices D
isplay Unit
16

Input Devices
a. Floppy Disk Drive Floppy disk is a small magnetic storage device for CNC data
input. It has been the most common storage media up to the 1970s, in terms of d
ata transfer speed, reliability, storage size, data handling and the ability to
read and write. Furthermore, the data within a floppy could be easily edited at
any point as long as you have the proper program to read it. However,this method
has proven to be quite problematic in the long run as floppies have a tendency
to degrade alarmingly fast and are sensitive to large magnetic fields and as wel
l as the dust and scratches that usually existed on the shop floor.
b. USB Flash Drive A USB flash drive is a removable and rewritable portable hard
drive with compact size and bigger storage size than a floppy disk. Data stored
inside the flash drive are impervious to dust and scratches that enable flash d
rives to transfer data from place to place. In recent years, all computers suppo
rt USB flash drives to read and write data that make it become more and more pop
ular in CNC machine control unit.
USB Flash Drive c. Serial communication The data transfer between a computer and
a CNC machine tool is often accomplished through a serial communication port. I
nternational standards for serial communications are
established so that information can be exchanged in an orderly way. The most com
mon interface between computers and CNC machine tools is referred to the EIA Sta
ndard RS-232. Most of the personal computers and CNC machine tools have built in
RS232 port and a standard RS-232 cable is used to connect a CNC machine to a co
mputer which enables the data transfer in reliable way. Part programs can be dow
nloaded into the memory of a machine tool or 17

uploaded to the computer for temporary storage by running a communication progra

m on the computer and setting up the machine control to interact with the commun
ication software.
SerialCommunication in a Distributed Numerical Control System
Direct Numerical Control is referred to a system connecting a set of numerically
controlled machines to a common memory for part program or machine program stora
ge with provision for on-demand distribution of data to the machines. (ISO 2806:
1980) The NC part program is downloaded a block or a section at a time into the
controller. Once the downloaded section is executed, the section will be discard
ed to
leave room for other sections. This method is commonly used for machine tools th
at do not have enough memory or storage buffer for large NC part programs. Distr
ibuted Numerical Control is a hierarchical system for distributing data between
a production management computer and NC systems. (ISO 2806:1994) The host comput
er is linked with a number of CNC machines or computers connecting to the CNC ma
chines for downloading part programs. The communication program in the host comp
uter can utilize two-way data transfer features for production data communicatio
n including: production schedule, parts produced and machine utilization etc.
18

Machine Control Unit (MCU)

The machine control unit is the heart of the CNC system. There are two sub-units
in the machine control unit: the Data Processing Unit (DPU) and the Control Loo
p Unit (CLU).
a. Data Processing Unit On receiving a part programme, the DPU firstly interpret
s and encodes the part programme into internal machine codes. The interpolator o
f the DPU then calculate the intermediate positions of the motion in terms of BL
U (basic length unit) which is the smallest unit length that can be handled by t
he controller. The calculated data are passed to CLU for further action.
b. Control Loop Unit The data from the DPU are converted into electrical signals
in the CLU to control the driving system to perform the required motions. Other
functions such as machine spindle ON/OFF, coolant ON/OFF, tool clamp ON/OFF are
also controlled by this unit according to the internal machine codes.
Machine Tool
This can be any type of machine tool or equipment. In order to obtain high accur
acy and repeatability, the design and make of the machine slide and the driving
lead screw of a CNC machine is of vital importance. The slides are usually machi
ned to high accuracy and coated with anti-friction material such as PTFE and Tur
cite in order to reduce the stick and slip phenomenon. Large diameter recirculat
ing ball screws are employed to eliminate the backlash and lost motion. Other de
sign features such as rigid and heavy machine structure; short machine table ove
rhang, 19

quick change tooling system, etc also contribute to the high accuracy and high r
epeatability of CNC machines.
Different Machine Tools
Driving System
The driving system is an important component of a CNC machine as the accuracy an
d repeatability depend very much on the characteristics and performance of the d
riving system. The requirement is that the driving system has to response accura
tely according to the programmed instructions. This system usually uses electric
motors although hydraulic motors are sometimes used for large machine tools. Th
e motor is coupled either directly or through a gear box to the machine lead scr
ew to moves the machine slide or the spindle. Three types of electrical motors a
re commonly used.
Stepping Motor A stepping motor is a device that converts the electrical pulses
into discrete mechanical rotational motions of the motor shaft. This is the simp
lest device that can be applied to CNC 20

machines since it can convert digital data into actual mechanical displacement.
It is not necessary to have any analog-to-digital converter nor feedback device
for the control system. They are ideally suited to open loop systems.
However, stepping motors are not commonly used in machine tools due to the follo
wing drawbacks: slow speed, low torque, low resolution and easy to slip in case
of overload. Examples of stepping motor application are the magnetic head of flo
ppy-disc drive and hard disc drive of computer, daisy-wheel type printer, X-Y ta
pe control, and CNC EDM Wire-cut machine.
Stepping Motor
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
Following are the two types of control systems used in the CNCmachines 1. Open l
oop control system. 2. Closed loop control system.
1. Open loop control system:21

In an open loop system the machine slides are displacedaccording to the informat
ion loaded from the part program into thecontrol system. Hence there is no measu
rement of slide position and nofeedback signals for comparison with the input si
gnal. The correctmovement of slide entirely d epends upon the ability of the dri
vesystems to move the slide through the required exact distance.The most common
method of driving the lead screw is by a stepper motor. The stepper motors are t
he simplest way for converting detailelectrical signals into proportional moveme
nt. As there is no check onthe slide position, the system accuracy depends upon
the motors abilityto step through the exact number of steps provided at the inpu
t asshown in fig.
2. Closed loop control system:A closed loop system is as shown in fig. sends bac
k a signal to thecontrol unit from a measuring device called as transducer. Thet
ransducer is attached to the slide ways. The signal indicates the actualmovement
and position of the slides.The control unit continues to adjust the position of
the slide untilit arrives its destination, this system has feedback. Although mo
recostly and complex than open loop system, these system gives moreaccurate posi
tioning. For this type of system, servomotors are used
22

23

Feedback Device
In order to have a CNC machine operating accurately, the positional values and s
peed of the axes need to be constantly updated. Two types of feed back devices a
re normally used, positional feed back device and velocity feed back device. a.
Positional Feed Back Devices There are two types of positional feed back devices
: linear transducer for direct positional measurement and rotary encoder for ang
ular or indirect linear measurement.
Linear Transducers - A linear transducer is a device mounted on the machine tabl
e to measure the actual displacement of the slide in such a way that backlash of
screws; motors, etc would not cause any error in the feed back data. This devic
e is considered to be of the highest accuracy and also more expensive in compari
son with other measuring devices mounted on screws or motors.
Linear Transducer (Courtesy of Heidenhain)
Rotary Encoders - A rotary encoder is a device mounted at the end of the motor s
haft or screw to measure the angular displacement. This device cannot measure li
near displacement directly so that error may occur due to the backlash of screw
and motor etc. Generally, this error can be compensated for by the machine build
er in the machine calibration process. 24

b. Velocity Feedback Device

The actual speed of the motor can be measured in terms of voltage generated from
a tachometer mounted at the end of the motor shaft. DC tachometer is essentiall
y a small generator that produces an output voltage proportional to the speed. T
he voltage generated is compared with the command voltage corresponding to the d
esired speed. The difference of the voltages can is then used to actuate the mot
or to eliminate the error.
Tachogenerator (Courtesy of Callan)
Display Unit
The Display Unit serves as an interactive device between the machine and the ope
rator. When the machine is running, the Display Unit displays the present status
such as the position of the machine slide, the spindle RPM, the feed rate, the
part programmes, etc. In an advanced CNC machine, the Display Unit can show the
graphics simulation of the tool path so that part programmes can be verified bef
ore the actually machining. Much other important information about the CNC syste
m can also displayed for
25

maintenance and installation work such as machine parameters, logic diagram of t

he programmer controller, error massages and diagnostic data.
A Display Unit
26

CNC PART PROGRAMMING

Objectives:
To understand the Dimension Systems in CNC Part Programming. To understand the s
tructure of a CNC Part Programme. To understand the G-codes and other functions
of a CNC Part Programme.
Axis of motion
In generally, all motions have 6 degrees of freedom. In other words, motion can
be resolved into 6 axes, namely, 3 linear axes (X, Y and Z axis) and 3 rotationa
l axes (A, B, and C axis).
Y
Z
x
Axis of Motion
27

Programming Systems
Two types of programming modes, the incremental system and the absolute system,
are used for CNC. Both systems have applications in CNC programming, and no syst
em is either right or wrong all the time.
Positioning reference point Systems: 1- Incremental 2- Absolute
Most controls on machine tools today are capable of handling either incremental
or absolute programming.
Incremental program locations are always given as the distance and direction fro
m the immediately preceding point . Command codes which tell the machine to move
the table, spindle, and knee are explained here using a vertical milling machin
e as an example:
A workpiece dimensioned in the incremental system mode
28

 A X plus (X+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the right of th
e last point. A X minus (X-) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to
the left of the last point. A Y plus (Y+) command will cause the cutting tool to b
e located toward the column. A Y minus (Y-) will cause the cutting tool to be loca
ted away from the column. A Z plus (Z+) command will cause the cutting tool or spi
ndle to move up or away from the workpiece. A Z minus (Z-) moves the cutting tool
down or into the workpiece. In incremental programming, the G91 command indicate
s to the computer and MCU (Machine Control Unit) that programming is in the incr
emental mode.
29

Absolute program locations are always given from a single fixed zero or origin p
oint (Fig. 7). The zero or origin point may be a position on the machine table,
such as the corner of the worktable or at any specific point on the workpiece. I
n absolute dimensioning and programming, each point or location on the workpiece
is given as a certain distance from the zero or reference point.
A workpiece dimensioned in the absolute system mode. Note: All dimensions are gi
ven from a known point of referenc
A X plus (X+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the right of th
e zero or origin point. A X minus (X-) command will cause the cutting tool to be l
ocated to the left of the zero or origin point. A Y plus (Y+) command will cause t
he cutting tool to be located toward the column.
30

 A Y minus (Y-) command will cause the cutting tool to be located away from the col
umn. In absolute programming, the G90 command indicates to the computer and MCU
that the programming is in the absolute mode.
Point-to-Point or Continuous Path
CNC programming falls into two distinct categories . The difference between the
two categories was once very distinct. Now, however, most control units are able
to handle both point-topoint and continuous path machining. A knowledge of both
programming methods is necessary to understand what applications each has in CN
C.
CNC POSITIONING SYSTEM
Point-To-Point OR Positioning
Continuous Path OR Contouring
Point-to-Point Positioning
Point-to-point positioning is used when it is necessary to accurately locate the
spindle, or the workpiece mounted on the machine table, at one or more specific
Iocations to perform such operations as drilling, reaming, boring, tapping, and
punching (Fig. 9). Point-to-point positioning is the process of positioning fro
m one coordinate (XY) position or location to another, performing the machining
operation, and continuing this pattern until all the operations have been comple
ted at all programmed locations. 31

The path followed by point-to-point positioning to reach various programmed poin

ts (machining locations) on the XY axis.
In Fig. above, point 1 to point 2 is a straight line, and the machine moves only
along the X axis; but points 2 and 3 require that motion along both the X and Y
axes takes place. As the distance in the X direction is greater than in the Y d
irection, Y will reach its
15 position first, leaving X to travel in a straight line for the remaining
distance. A similar motion takes place between points 3 and 4.
Continuous Path (Contouring)
Contouring, or continuous path machining, involves work such as that produced on
a lathe or milling machine, where the cutting tool is in contact with the workp
iece as it travels from one programmed point to the next. Continuous path positi
oning is the ability to control motions on two or more machine axes simultaneous
ly to keep a constant cutter-workpiece relationship. The programmed information
in the CNC program must accurately position the cutting tool from one point to t
he next and follow a predefined accurate path at a programmed feed rate in order
to produce the form or contour required.(Fig. on next page)
32

Fig. 10 Types of contour machining (A) Simple contour; (B) complex contour
Interpolation
The method by which contouring machine tools move from one programmed point to t
he next is called interpolation. This ability to merge individual axis points in
to a predefined tool path is built into most of todays MCUs. There are five metho
ds of interpolation: linear, circular, helical, parabolic, and cubic. All contou
ring controls provide linear interpolation, and most controls are capable of bot
h linear and circular interpolation. Helical, parabolic, and cubic 33

interpolation are used by industries that manufacture parts which have complex s
hapes, such as aerospace parts and dies for car bodies. Linear Interpolation Lin
ear Interpolation consists of any programmed points linked together by straight
lines, whether the points are close together or far apart . Curves can be produc
ed with linear interpolation by breaking them into short, straight-line segments
. This method has limitations, because a very large number of points would have
to be programmed to describe the curve in order toproduce a contour shape. A con
tour programmed in linear interpolation requires the coordinate positions (XY po
sitions in two-axis work) for the start and finish of each line segment. Therefo
re, the end point of one line or segment becomes the start point for the next se
gment, and so on, throughout the entire program.
An example of two-axis linear interpolation.
Circular Interpolation The development of MCUs capable of circular interpolation
has greatly simplified the process of programming arcs and circles. To program
an arc (Fig. 12), the MCU requires only the coordinate 34

positions (the XY axes) of the circle center, the radius of the circle, the star
t point and end point of the arc being cut, and the direction in which the arc i
s to be cut (clockwise or counterclockwise) See Fig. . The information required
may vary with different MCUs.
For two-dimensional circular interpolation the MCU must be supplied with the XY
axis, radius, start point, end point, and direction of cut.
Programming Format
Word address is the most common programming format used for CNC programming syst
ems. This format contains a large number of different codes (preparatory and mis
cellaneous) that transfers program information from the part print to machine se
rvos, relays, micro-switches, etc., to manufacture a part. These codes, which co
nform to EIA (Electronic Industries Association) standards, are in a logical seq
uence called a block of information. Each block should contain enough informatio
n to perform one machining operation.
35

Word Address Format

Every program for any part to be machined, must be put in a format that the mach
ine control unit can understand. The format used on any CNC machine is built in
by the machine tool builder and is based on the type of control unit on the mach
ine. A variableblock format which uses words (letters) is most commonly used. Ea
ch instruction word consists of an address character, such as X, Y, Z, G, M, or
S. Numerical data follows this address character to identify a specific function
such as the distance, feed rate, or speed value. The address code G90 in a prog
ram, tells the control that all measurements are in the absolute mode. The code
G91, tells the control that measurements are in the incremental mode.
Codes
The most common codes used when programming CNC machines tools are G-codes (prep
aratory functions), and M codes (miscellaneous functions). Other codes such as F
, S, D, and T are used for machine functions such as feed, speed, cutter diamete
r offset, tool number, etc. G-codes are sometimes called cycle codes because the
y refer to some action occurring on the X, Y, and/or Z axis of a machine tool, F
ig. 13. The G-codes are grouped into categories such as Group 01, containing cod
es G00, G01, G02, G03. which cause some movement 36

of the machine table or head. Group 03 includes either absolute or incremental p

rogramming, while Group 09 deals with canned cycles. A G00 code rapidly position
s the cutting tool while it is above the workpiece from one point to another poi
nt on a job. During the rapid traverse movement, either the X or Y axis can be m
oved individually or both axes can be moved at the same time. Although the rate
of rapid travel varies from machine to machine, it ranges between 200 and 800 in
./min (5 and 20 m/min). The G01, G02, and G03 codes move the axes at a controlle
d feedrate. G01 is used for straight-line movement (linear interpolation). G02 (
clockwise) and G03 (counterclockwise) are used for arcs and circles (circular in
terpolation)
37

G- Codes
Group Code Function
01 01 01 01
G00 G01 G02 G03
Rapid positioning Linear interpolation Circular interpolation clockwise (CW) Cir
cular interpolation
counterclockwise (CCW) 06 06 G20* G21* G24 00 00 G28 G29 G32 07 07 07 08 (+) dir
ection 08 direction G44 Tool length compensation minus (-) G40 G41 G42 G43 Inch
input (in.) Metric input (mm) Radius programming (**) Return to reference point
Return from reference point Thread cutting (**) Cutter compensation cancel Cutte
r compensation left Cutter compensation right Tool length compensation positive
08
G49
Tool length compensation cancel
38

G84 03 03 G90 G91

Canned turning cycle (**) Absolute programming Incremental programming
(*) - on some machines and controls, these may be G70 (inch) and G71 (metric) (*
*) - refers only to CNC lathes and turning centers
M CodesCode M00 M01 M02 M03 M04 M05 M06 M08 M09 M10 Function Program stop Option
al program stop Program end Spindle on clockwise Spindle on counterclockwise Spi
ndle stop Tool change Coolant on Coolant off Clamps on
39

M11 M30
Clamps off Program stop, reset to start
Block of Information
CNC information is generally programmed in blocks of five words. Each word confo
rms to the EIA standards and they are written on a horizontal line. If five comp
lete words are not included in each block, the machine control unit (MCU) will n
ot recognize the information, therefore the control unit will not be activated.
Using the example shown in Fig. 17 , the five words are as follows: N001 represe
nts the sequence number of the operation. G01 represents linear interpolation X1
2345 will move the table 1.2345 in. in a positive direction along the X axis. Y0
6789 will move the table 0.6789 in. along the Y axis. M03 Spindle on CW.
A complete block of information consists of five words.
40

Steps for CNC Programming and Machining

The following is the procedures to be followed in CNC programming and machining.
The most important point is to verify the programme by test run it on the machi
ne before the actual machining in order to ensure that the programme is free of
mistakes. a. Study the part drawing carefully. b. Unless the drawing dimensions
are CNC adapted, select a suitable programme zero point on the work piece. The t
ool will be adjusted to this zero point during the machine set up. c. Determine
the machining operations and their sequence. d. Determine the method of work cla
mping (vice, rotary table, fixtures etc). e. Select cutting tools and determine
spindle speeds and feeds. f. Write programme (translate machining steps into pro
gramme blocks). If many solutions are possible, try the simplest solution first.
It is usually longer, but better to proceed in this way. g. Prepare tool chart
or diagram, measure tool geometry (lengths, radii) and note. h. Clamp work piece
and set up machine. i. Enter compensation value if necessary. j. Check and test
programme. It is a good practice to dry run the programme (i) without the workp
iece, (ii) without the cutting tools, or (iii) by raising the tool to a safe hei
ght. If necessary, correct and edit programme and check again. k. Start machinin
g.
41

Programming for Positioning

Before starting to program a job, it is important to become familiar with the pa
rt to be produced. From the engineering drawings, the programmer should be capab
le of planning the machining sequences required to produce the part. Visual conc
epts must be put into a written manuscript as the first step in developing a par
t program, Fig. 18. It is the part program that will be sent to the machine cont
rol unit by the computer, tape, diskette, or other input media. The programmer m
ust first establish a reference point for aligning the workpiece and the machine
tool for programming purposes. The manuscript must include this along with the
types of cutting tools and work-holding devices required, and where they are to
be located.
Dimensioning Guidelines
The system of rectangular coordinates is very important to the successful operat
ion of CNC machines. Certain guidelines should be observed when dimensioning par
ts for CNC machining. The following guidelines will insure that the dimensioning
language means exactly the same thing to the design engineer, the technician, t
he programmer, and the machine operator. 1. Define part surfaces from three perp
endicular reference planes. 2. Establish reference planes along part surfaces wh
ich are parallel to the machine axes. 3. Dimension from a specific point on the
part surface. 42

25
4. Dimension the part clearly so that its shape can be understood without making
mathematical calculations or guesses. 5. Define the part so that a computer num
erical control cutter path can be easily programmed.
Machine Zero Point
The machine zero point can be set by three methodsby the operator, manually by a
programmed absolute zero shift, or by work coordinates, to suit the holding fixt
ure or the part to be machined. MANUAL SETTING - The operator can use the MCU co
ntrols to locate the spindle over the desired part zero and then set the X and Y
coordinate registers on the console to zero.
Stored zero shifts (G54...G59) Programmed zero shift (G92)
The relationship between the part zero and the machine system of coordinate
R = Reference point (maximum travel of machine) M = Machine zero point (X0,Y0,Z0
) of machine coordinate system. W = Part zero point workpiece coordinate system.
43

Under G54 ... G59 the actual machine coordinates of part zero are stored in the
stored zero offsets memory and activated in the part program. Under G92 the actu
al machine coordinates are inserted and used on the G92 line of the part program
.
ABSOLUTE ZERO SHIFT - The absolute zero shift can change
the position of the coordinate system by a command in the CNC program. The progr
ammer first sends the machine spindle to home zero position by a G28 command in
the program. Then another command (G92 for absolute zero shift) tells the MCU ho
w far from the home zero location, the coordinate system origin is to be positio
ned, Fig. 19. The sample commands may be as follows: N1 G28 X0 Y0 Z0 (sends spin
dle to home zero position) N2 G92 X4.000 Y5.000 Z6.000 (the position the machine
will reference as part zero)
44

ELECTRONICS OF A CNC MACHINE

The CNC controller components work together to interpret positioning signals cre
ated by a computer and NC software into precise motor control. This page will ex
plain the function of each of the controller components and how they work togeth
er to make a controller system.
The Components There are three primary CNC controller components that make up a
CNC controller, the power supply unit, the circuitry protection system, and the
motor driver.

The Power Supply Unit When you plug a small flash drive up to your USB port, the
computer powers the device through the port. When you plug a larger device, say
a printer for example, you have to use an external power source because the com
puter is not capable of supplying sufficient power. This condition means that yo
u have to plug that device into the computer as usual, but you also have to plug
a second line to an auxiliary power source, such as the 110V outlet on your wal
l. The same conditions are true for CNC devices. They require a low-voltage
communication line, through which the computer tells the machine what to do, and
a power source that provides the power for moving, cutting, and other such oper
ations. A power converter, usually referred to as the power supply unit (PSU), is
often used to change the form of the supplied power from alternating current (AC
) from the power grid, to direct current (DC) that is more easily used by the ma
chines drive motors. The power supply handles large voltages and currents that co
uld be harmful to the NC circuitry. Therefore, the power source, motor drivers,
and motors are often separated from the computer with a circuitry protection sys
tem that isolates surges in electrical power.
45

The Circuitry Protection System The circuitry protection system contains a break
out board to isolate signals from the computer, distribute the signals to the de
sired drivers, and also allows easy hook up of peripherals such as limit switche
s that feed information back to the computer. Fuses are also part of the circuit
ry protection system. Fuses could save the equipment in case of electrical spike
s, shorts, or faulty wiring. A low-voltage communication signal passes from the
computer through the breakout
board unchanged to the motor drivers. This isolated your computer from the CNC c
ontroller circuit but allows the signals to carry through to your motor drivers.
The motor drivers The motor drivers receives the communication signal and and t
hen coordinates pulses of the desired current and voltage to elicit the movement
in the drive motors. The motor drivers may communicate position information one
way to the motor (open loop system), or send and receive position information(c
losed loop system), depending on the users choice of drive system. More on these
systems may be found in the drivers sections.
CNC Controller Components Setup
The figure below shows the typical setup of the CNC controller components, such
as that for a 3 axis CNC router. The system is composed of a computer with NC co
ntrol software, the controller box, and the drive motors. The controller box inc
ludes a breakout board, power source (not shown), and motor drivers. The breakout
board provides the circuitry protection and signal distribution inside the contr
oller box.
In the figure above, you
46

can see the computer is connected to the breakout board, usually through the pri
nter port (DB25). There are many types of breakout boards; some of very high qua
lity and great protection, and lower budget options that do not offer much prote
ction. The best models employ opto-isolators, which use a light signals to trans
mit data across an air gap. These devices provide complete conductive isolation
between the controller circuit and your computer. As a note, the computer is ful
ly capable of connecting directly to the drivers and driving the motors, but thi
s setup puts your computer at risk. The first figure is an idealized block diagr
am of your CNC electrical system. A little more detail has been added in the fig
ure below to show the conceptual layout of signal wires (light black) and power
wires (heavy black).
Although your computer will run on 110VAC, the CNC machine may run on 110VAC, or
220VAC, or 480VAC, and may be single phase, three phase, etc This power enters t
he controller box and will be distributed by the power supply. For most machines
, the power supply will convert the incoming power from alternating current (AC)
to direct current (DC). This DC supply will be of a lower voltage, such as 12V,
24V, 36V, or higher. The power supplied depends on you CNC controller component
s, specifically the motor drivers.
47

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programmable memory for t
he internal storage of instructions by implementing specific functions such as l
ogic sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic to control, through digital or
analog input/output modules, various types of machines or processes
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
A PLC matches the NC to the machine. PLCs were basically introduced as replaceme
nt for hard wired relay control panels. They were developed to be reprogrammed w
ithout hardware changes when requirements were altered and thus are reusable. PL
Cs are now available with increased functions, more memory and large input/outpu
t capabilities. Fig.7 gives the generalized PLC block diagram. In the CPU, all t
he decisions are made relative to controlling a machine or a process. The CPU re
ceives input data, performs logical decisions based upon stored programs and dri
ves the outputs. Connections to a computer for hierarchical control are done via
the CPU. The I/O structure of the PLCs is one of their major strengths. The inp
uts can be push buttons, limit switches, relay contacts, analog sensor, selector
switches, proximity switches, float switches, etc. The outputs can be motor sta
rters, solenoid valves, position valves, relay coils, indicator lights, LED disp
lays, etc. The field devices are typically selected, supplied and installed by t
he machine tool builder or the end user. The voltage level of the field devices
thus normally determines the type of I/O. So, power to actuate these devices mus
t also be supplied external to the PLC. The PLC power supply is designated and r
ated only to operate the internal portions of the I/O structures, and not the fi
eld devices. A wide variety of voltages, current capacities and types of I/O mod
ules are available.
48

The principle of operation of a PLC is determined essentially by the PLC program

memory, processor, inputs and outputs. The program that determines PLC operatio
n is stored in the internal PLC program memory. The PLC operates cyclically, i.e
. when a complete program has been scanned, it starts again at the beginning of
the program. At the beginning of each cycle, the processor examines the signal s
tatus at all inputs as well as the external timers and counters and are stored i
n a process image input (PII). During subsequent program scanning, the processor
the accesses this process image. To execute the program, the processor fetches
one statement after another from the programming memory and executes it. The res
ults are constantly stored in the process image output (PIO) during the cycle. A
t the end of a scanning cycle, i.e. program completion, the processor transfers
the contents of the process image output to the output modules and to the extern
al timers and counters. The processor then begins a new program scan.
Inputs
Processor Programmer Logic memory Storage memory Output Field Devices
s
Power Supply
Power Supply
Fig.7 Generalized PLC block diagram
49

The "Signals"
The signal lines coming from the computer operate on 5V DC supplied by the compu
ter communication port, and is a square wave form called a Transistor-to-Transis
tor Logic (TTL) signal. This signal is essentially a series of small pulses from
0V to +5V that represent 0s and 1s in a binary computer language. This signal is
a form of a Pulse-Width Modulated (PWM) signal where the length of the pulse is
varied to indicate information. The width of the pulse determines the binary cod
e sent; either a 0 or a 1 as communicated by the computer and interpreted by the mot
or driver. More on the signals may be found in the signals page.
The signal from the computer to the breakout board is the same as that from the
breakout board to the motor driver. Remember, the breakout board provides circui
t protection and signal distribution. Therefore, the signal coming out of the br
eakout board is also a 5V TTL signal of the same form. However, as discussed pre
viously, the signal after the driver has been conditioned as needed to provide t
he large move voltage and current needed to drive the machine.
50

Breakout Boards
Breakout boards are a common electrical components that take a bundled cable and
breaks out each conductor to a terminal that can easily accept a hook-up wire for
distribution to another device. They are a common item in electronic projects a
nd enable easy, clean installation of electronic devices. The image at right sho
ws a simple DB25 breakout circuit board from Winford Engineering. The breakout b
oard is positioned between your computer or indexer and the motor drivers and se
rves two purposes in the CNC control system: circuit protection and signal distr
ibution. Here we will describe the boards function in the CNC control system and
what you need to know about how to select one to suit your need 51

Analysis And Programming Of A Vertical Machining System

CNC MACHINING CENTER
HITACHI SEIKI VA35 CNC MACHINING CENTER
The Hitachi Seiki VA35 CNC (Computer Numeric Controlled) machining center that b
elongs to the Department of Production Engineering is frequently used for accura
te and automated machining of metals as well as for wood, plastic and other mate
rials. The machining accuracy of the machine is 0.001mm. Figure 4-2 shows variou
s parts of the machine tool
52

Hitachi Seiki VA35 CNC Machining Center

53

Z
X
Numerical Control Of The Machine S Y
Z
EEPROM OR TAPE INPUT
Control
Microprocessor
ROM
Spindle Position
X,Y,Z Positions
Motor Driver
Spindle Motor 54 X,Y,Z Spindle Motors

MACHINE SPECIFICATIONS
GENERAL INFORMATION
Manufacturer
Model
c System 6MB 4000 kg
TABLE
Working area

Control unit

Weight Hitachi Seiki Co. Ltd., Japan VA 35II Fanu

Maximum carrying capacity 1000*355 mm2 500 Kg

STROKES
x-axis stroke in the crosswise
direction of the table
y-axis stroke in the longitudinal direction of the table
z-axis stroke in the vertical direction of the spindle head Distance between the
spindle nose and top of the table
560 mm
350 mm
400 mm
150-550 mm
SPINDLE HEAD
Spindle nose contour
NT 40 60-600 rpm Stepless (s 4 digit) AC 5.5 kW (30 min)
Spindle speed
55

Spindle speed change

Spindle motor

FEED
Least increment
0.001 mm 3600 mm/min 13000 mm/min
Cutting feed rate

Rapid traverse

AUTOMATIC TOOL CHANGE (ATC)

No. of tools
Shank type
Maximum tool diameter
Maximum tool length
Maximum tool w
eight Tool selection method
Pull stud type 30 BT 40, CAT 40 95 mm 250 mm 10 kg R
andom shortest course MAS - 1
G CODE AND M CODE
The entire functioning of the machine is based on G Code and M Code specificatio
ns. G Codes define the preparatory functions of the machine. In simple terms, th
ey control the movement and machining related functions of the machine tool. For
example, the code "G76" followed by some related arguments is used for fine bor
ing. "G00" with X,Y,Z arguments rapidly moves the bed and the spindle head to th
e position specified by the arguments. M Codes are known as auxiliary functions.
They control specific behaviors of the machine. For example "M08" turns on the
coolant, M05 stops the spindle.
56

A Program Used In manufacturing Of Turbine Couplings

The listing given below is a program which was used to bore holes in couplings o
f two turbines which were manufactured in the Engineering Workshops. It is writt
en in G and M Codes. Unless otherwise stated, all the dimensions are in mm. 1 G2
8 G91 Z0; 2 G28 X0 Y0; 3 G40 G49; 4 G90; 5 G92 X253.087 Y177.818 Z343.05; 21 6 G
00 x131.25; 7 G00 Z5.0 F10; 8 M03 S150; 9 M98 P151; 10 M05; 11 M09; 12 G28 G91 Z
0; 13 G28 X0 Y0; 14 M30; 15 %
The meaning of each line is given below. 1 Return to reference point, Incrementa
l programming, Z=0 is the reference point (Z movement only) 2 Return to referenc
e point, X=0 and Y=0 (X and Y movements only) 3 Tool diameter compensation cance
l, Tool length offset cancel 57

4 Absolute programming 5 Programming of absolute zero point, X=253.087, Y=177.81

8, Z=343.05 6 Positioning (rapid), X=131.25, Y=0 7 Positioning (rapid), Z=5.0, F
eed rate set to 10 mm/min 8 Spindle rotation CW, speed=150 rpm 9 Sub program (o0
151) call-out 10 Spindle stop 11 Mist/coolant off 12 Return to reference point,
Z=0, Incremental programming (Z movement only) 13 Return to reference point, X=0
and Y=0 14 End of program, Control unit reset 15 Just display the end of curren
t listing Line 9 in the above program calls the sub program o0151. This sub prog
ram is the actual part of the program which bore holes and is listed below.
1 G76 G98 X131.25 Y0.0 Z-52.0 Q0.5 R2.0; 2 X119.903 Y53.384; 3 (some more x and
y values) 4 M99;
The meaning of each line is as follows: 1 Fine boring; Return to initial level i
n canned cycle after finishing; Starting X,Y coordinate: X=131.25, Y=0.0; Final
Z coordinate = -52.0; Before boring tool is taken out, move it 0.5 away from the
bored wall of the workpiece; Radius of boring = 2.0 (This value does not have a
ny effect on boring since the tool determines the actual radius.). 2 Repeat bori
ng for X=119.903 and Y=53.384. 3 Repeat the same in line 2. 4 End of sub program
.
58

STEPS IN USING THE MACHINE

The distinct operations involved in using the CNC machine are listed below in se
quence they are done. 1. Generating the program (in G & M Codes) 2. Sending it t
o the machine 3. Running the program First a drawing of the machined workpiece i
s created using AutoCAD in a PC. Then using a special routine of AutoCAD, the co
ntours of the cutting tool are generated. This is finally stored as a text file
in the hard drive of the PC. Next, the CNC machine is set to retrieve this file.
Through the coaxial cable which links the PC and CNC machine, it is then fed in
to the machine tool. A numeric name for the program is given at the beginning of
the file retrieval to figure out the starting point (or the address in the memo
ry) of the retrieving program from earlier read programs. Using this numeric nam
e of the program, it is taken to the front from other programs in the memory and
it stays waiting to run. Pressing the "Start" button sequentially executes the
listing.
59

ADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINES

CNC machines are widely used in the metal cutting industry and are best used to
produce the following types of product: Parts with complicated contours Parts r
quiring close tolerance and/or good repeatability Parts requiring expensive jigs
and fixtures if produced on conventional machines Parts that may have several e
ngineering changes, such as during the development stage of In cases where human
errors could be extremely costly Parts that are needed in a hurry Small batch l
ots or short production runs
a prototype

Some common types of CNC machines and instruments used in industry are as follow
ing: Drilling Machine Lathe / Turning Centre Milling / Machining Centre Turre
ress and Punching Machine Wirecut Electro Discharge Machine (EDM) Grinding Machi
ne Laser Cutting Machine Water Jet Cutting Machine
And Most important For Electronics industry is that CNC Milling and Drilling is
used for Manufacturing Of PCB .( Printed Circutiry Board)..
60