Demodulacija (DETEKCIJA) - postupak izvlaenja signala iz moduliranog vala nosioca

Nain demodulacije ovisi o nainu na koji je izvedena modulacija.

Za Amplitudno modulirane signale dva naina demodulacije:
detektor envelope pogodan samo za klasini AM
najjednostavniji sklop; sastoji se od ispravljakog elementa i niskopropusnog filtra naje!"e
#$ filtar%.
produkt detektor pogodan za AM i &&' signale
postupak mno(enja moduliranog signala sa lokalno stvorenim signalom )okalni oscilator%.
&ignal )* mora +iti iste frekvencije i faze kao i signal na kojem je modulacija o+avljena.
,omak frekvencije signala )* uzrokuje pogre!nu frekvenciju demoduliranog signala. ,omak
faze uzrokuje gu+itak u jaini demoduliranog signala.
Techniques
-.e product detector multiplies t.e incoming signal +/ t.e signal of a local oscillator 0it.
t.e same fre1uenc/ and p.ase as t.e carrier of t.e incoming signal. After filtering t.e original
audio signal 0ill result. -.is met.od 0ill decode +ot. AM and &&'2 alt.oug. if t.e p.ase
cannot +e determined a more comple3 setup is re1uired.
FM radio
4re1uenc/ modulation or 4M is more comple3. 5t .as numerous advantages over AM2 suc. as
+etter fidelit/ and noise immunit/. 6o0ever2 it is muc. more comple3 to +ot. modulate and
demodulate a carrier 0ave 0it. 4M2 and AM predates it +/ several decades.
-.ere are several common t/pes of 4M demodulator:
-.e 1uadrature detector2 0.ic. p.ase s.ifts t.e signal +/ 78 degrees and multiplies it
0it. t.e uns.ifted version. *ne of t.e terms t.at drops out from t.is operation is t.e
original information signal2 0.ic. is selected and amplified.
-.e signal is fed into a ,)) and t.e error signal is used as t.e demodulated signal.
-.e most common is a 4oster-&eele/ discriminator. -.is is composed of an electronic
filter 0.ic. decreases t.e amplitude of some fre1uencies relative to ot.ers2 follo0ed
+/ an AM demodulator. 5f t.e filter response c.anges linearl/ 0it. fre1uenc/2 t.e final
analog output 0ill +e proportional to t.e input fre1uenc/2 as desired.
A variant of t.e 4oster-&eele/ discriminator called t.e ratio detector
9:;
Anot.er met.od uses t0o AM demodulators2 one tuned to t.e .ig. end of t.e +and
and t.e ot.er to t.e lo0 end2 and feed t.e outputs into a difference amp.
<sing a digital signal processor2 as used in soft0are-defined radio.
Slie AM
De!inition o! the en"elope
An/ AM or 4M signal can +e 0ritten in t.e follo0ing form
5n t.e case of AM2 =t% t.e p.ase component of t.e signal% is constant and can +e ignored. 5n
AM2 t.e carrier fre1uenc/ is also constant. -.us2 all t.e information in t.e AM signal is in
Rt%. Rt% is called t.e en"elope of t.e signal. 6ence an AM signal is given +/ t.e e1uation
0it. mt% representing t.e original audio fre1uenc/ message2 C t.e carrier amplitude and Rt%
e1ual to C > mt%. &o2 if t.e envelope of t.e AM signal can +e e3tracted2 t.e original message
can +e recovered.
5n t.e case of 4M2 t.e transmitted signal .as a constant envelope Rt% ? # and can +e
ignored. 6o0ever2 man/ 4M receivers measure t.e envelope an/0a/ for received signal
strengt. indication.
Diode detector
-.e simplest form of envelope detector is t.e diode detector 0.ic. is s.o0n a+ove. A diode
detector is simpl/ a diode +et0een t.e input and output of a circuit2 connected to a resistor
and capacitor in parallel from t.e output of t.e circuit to t.e ground. 5f t.e resistor and
capacitor are correctl/ c.osen2 t.e output of t.is circuit s.ould appro3imate a voltage-s.ifted
version of t.e original +ase+and% signal. A simple filter can t.en +e applied to filter out t.e
@$ component.
A simple product detector
-.e simplest form of product detector mi3es or .etrod/nes% t.e #4 or 54 signal 0it. a locall/
derived carrier t.e 'eat 4re1uenc/ *scillator2 or '4*% to produce an audio fre1uenc/ cop/
of t.e original audio signal and a mi3er product at t0ice t.e original #4 or 54 fre1uenc/. -.is
.ig.-fre1uenc/ component can t.en +e filtered out2 leaving t.e original audio fre1uenc/
signal.
Mathematical model of the simple product detector
5f mt% is t.e original message2 t.e AM signal can +e s.o0n to +e
Multipl/ing t.e AM signal xt% +/ an oscillator at t.e same fre1uenc/ as and in p.ase 0it. t.e
carrier /ields
0.ic. can +e re-0ritten as
After filtering out t.e .ig.-fre1uenc/ component +ased around cos:At% and t.e @$
component C2 t.e original message 0ill +e recovered.
Drawbacks of the simple product detector
Alt.oug. t.is simple detector 0orks2 it .as t0o major dra0+acks:
-.e fre1uenc/ of t.e local oscillator must +e t.e same as t.e fre1uenc/ of t.e carrier2
or else t.e output message 0ill fade in and out in t.e case of AM2 or +e fre1uenc/
s.ifted in t.e case of &&'
*nce t.e fre1uenc/ is matc.ed2 t.e p.ase of carrier must +e o+tained2 or else t.e
demodulated message 0ill +e attenuated2 +ut t.e noise 0ill not +e.
4re1uenc/ of an AM carrier can +e accuratel/ determined 0it. a p.ase-locked loop2 +ut for
&&'2 t.e onl/ solution is to construct a .ig.l/ sta+le oscillator.
Another e#ample
-.ere are man/ ot.er kinds of product detectors as 0ell. 5f one .as access to digital signal
processing e1uipment2 one ma/ e3periment 0it. a 0ide range of interesting tec.ni1ues. 4or
instance2 it is possi+le to multipl/ t.e incoming signal +/ t.e carrier2 times t.e s1uare of
anot.er carrier 78B out of p.ase 0it. it. -.is 0ill produce a cop/ of t.e original message2 and
anot.er AM signal at t.e fourt. .armonic2 +/ means of t.e trigonometric identit/
-.e .ig.-fre1uenc/ component can again +e filtered out2 leaving t.e original signal.
Mathematical model of the detector
5f mt% is t.e original message2 t.e AM signal can +e s.o0n to +e
Multipl/ing t.e AM signal +/ t.e ne0 set of fre1uencies /ields
After filtering out t.e component +ased around cosCAt% and t.e @$ component $2 t.e
original message 0ill +e recovered.
A more sophisticated product detector
A more sop.isticated product detector can +e constructed in a 0a/ muc. like a single-
side+and modulator. -0o copies of t.e modulated input signals are created. -.e first cop/ is
mi3ed 0it. a local oscillator and lo0-pass filtered. -.e second cop/ is mi3ed 0it. a 78B
p.ase-s.ifted cop/ of t.e oscillator and t.e output of t.is mi3er is also 78B p.ase-s.ifted and
t.en lo0-pass filtered. -.ese copies are t.en com+ined to produce t.e original message.
Ad"anta$es and disad"anta$es
-.e product demodulator .as several advantages over an envelope detector.
-.e product demodulator can decode overmodulated AM2 AM 0it. suppressed carrier2
and &&' in addition to regular AM
A signal demodulated 0it. a product detector 0ill .ave a .ig.er signal to noise ratio
t.an t.e same signal demodulated 0it. an envelope detector.
-.e onl/ real disadvantage of a product demodulator is t.e increased comple3it/.
FosterSeeley discriminator
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-.e Foster%Seele& discriminator
9F;9:;
is a common t/pe of 4M detector circuit2 invented in
F7GH +/ @udle/ I. 4oster
9G;
and &tuart Dilliam &eele/. -.e circuit 0as envisioned for
automatic fre1uenc/ control of receivers2 +ut also found application in demodulating an 4M
signal. 5t uses a tuned #4 transformer to convert fre1uenc/ c.anges into amplitude c.anges. A
transformer2 tuned to t.e carrier fre1uenc/2 is connected to t0o rectifier diodes. -.e circuit
resem+les a full-0ave +ridge rectifier. 5f t.e input e1uals t.e carrier fre1uenc/2 t.e t0o .alves
of t.e tuned transformer circuit produce t.e same rectified voltage and t.e output is zero. As
t.e fre1uenc/ of t.e carrier c.anges2 t.e +alance +et0een t.e t0o .alves of t.e transformer
secondar/ c.anges2 and t.e result is a voltage proportional to t.e fre1uenc/ deviation of t.e
carrier.
4oster-&eele/ discriminators are sensitive to +ot. fre1uenc/ and amplitude variations2 unlike
some detectors. -.erefore a limiter amplifier stage must +e used +efore t.e detector2 to
remove amplitude variations in t.e signal 0.ic. 0ould +e detected as noise. -.e limiter acts
as a $lass A amplifier at lo0er amplitudes; at .ig.er amplitudes it acts like a $lass $
amplifier2 0.ic. clips off t.e peaks.
Ratio detector
A ratio detector using solid-state diodes
-.e ratio detector
9G;9C;9J;9H;
is a variant of t.e 4oster-&eele/ discriminator2 +ut one diode
conducts in an opposite direction. -.e output in t.is case is taken +et0een t.e sum of t.e
diode voltages and t.e center tap. -.e output across t.e diodes is connected to a large value
capacitor2 0.ic. eliminates AM noise in t.e ratio detector output. D.ile distinct from t.e
4oster-&eele/ discriminator2 t.e ratio detector 0ill similarl/ not respond to AM signals2
.o0ever t.e output is onl/ J8K of t.e output of a discriminator for t.e same input signal.
Quadrature detector
5n 1uadrature detectors2 t.e received 4M signal is split into t0o signals. *ne of t.e t0o
signals is t.en passed t.roug. a .ig.-reactance capacitor2 0.ic. s.ifts t.e p.ase of t.at signal
+/ 78 degrees. -.is p.ase-s.ifted signal is t.en applied to an )$ circuit2 0.ic. is resonant at
t.e 4M signalLs unmodulated2 Mcenter2M or McarrierM fre1uenc/. 5f t.e received 4M signalLs
fre1uenc/ e1uals t.e center fre1uenc/2 t.en t.e t0o signals 0ill .ave a 78-degree p.ase
difference and t.e/ are said to +e in Mp.ase 1uadratureM N .ence t.e name of t.is met.od.
-.e t0o signals are t.en multiplied toget.er in an analog or digital device2 0.ic. serves as a
p.ase detector; t.at is2 a device 0.ose output is proportional to t.e p.ase difference +et0een
t0o signals. 5n t.e case of an unmodulated 4M signal2 t.e p.ase detectorLs output is N after
t.e output .as +een filtered; t.at is2 averaged over time N constant; namel/2 zero. 6o0ever2 if
t.e received 4M signal .as +een modulated2 t.en its fre1uenc/ 0ill var/ from t.e center
fre1uenc/. 5n t.is case2 t.e resonant )$ circuit 0ill furt.er s.ift t.e p.ase of t.e signal from
t.e capacitor2 so t.at t.e signalLs total p.ase s.ift 0ill +e t.e sum of t.e 78 degrees t.atLs
imposed +/ t.e capacitor and t.e positive or negative p.ase c.ange t.atLs imposed +/ t.e )$
circuit. No0 t.e output from t.e p.ase detector 0ill differ from zero2 and in t.is 0a/2 one
recovers t.e original signal t.at 0as used to modulate t.e 4M carrier.
-.is detection process can also +e accomplis.ed +/ com+ining2 in an e3clusive-*# O*#%
logic gate2 t.e original 4M signal and a s1uare 0ave 0.ose fre1uenc/ e1uals t.e 4M signalLs
center fre1uenc/. -.e O*# gate produces an output pulse 0.ose duration e1uals t.e
difference +et0een t.e times at 0.ic. t.e s1uare 0ave and t.e received 4M signal pass
t.roug. zero volts. As t.e 4M signalLs fre1uenc/ varies from its unmodulated center
fre1uenc/ 0.ic. is also t.e fre1uenc/ of t.e s1uare 0ave%2 t.e output pulses from t.e O*#
gate +ecome longer or s.orter. 5n essence2 t.is 1uadrature detector converts an 4M signal into
a pulse-0idt. modulated ,DM% signal.% D.en t.ese pulses are filtered2 t.e filterLs output
rises as t.e pulses gro0 longer and its output falls as t.e pulses gro0 s.orter. 5n t.is 0a/2 one
recovers t.e original signal t.at 0as used to modulate t.e 4M carrier.
'hase%loced loop detector
-.e p.ase-locked loop detector re1uires no fre1uenc/-selective )$ net0ork to accomplis.
demodulation. 5n t.is s/stem2 a voltage controlled oscillator P$*% is p.ase locked +/ a
feed+ack loop2 0.ic. forces t.e P$* to follo0 t.e fre1uenc/ variations of t.e incoming 4M
signal. -.e lo0-fre1uenc/ error voltage t.at forces t.e P$*Ls fre1uenc/ to track t.e
fre1uenc/ of t.e modulated 4M signal is t.e demodulated audio output.
(ecei"in$ FM
5n order to +e a+le to receive 4M a receiver must +e sensitive to t.e fre1uenc/ variations of
t.e incoming signals. As alread/ mentioned t.ese ma/ +e 0ide or narro0 +and. 6o0ever t.e
set is made insensitive to t.e amplitude variations. -.is is ac.ieved +/ .aving a .ig. gain 54
amplifier. 6ere t.e signals are amplified to suc. a degree t.at t.e amplifier runs into limiting.
5n t.is 0a/ an/ amplitude variations are removed.
5n order to +e a+le to convert t.e fre1uenc/ variations into voltage variations2 t.e demodulator
must +e fre1uenc/ dependent. -.e ideal response is a perfectl/ linear voltage to fre1uenc/
c.aracteristic. 6ere it can +e seen t.at t.e centre fre1uenc/ is in t.e middle of t.e response
curve and t.is is 0.ere t.e un-modulated carrier 0ould +e located 0.en t.e receiver is
correctl/ tuned into t.e signal. 5n ot.er 0ords t.ere 0ould +e no offset @$ voltage present.
-.e ideal response is not ac.ieva+le +ecause all s/stems .ave a finite +and0idt. and as a
result a response curve kno0n as an M&M curve is o+tained. *utside t.e +and0idt. of t.e
s/stem2 t.e response falls2 as 0ould +e e3pected. 5t can +e seen t.at t.e fre1uenc/ variations
of t.e signal are converted into voltage variations 0.ic. can +e amplified +/ an audio
amplifier +efore +eing passed into .eadp.ones2 a loudspeaker2 or passed into ot.er electronic
circuitr/ for t.e appropriate processing.
Characteristic )S) cur"e o! an FM demodulator
-o ena+le t.e +est detection to take place t.e signal s.ould +e centred a+out t.e middle of t.e
curve. 5f it moves off too far t.en t.e c.aracteristic +ecomes less linear and .ig.er levels of
distortion result. *ften t.e linear region is designed to e3tend 0ell +e/ond t.e +and0idt. of a
signal so t.at t.is does not occur. 5n t.is 0a/ t.e optimum linearit/ is ac.ieved. -/picall/ t.e
+and0idt. of a circuit for receiving P64 4M +roadcasts ma/ +e a+out F M6z 0.ereas t.e
signal is onl/ :88 k6z 0ide.
FM demodulators
-.ere are a num+er of circuits t.at can +e used to demodulate 4M. Iac. t/pe .as its o0n
advantages and disadvantages2 some +eing used 0.en receivers used discrete components2
and ot.ers no0 t.at 5$s are 0idel/ used.
'elo0 is a list of some of t.e main t/pes of 4M demodulator or 4M detector. 5n vie0 of t.e
0idespread use of 4M2 even 0it. t.e competition from digital modes t.at are 0idel/ used
toda/2 4M demodulators are needed in man/ ne0 designs of electronics e1uipment.
Ratio and Foster Seeley Discriminator or FM Detector
- details of FM demodulators - Foster Seeley discriminator or
demodulator and the Ratio demodulator or detector.
4M demodulation tutorial includes:
Q 4M demodulation overvie0
Q #atio and 4oster &eele/ detectors
Q 4M ,)) demodulator
-.e 4oster &eele/ discriminator or demodulator and t.e #atio detector are t0o forms of 4M
demodulator t.at .ave +een 0idel/ used. -.e/ are a+le to provide good levels of
performance.
5n recent /ears2 t.e 4oster &eele/ discriminator and t.e #atio detector .ave +een less 0idel/
used. -.e main reason for t.is is t.at t.e/ re1uire t.e use of 0ound inductors and t.ese are
e3pensive to manufacture. *t.er t/pes of 4M demodulator .ave overtaken t.em2 mainl/ as a
result of t.e fact t.at t.e ot.er 4M demodulator configurations lend t.emselves more easil/ to
+eing incorporated into integrated circuits.
(atio FM detectors
D.en circuits emplo/ing discrete components 0ere more 0idel/ sued2 t.e #atio and 4oster-
&eele/ detectors 0ere 0idel/ used. *f t.ese t.e ratio detector 0as t.e most popular as it
offers a +etter level of amplitude modulation rejection of amplitude modulation. -.is ena+les
it to provide a greater level of noise immunit/ as most noise is amplitude noise2 and it also
ena+les t.e circuit to operate satisfactoril/ 0it. lo0er levels of limiting in t.e preceding 54
stages of t.e receiver.
-.e operation of t.e ratio detector centres around a fre1uenc/ sensitive p.ase s.ift net0ork
0it. a transformer and t.e diodes t.at are effectivel/ in series 0it. one anot.er. D.en a
stead/ carrier is applied to t.e circuit t.e diodes act to produce a stead/ voltage across t.e
resistors #F and #:2 and t.e capacitor $G c.arges up as a result.
-.e transformer ena+les t.e circuit to detect c.anges in t.e fre1uenc/ of t.e incoming signal.
5t .as t.ree 0indings. -.e primar/ and secondar/ act in t.e normal 0a/ to produce a signal at
t.e output. -.e t.ird 0inding is un-tuned and t.e coupling +et0een t.e primar/ and t.e t.ird
0inding is ver/ tig.t2 and t.is means t.at t.e p.asing +et0een signals in t.ese t0o 0indings
is t.e same.
-.e primar/ and secondar/ 0indings are tuned and lig.tl/ coupled. -.is means t.at t.ere is a
p.ase difference of 78 degrees +et0een t.e signals in t.ese 0indings at t.e centre fre1uenc/.
5f t.e signal moves a0a/ from t.e centre fre1uenc/ t.e p.ase difference 0ill c.ange. 5n turn
t.e p.ase difference +et0een t.e secondar/ and t.ird 0indings also varies. D.en t.is occurs
t.e voltage 0ill su+tract from one side of t.e secondar/ and add to t.e ot.er causing an
im+alance across t.e resistors #F and #:. As a result t.is causes a current to flo0 in t.e t.ird
0inding and t.e modulation to appear at t.e output.
-.e capacitors $F and $: filter an/ remaining #4 signal 0.ic. ma/ appear across t.e
resistors. -.e capacitor $C and #G also act as filters ensuring no #4 reac.es t.e audio section
of t.e receiver.
The ratio detector
Foster%Seele& FM discriminator or FM detector
-.e 4oster &eele/ detector or as it is sometimes descri+ed t.e 4oster &eele/ discriminator .as
man/ similarities to t.e ratio detector. -.e circuit topolog/ looks ver/ similar2 .aving a
transformer and a pair of diodes2 +ut t.ere is no t.ird 0inding and instead a c.oke is used.
The Foster%Seele& discriminator * detector
)ike t.e ratio detector2 t.e 4oster-&eele/ circuit operates using a p.ase difference +et0een
signals. -o o+tain t.e different p.ased signals a connection is made to t.e primar/ side of t.e
transformer using a capacitor2 and t.is is taken to t.e centre tap of t.e transformer. -.is gives
a signal t.at is 78 degrees out of p.ase.
D.en an un-modulated carrier is applied at t.e centre fre1uenc/2 +ot. diodes conduct2 to
produce e1ual and opposite voltages across t.eir respective load resistors. -.ese voltages
cancel eac. one anot.er out at t.e output so t.at no voltage is present. As t.e carrier moves
off to one side of t.e centre fre1uenc/ t.e +alance condition is destro/ed2 and one diode
conducts more t.an t.e ot.er. -.is results in t.e voltage across one of t.e resistors +eing
larger t.an t.e ot.er2 and a resulting voltage at t.e output corresponding to t.e modulation on
t.e incoming signal.
-.e c.oke is re1uired in t.e circuit to ensure t.at no #4 signals appear at t.e output. -.e
capacitors $F and $: provide a similar filtering function.
'ot. t.e ratio and 4oster-&eele/ detectors are e3pensive to manufacture. Dound components
like coils are not eas/ to produce to t.e re1uired specification and t.erefore t.e/ are
comparativel/ costl/. Accordingl/ t.ese circuits are rarel/ used in modern e1uipment.
P FM demodulator ! detector
- details of the concept and circuit for the P FM demodulator or
detector with principles of P FM demodulation.
4M demodulation tutorial includes:
Q 4M demodulation overvie0
Q #atio and 4oster &eele/ detectors
Q 4M ,)) demodulator
,.ase locked loop2 ,)) 4M demodulator or detector is a form of 4M demodulator t.at .as
gained 0idespread acceptance in recent /ears. ,)) 4M detectors can easil/ +e made from t.e
variet/ of p.ase locked loop integrated circuits t.at are availa+le2 and as a result2 ,)) 4M
demodulators are found in man/ t/pes of radio e1uipment ranging from +roadcast receivers to
.ig. performance communications e1uipment.
-.e ,)) 4M demodulation integrated circuits started to appear 0.en integrated circuit
tec.nolog/ developed to t.e degree to allo0 #4 analogue circuits to +e manufactured.
Alt.oug. .ig. fre1uencies are not normall/ needed2 for ,)) 4M demodulators2 t.e circuit
must +e capa+le of operating at t.e intermediate fre1uenc/ of t.e receiver2 and for receivers
using 4M t.is 0as often F8.R M6z. Alt.oug. +/ toda/Ls standards2 t.is is not .ig.2 it 0as
necessar/ for t.e tec.nolog/ to reac. t.is state +efore ,)) 4M demodulators +ecame
availa+le.
'++ FM demodulation ,asics
-.e 0a/ in 0.ic. a p.ase locked loop2 ,)) 4M demodulator 0orks is relativel/
straig.tfor0ard. 5t re1uires no c.anges to t.e +asic p.ase locked loop2 itself2 utilising t.e +asic
operation of t.e loop to provide t.e re1uired output.
-.e 0a/ in 0.ic. a ,)) 4M demodulator operates is 1uite straig.tfor0ard. -.e loop consists
of a p.ase detector into 0.ic. t.e incoming signal is passed2 along 0it. t.e output from t.e
voltage controlled oscillator P$*% contained 0it.in t.e p.ase locked loop. -.e output from
t.e p.ase detector is passed into a loop filter and t.en used as t.e control voltage for t.e
P$*.
'hase loced loop ('++) FM demodulator
Dit. no modulation applied and t.e carrier in t.e centre position of t.e pass-+and t.e voltage
on t.e tune line to t.e P$* is set to t.e mid position. 6o0ever if t.e carrier deviates in
fre1uenc/2 t.e loop 0ill tr/ to keep t.e loop in lock. 4or t.is to .appen t.e P$* fre1uenc/
must follo0 t.e incoming signal2 and in turn for t.is to occur t.e tune line voltage must var/.
Monitoring t.e tune line s.o0s t.at t.e variations in voltage correspond to t.e modulation
applied to t.e signal. '/ amplif/ing t.e variations in voltage on t.e tune line it is possi+le to
generate t.e demodulated signal.
'++ FM demodulator per!ormance
-.e ,)) 4M demodulator is normall/ considered a relativel/ .ig. performance form of 4M
demodulator or detector. Accordingl/ t.e/ are used in man/ 4M receiver applications.
-.e ,)) 4M demodulator .as a num+er of ke/ advantages:
Linearity: -.e linearit/ of t.e ,)) 4M demodulator is governed +/ t.e voltage to
fre1uenc/ c.aracteristic of t.e P$* 0it.in t.e ,)). As t.e fre1uenc/ deviation of t.e
incoming signal normall/ onl/ s0ings over a small portion of t.e ,)) +and0idt.2 and
t.e c.aracteristic of t.e P$* can +e made relativel/ linear2 t.e distortion levels from
p.ase locked loop demodulators are normall/ ver/ lo0. @istortion levels are t/picall/
a tent. of a percent.
Manufacturing costs: -.e ,)) 4M demodulator lends itself to integrated circuit
tec.nolog/. *nl/ a fe0 e3ternal components are re1uired2 and in some instances it
ma/ not +e necessar/ to use an inductor as part of t.e resonant circuit for t.e P$*.
-.ese facts make t.e ,)) 4M demodulator particularl/ attractive for modern
applications.
'++ FM demodulator desi$n considerations
D.en designing a ,)) s/stem for use as an 4M demodulator2 one of t.e ke/ considerations is
t.e loop filter. -.is must +e c.osen to +e sufficientl/ 0ide t.at it is a+le to follo0 t.e
anticipated variations of t.e fre1uenc/ modulated signal. Accordingl/ t.e loop response time
s.ould +e s.ort 0.en compared to t.e anticipated s.ortest time scale of t.e variations of t.e
signal +eing demodulated.
A furt.er design consideration is t.e linearit/ of t.e P$*. -.is s.ould +e designed for t.e
voltage to fre1uenc/ curve to +e as linear as possi+le over t.e signal range t.at 0ill +e
encountered2 i.e. t.e centre fre1uenc/ plus and minus t.e ma3imum deviation anticipated.
5n general t.e ,)) P$* linearit/ is not a major pro+lem for average s/stems2 +ut some
attention ma/ +e re1uired to ensure t.e linearit/ is sufficientl/ good for .i-fi s/stems.
Summar&
-.e ,)) 4M demodulator is one of t.e more 0idel/ used forms of 4M demodulator or
detector t.ese da/s. 5ts suita+ilit/ for +eing com+ined into an integrated circuit2 and t.e small
num+er of e3ternal components makes ,)) 4M demodulation 5$s an ideal candidate for
man/ circuits t.ese da/s.
Radio recei"er amplitude modulation #M demodulation
- o"er"iew or tutorial of the basics of amplitude modulation$ #M
demodulation or detection methods used within radio recei"ers.
AM demodulation S detection tutorial includes:
Q AM demodulation overvie0
Q AM diode detector T demodulator
Q AM s/nc.ronous demodulation
-.e process of separating or e3tracting t.e modulation from a signal is called demodulation or
detection. 4or amplitude modulation2 t.e process of demodulation or detection can +e
accomplis.ed ver/ simpl/ using a diode2 or it ma/ +e ac.ieved in a more effective 0a/ to
provide a more effective means of AM demodulation.
As amplitude modulation is still 0idel/ used as a result of its simplicit/2 receivers
incorporating AM demodulators are manufactured in 1uantities of man/ millions eac. /ear.
AM demodulation or detection process
5n order to look at t.e amplitude demodulation process it is necessar/ to first look at t.e
format of an AM signal.
An AM signal consists of a carrier 0.ic. acts as t.e reference. An/ modulation t.at is applied
t.en appears as side+ands 0.ic. stretc. out eit.er side of t.e signal - eac. side+and is a
mirror image of t.e ot.er.
Spectrum o! an amplitude modulated- AM si$nal
Dit.in t.e overall AM signal t.e carrier possess t.e majorit/ of t.e po0er - a full/
modulated2 i.e. F88K modulation - AM signal .as side+ands 0.ic. .ave :JK t.at of t.e main
carrier.
D.en demodulating a signal2 t0o +asic steps ma/ +e considered:
Create baseband signal: -.e main element of AM demodulation is to create t.e
+ase+and signal. -.is can +e ac.ieved in a num+er of 0a/s - one of t.e easiest is to
use a simple diode and rectif/ t.e signal. -.is leaves elements of t.e original #4
signal. D.en ot.er forms of demodulation are sued2 t.e/ too leave some elements of
an #4 signal.
Filter: -.e filtering removes an/ un0anted .ig. fre1uenc/ elements from t.e
demodulation process. -.e audio can t.en +e presented to furt.er stages for audio
amplification2 etc.
-.e AM demodulation process is outlined in t.e diagram +elo0. -.is particular e3ample
applies particularl/ to a diode detector.
.asics o! AM demodulation * detection
T&pes o! AM demodulator
-.ere are a num+er of 0a/s in 0.ic. an AM signal can +e demodulated. -.ere is a +alance
t.at needs to +e made of t.e performance of t.e circuit t.at is re1uired against t.e comple3it/2
and .ence t.e cost t.at can +e tolerated.
-.e major t/pes of AM demodulator are:
Diode detector: -.is is +/ far t.e simplest form of AM demodulator or detector2
re1uiring just a semiconductor or ot.er form% of diode along 0it. a capacitor to
remove t.e .ig. fre1uenc/ components. 5t suffers from a num+er of disadvantages2
+ut its performance is more t.an ade1uate for most applications including +roadcast
receivers 0.ere cost is a significant driver.
Synchronous detector: -.is form of detector offers a .ig.er level of performance2
+ut at t.e cost of considera+l/ t.e use of considera+l/ more components. -.is means
t.at it is onl/ used in receivers 0.ere t.e levels of performance are paramount and can
justif/ t.e additional component costs.
'ot. t/pes of detector are 0idel/ used2 alt.oug. t.e diode detector is far more common in
vie0 of its simplicit/ and t.e fact t.at it is 1uite ade1uate for +roadcast applications 0.ere
performance is not normall/ an issue.
#M Diode Detector
- o"er"iew of the basic #M diode detector or demodulator used for
con"ertin% #M si%nals into useable audio with circuits$ application
notes and theory
AM demodulation S detection tutorial includes:
Q AM demodulation overvie0
Q AM diode detector T demodulator
Q AM s/nc.ronous demodulation
*ne of t.e advantages of amplitude modulation AM% is t.at it is c.eap and eas/ to +uild a
demodulator circuit for a radio receiver. -.e simplicit/ AM radio receivers AM is one of t.e
reasons 0./ AM .as remained in service for +roadcasting for so long. *ne of t.e ke/ factors
of t.is is t.e simplicit/ of t.e receiver AM demodulator.
A num+er of met.ods can +e used to demodulate AM2 +ut t.e simplest is a diode detector. 5t
operates +/ detecting t.e envelope of t.e incoming signal. 5t ac.ieves t.is +/ simpl/
rectif/ing t.e signal. $urrent is allo0ed to flo0 t.roug. t.e diode in onl/ one direction2
giving eit.er t.e positive or negative .alf of t.e envelope at t.e output. 5f t.e detector is to +e
used onl/ for detection it does not matter 0.ic. .alf of t.e envelope is used2 eit.er 0ill 0ork
e1uall/ 0ell. *nl/ 0.en t.e detector is also used to suppl/ t.e automatic gain control AU$%
circuitr/ 0ill t.e polarit/ of t.e diode matter.
-.e AM detector or demodulator includes a capacitor at t.e output. 5ts purpose is to remove
an/ radio fre1uenc/ components of t.e signal at t.e output. -.e value is c.osen so t.at it does
not affect t.e audio +ase-+and signal. -.ere is also a leakage pat. to ena+le t.e capacitor to
disc.arge2 +ut t.is ma/ +e provided +/ t.e circuit into 0.ic. t.e demodulator is connected.
A simple diode detector (demodulator) !or AM si$nals
-.is t/pe of detector or demodulator is called a linear envelope detector +ecause t.e output is
proportional to t.e input envelope. <nfortunatel/ t.e diodes used can introduce apprecia+le
levels of .armonic distortion unless modulation levels are kept lo0. As a result t.ese detectors
can never provide a signal suita+le for .ig. 1ualit/ applications.
Additionall/ t.ese detectors are suscepti+le to t.e effects of selective fading e3perienced on
s.ort 0ave +roadcast transmissions. 6ere t.e ionosp.eric propagation ma/ +e suc. t.at
certain small +ands of t.e signal are removed. <nder normal circumstances signals received
via t.e ionosp.ere reac. t.e receiver via a num+er of different pat.s. -.e overall signal is a
com+ination of t.e signals received via eac. pat. and as a result t.e/ 0ill com+ine 0it. eac.
ot.er2 sometimes constructivel/ to increase t.e overall signal level and sometimes
destructivel/ to reduce it. 5t is found t.at 0.en t.e pat. lengt.s are considera+l/ different t.is
com+ination process can mean t.at small portions of t.e signal are reduced in strengt.. An
AM signal consists of a carrier 0it. t0o side+ands.
5f t.e section of t.e signal t.at is removed falls in one of t.e side+ands2 it 0ill c.ange t.e tone
of t.e received signal. 6o0ever if carrier is removed or even reduced in strengt.2 t.e signal
0ill appear to +e over modulated2 and severe distortion 0ill result. -.is is a comparativel/
common occurrence on t.e s.ort 0aves2 and means t.at diode detectors are not suita+le for
.ig. 1ualit/ reception. &/nc.ronous demodulation detection % is far superior.
#M synchronous demodulation ! detection
- o"er"iew of synchronous demodulation or detection of amplitude
modulation$ #M$ si%nals with details of methods$ operation and
ad"anta%es.
AM demodulation S detection tutorial includes:
Q AM demodulation overvie0
Q AM diode detector T demodulator
Q AM s/nc.ronous demodulation
&/nc.ronous forms of demodulation .ave in.erent advantages over ot.er forms of
demodulation2 alt.oug. t.e additional levels of comple3it/ mean t.at t.e/ are not al0a/s
used.
&/nc.ronous AM demodulation is generall/ reserved for .ig.er performance radio receivers2
alt.oug. man/ integrated circuit tec.nolog/ means t.at it can incorporated into a c.ip 0it.
relative ease.
/hat is AM s&nchronous demodulation0
t.e simplest form of detection for an amplitude modulated signal utilises a simple diode
rectifier. -o ac.ieve improved performance a form of demodulation kno0n as s/nc.ronous
demodulation can +e used.
D.en looking at t.e s/nc.ronous demodulation of an AM signal2 it is first useful to look at
t.e spectrum of an amplitude modulated signal. 5t can +e seen t.at it comprises a carrier 0it.
t.e t0o side+ands carr/ing .e audio or ot.er information spreading out eit.er side. -.ese t0o
side+ands are reflections of eac. ot.er.
The spectrum o! an amplitude modulated si$nal
-.e s/stem uses an oscillator signal to mi3 0it. t.e incoming signal to convert it do0n to t.e
+ase+and signal. 5f t.e local oscillator signal .as e3actl/ t.e same fre1uenc/ as t.e carrier
0it.in t.e AM signal2 t.is 0ill appear as a @$ component at t.e output - t.e @$ level 0ill
depend on t.e p.ase +et0een t.e carrier and t.e local oscillator. -.e side+ands of t.e AM
signal 0ill appear relative to zero fre1uenc/2 i.e. as t.e original audio or ot.er modulating
signal.
S&nchronous demodulation
Ad"anta$es and disad"anta$es o! AM s&nchronous
demodulation
-.ere is a +alance to +e made +et0een utilising a simple diode detector and a s/nc.ronous
detector. 5t is not al0a/s via+le to incorporate an AM s/nc.ronous demodulator into a ne0
design. *t.er formats ma/ +e more suita+le.
-.e advantages and disadvantages of a s/nc.ronous AM detector and a simple diode detector
are ta+ulated +elo0:
Ad"anta$es 1 Disad"anta$es o! AM S&nchronous Demodulators
Compared to Diode En"elope Detectors
Ad"anta$es Disad"anta$es
F. 5ncreased linearit/ - lo0er
levels of distortion.
:. $onsidera+l/ less affected +/
selective fading e3perienced
on t.e medium and s.ort
0ave +ands.
G. 5mproved sensitivit/.
F. $onsidera+le additional
comple3it/2 alt.oug. t.is is
not suc. an important
consideration if t.e
s/nc.ronous detector can +e
included in an 5$.
Methods o! achie"in$ AM s&nchronous demodulation
-.ere are several 0a/s in 0.ic. s/nc.ronous AM detection can +e ac.ieved. -.e/ all .ave
t.eir o0n properties2 +ut all follo0 t.e +asic principle 0.ere+/ a signal is injected into a
mi3er at t.e same fre1uenc/ as t.e carrier to re-constitute t.e audio or ot.er data.
Filter method: -.e most o+vious met.od to create a local oscillator signal on t.e
same fre1uenc/ as t.e carrier is to use a fi3ed fre1uenc/ filter t.at is tuned to remove
onl/ t.e carrier fre1uenc/. -.is can +e p.ase s.ifted2 78B: and entered into t.e mi3er.
-.e p.ase s.ift 0ill ensure t.e @$ component at t.e output of t.e mi3er is minimised.
-.e dra0+ack for t.is met.od is t.at t.e carrier .as to +e positioned e3actl/ on t.e
fre1uenc/ of t.e filter for it to 0ork. -.is means t.at t.e tuning .as to +e e3act.
Phase locked loop: ,.ase locked loops provide a convenient met.od of e3tracting
t.e carrier. -.e p.ase locked loop 0ill lock on to t.e carrier of t.e AM signal and t.e
P$* output can +e fed into t.e mi3er 0it. a 78B: p.ase s.ift as +efore.
Hard limiting amplifier: ,ossi+le t.e c.eapest and easiest option to implement is a
.ard limiting amplifier approac..
-.is circuit operates using t.e principle t.at if t.e signal is .ard limited2 t.e output of
t.e amplifier 0ill not .ave an/ amplitude variations on it - .ence it 0ill onl/ allo0
t.roug. t.e carrier 0it.out modulation. -.is is e3actl/ 0.at is re1uired for t.e mi3ing
process.
2i$h $ain limitin$ ampli!ier s&nchronous detector
AM s&nchronous detection per!ormance
A s/nc.ronous detector is more e3pensive to make t.an an ordinar/ diode detector 0.en
discrete components are used2 alt.oug. 0it. integrated circuits +eing found in man/ receivers
toda/ t.ere is little or no noticea+le cost associated 0it. its use as t.e circuitr/ is often
included as part of an overall receiver 5$.
&/nc.ronous detectors are used +ecause t.e/ .ave several advantages over ordinar/ diode
detectors. 4irstl/ t.e level of distortion is less. -.is can +e an advantage if a +etter level of
1ualit/ is re1uired +ut for man/ communications receivers t.is mig.t not +e a pro+lem.
5nstead t.e main advantages lie in t.eir a+ilit/ to improve reception under adverse conditions2
especiall/ 0.en selective fading occurs or 0.en signal levels are lo0.
<nder conditions 0.en t.e carrier level is reduced +/ selective fading2 t.e receiver is a+le to
re-insert its o0n signal on t.e carrier fre1uenc/ ensuring t.at t.e effects of selective fading
are removed. As a result t.e effects of selective fading can +e removed to greatl/ en.ance
reception.
-.e ot.er advantage is an improved signal to noise ratio at lo0 signal levels. As t.e
demodulator is 0.at is termed a co.erent modulator it onl/ sees t.e components of noise t.at
are in p.ase 0it. t.e local oscillator. $onse1uentl/ t.e noise level is reduced and t.e signal to
noise ratio is improved.
<nfortunatel/ s/nc.ronous detectors are onl/ used in a limited num+er of receivers +ecause
of t.eir increased comple3it/. D.ere t.e/ are used a noticea+le improvement in receiver
performance is seen and 0.en c.oosing a receiver t.at 0ill +e used for s.ort 0ave +roadcast
reception it is 0ort. considering 0.et.er a s/nc.ronous detector is one of t.e facilities t.at is
re1uired.