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CHEMMAT 312
Transfer Processes 2
Phase Change Heat Transfer
CHEMMAT 312 1
Introduction
Processes of heat transfer accompanied by phase
change are more complex than simple heat exchange
between fluids since it concerns about
thermodynamic and hydrodynamic.
Two topics:
Part I: Heat transfer to boiling liquids
Part II: Heat transfer from condensing vapors
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Objectives
1. Differentiate between evaporation and boiling, and gain familiarity
with different types of boiling
2. Develop a good understanding of the boiling curve, and the
different boiling regimes corresponding to different regions of the
boiling curve
3. Calculate the heat flux and its critical value associated with nucleate
boiling, and examine the methods of boiling heat transfer
enhancement
4. Know the relation for the heat transfer coefficient in laminar film
condensation over a vertical plate
5. Calculate the heat flux associated with condensation on inclined
and horizontal plates, vertical and horizontal cylinders or spheres,
and tube bundles
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Parameters that characterize two-phase heat transfer
Body force arising from the liquid-vapor density difference g(
l
-
v
)
Surface tension, o
Latent heat, h
fg
Wall temperature Ts
Saturation temperature, Tsat
Characteristic length L
Thermophysical properties of the liquid or vapor:
, C
p
, k,
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CHEMMAT 312
Transfer Process 2
Boiling
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Difference B/W Evaporation & Boiling
Evaporation
-occurs at liquid-vapor interface when vapor pressure is
less than saturation pressure of the liquid at a given
temperature e.g. evaporation from water at 20 C.
- No bubble formation or bubble movement involved
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Boiling
- occurs at solid-liquid interface when liquid is brought into
contact with a surface at temp T
s
, above saturation temp
T
sat
of the liquid
- It involves rapid bubble formation at solid-surface that
detach from surface and rise to top surface
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Applications of Boiling
House hold refrigerator(refrigerant boiling)
steam power plants boilers
chemical industries boilers
cooling of nuclear reactor by coolant boiling
industrial kettles
electronic component cooling by boiling of liquid in
which these are placed
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Classification of Boiling (I)
1) Based on Bulk Fluid Motion
a) Pool Boiling
b) Flow Boiling
2) Based on Bulk liquid temperature
a) Sub-cooled Boiling
b) Saturated Boiling
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Classification of Boiling (II)
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Pool boiling
Boiling in absence of bulk fluid flow
Fluid body is stationery
Any possible fluid motion will be due to
natural convection currents
E.g boiling of water in a pan on stove
Flow boiling (Forced convection boiling)
Boiling in presence of bulk fluid flow
Fluid is forced to flow in a heated pipe
or over a surface by pump etc
Convection effects will be present
Classification of Boiling (II)
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Subcooled Boiling
When the temperature of the main body
of the liquid is below the saturation
temperature.
Bubbles serve as energy movers and
transfer heat to fluid by condensing
It occurs at early stages of boiling
Bubbles formation and disappearance near hot
surface
Bubbles disappear as they transfer heat to
surrounding sub-cooled liquid
Boiling is confined to locality of hot surface so
also called local boiling
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Classification of Boiling (III)
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Saturated Boiling
When the temperature of the liquid is equal
to the saturation temperature. (i.e. bulk of
liquid is saturated)
It occurs when entire liquid body reaches
saturation temperature
Bubbles rise to the top
Boiling Curve for Pool Boiling
Four regimes/phases for pool boiling with change in
excess temperature are
1. Natural Convection Boiling
2. Nucleate Boiling
3. Transition Boiling
4. Film Boiling
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Cengel, Y.A. and Ghajar, A.J. (2011). Heat and Mass
Transfer: Fundamentals & Applications. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.
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Natural Convection Boiling (to Point A)
Bubbles do not form on the heating surface until the liquid is heated a few
degrees above the saturation temperature (about 2 to 6C for water)
The liquid is slightly superheated in this case (metastable state).
The fluid motion in this mode of boiling is governed by natural convection
currents.
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Heat transfer from the
heating surface to the fluid
is by natural convection.
For the conditions of Fig.
106, natural convection
boiling ends at an excess
temperature of about 5C.
This curve can be divided into four
segments. In the first segment, at low
temperature drops, the line AB is straight
and has a slope of 1.25. This is consistent
with the equation
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25 . 1
/ T a A q A =
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The bubbles form at an increasing rate at an increasing number of nucleation sites as
we move along the boiling curve toward point C.
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Nucleate Boiling (between Points A and C)
Region AB isolated bubbles.
Region BC numerous continuous
columns of vapor in the liquid.
Point A is referred to as the onset of nucleate boiling (ONB).
( )
5 10
excess
T C A < <
( )
10 30
excess
T C A < <
Liquid motion is strongly influenced by
nucleation of bubbles at the surface.
Heat transfer is principally due to
contact of liquid with the surface (single-
phase convection) and not to vaporization.
Increasing number of nucleation sites
causes bubble interactions and
coalescence into jets and slugs.
Liquid/surface contact is impaired.
continues to increase with while h
begins to decrease
In region AB the stirring and agitation caused by the entrainment of the liquid to
the heater surface is primarily responsible for the increased heat transfer
coefficient.
In region AB the large heat fluxes obtainable in this region are caused by the
combined effect of liquid entrainment and evaporation.
For the entire nucleate boiling range, the heat transfer coefficient ranges from
about 2000 to 30,000 W/m
2
K.
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After point B the heat flux increases at a lower
rate with increasing AT
excess
, and reaches a
maximum at point C.
The heat flux at this point is called the critical
(or maximum) heat flux, and is of prime
engineering importance.
Nucleate Boiling (between Points A and C)
Maximum attainable heat flux in nucleate boiling.

2
max
1 MW/m for water at atmospheric pressure. q'' ~
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Transition Boiling (between Points C and D)
When AT
excess
is increased past point C, the heat flux decreases.
This is because a large fraction of the heater surface is covered by a vapor
film, which acts as an insulation.
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In the transition boiling regime, both nucleate and
film boiling partially occur.
Operation in the transition boiling regime, which is
also called the unstable film boiling regime, is
avoided in practice.
For water, transition boiling occurs over the
excess temperature range from about 30C to
about 120C.
Film Boiling (beyond Point D)
Beyond point D the heater surface is completely covered by a
continuous stable vapor film.
through which heat is transferred by conduction and (at very high
temperature drops) by radiation
Point D, where the heat flux reaches a minimum is called the
Leidenfrost point.
The presence of a vapor film between the heater surface and the
liquid is responsible for the low heat transfer rates in the film boiling
region.
The heat transfer rate increases with increasing excess
temperature due to radiation to the liquid.
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Film boiling is not usually desired in
commercial equipment because the heat
transfer rate is low for such a large
temperature drop and temperature drop is
not utilized effectively.
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Burnout Phenomenon (I)
A typical boiling process does not
follow the boiling curve beyond point C.
When the power applied to the heated
surface exceeded the value at point C
even slightly, the surface temperature
increased suddenly to point E.
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An increase in beyond causes the surface to be blanketed by vapor, and the
surface temperature can spontaneously achieve a value that potentially exceeds its
melting point
( )
1000 . A >
s
T C
When the power is reduced gradually starting from point E
the cooling curve follows Fig. 108 with a sudden drop in
excess temperature when point D is reached.
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Any attempt to increase the heat flux
beyond q
max
will cause the operation point
on the boiling curve to jump suddenly from
point C to point E.
However, surface temperature that
corresponds to point E is beyond the
melting point of most heater materials, and
burnout occurs.
Therefore, point C on the boiling curve is
also called the burnout point, and the heat
flux at this point the burnout heat flux.
Most boiling heat transfer equipment in
practice operate slightly below q
max
to avoid
any disastrous burnout.
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Burnout Phenomenon (II)
Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool Boiling
Boiling regimes differ considerably in their character.
Different heat transfer relations need to be used for different boiling regimes.
In the natural convection boiling regime heat transfer rates can be accurately
determined using natural convection relations.
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No general theoretical relations for heat transfer in the
nucleate boiling regime is available.
Experimental based correlations are used.
The rate of heat transfer strongly depends on the nature of
nucleation and the type and the condition of the heated
surface.
Nucleate Boiling
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For nucleate boiling a widely used correlation proposed in 1952 by
Rohsenow:
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Heat Transfer Correlations in Nucleate Boiling
3
1/ 2
( )
( )
Pr
pl s sat
l v
nucleate l fg n
sf fg l
c T T
g
q h
C h

o
(
(
=
(
(

(

CHEMMAT 312 24
Cengel, Y.A. and Ghajar, A.J. (2011). Heat and
Mass Transfer: Fundamentals & Applications. New
York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
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Peak Heat Flux
The maximum (or critical) heat flux (CHF) in nucleate pool boiling:
C
cr
is a constant whose value depends on the heater geometry, but generally is about
0.15.
The CHF is independent of the fluidheating surface combination, as well as the
viscosity, thermal conductivity, and the specific heat of the liquid.
The CHF increases with pressure up to about one-third of the critical pressure, and then
starts to decrease and becomes zero at the critical pressure.
The CHF is proportional to h
fg
, and large maximum heat fluxes can be obtained using
fluids with a large enthalpy of vaporization, such as water.
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Minimum Heat Flux
Minimum heat flux, which occurs at
the Leidenfrost point, is of practical
interest since it represents the lower
limit for the heat flux in the film boiling
regime.
Zuber derived the following expression
for the minimum heat flux for a large
horizontal plate
This relation above can be in error by
50% or more.
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Transition
boiling
regime
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Film Boiling
At high surface temperatures (typically
above 300C), heat transfer across the
vapor film by radiation becomes
significant and needs to be considered.
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The heat flux for film boiling on a horizontal cylinder or
sphere of diameter D is given by
Example for Film Boiling
Water is boiled at atmospheric pressure by a horizontal
polished copper heating element of diameter D=5 mm and
emissivity c=0.05 immersed in water. If the surface
temperature of the heating wire is 350
o
C, determine the rate
of heat transfer form the wire to the water per unit length of
the wire.
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Enhancement of heat transfer in pool boiling
In nucleate boiling rate of heat transfer depends on active nucleation
sites
Increasing nucleation sites will increase heat transfer
Surface roughness and dirt increase heat transfer
Heat flux in nucleate boiling can be increased by a factor of 10
Coat surface with thin layer/Thermoexcell-E
Mechanical agitation and surface vibration also increase heat
transfer
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Flow Boiling
In pool boiling vapor bubbles rise due to buoyancy forces,
but in flow boiling, fluid is forced to move by external source
such as pump as it undergoes a phase change process
Combined effects of pool boiling and convection
Two types
External flow boiling
fluid is forced to move over a heated surface over a plate or
cylinder (on external side)
Internal flow boiling
If fluid is forced to move inside a heated surface/tube (on internal
side)
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Flow Boiling
External Flow Boiling
is similar to pool boiling, but the added motion increases both the
nucleate boiling heat flux and the maximum heat flux considerably.
The higher the velosity, the higher the nucleate boiling heat flux and the
critical heat flux.
Internal Flow Boiling
commonly referred to as two-phase flow, is much more complicated in
nature because there is no free surface for the vapor to escape, and thus
both the liquid and the vapor are forced to flow together.
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Velosity h q max
Flow Boiling: Internal Flow Boiling
The two-phase flow in a tube
exhibits different flow boiling
regimes, depending on the
relative amounts of the liquid
and the vapor phases.
Note that the tube contains a
liquid before the bubbly flow
regime and a vapor after the
mist-flow regime.
Heat transfer in those two cases
can be determined using the
appropriate relations for single-
phase convection heat transfer.
CHEMMAT 312 32
Cengel, Y.A. and Ghajar, A.J. (2011). Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals & Applications. New
York, NY: McGraw-Hill.