Chapter 8 Steady Incompressible Flow

in Pressure Conduits (Part B)

8.8 Head loss during turbulent flow in a pipe
8.9 Solution of Single Pipe Flows
8. 10 Local Head Losses
8.10.1 Losses at Sudden Enlargement
8.10.2 Losses at Sudden Contraction
Outline
We will be looking here at the flow of real
fluid in pipes real meaning a fluid that
looses energy due to friction as it
interacts with the pipe wall as it flows.
Head loss (Review)

Re
8 . 32
0
d
=

vd
= Re
Viscous sublayer
8.8 Head loss in Turbulent Flow
When flow is turbulent, the viscous dissipation effects cannot
be derived explicitly as in laminar flow, but the following
relation is still valid.
g
V
d
l
f h
f
2
2
=
l = pipe length
d= pipe diameter
V = pipe velocity
f = friction factor
8.8.1 Nikuradses Experiment
Nikuradsemade a great contribution to the theory of pipe
flow by differentiating between rough and smooth pipes.
A rough pipe is one where the mean height of roughness is
greater than the thickness of the laminar sub-layer. Nikuradse
artificially roughened pipe by coating them with sand. He
defined a relative roughness value k
s
/d (mean height of
roughness over pipe diameter) and produced graphs of
against Re for a range of relative roughness 1/30 to 1/1014.
d /2k
s
Figure : Regions on plot of Nikuradessdata
d /2k
s
d /2k
s
d /2k
s
Figure : Regions on plot of Nikuradessdata
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8
lg (Re )
l
g

(
1
0
0

)
15
30.6
60
126
252
507

d /2k
s

Laminar
Transition Turbulent
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8
lg (Re )
l
g

(
1
0
0

)
15
30.6
60
126
252
507

ks
d /2k
s

Laminar flowRe < 2000 (lg Re = 3.30)fRe

64 /Re
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8
lg (Re)
l
g

(
1
0
0

)
15
30.6
60
126
252
507

d /2k
s

Transition from laminar to turbulent: 2300< Re < 4000

(3.3 < lgRe < 3.6)Pipe flow normally lies outside this region.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8
lg (Re)
l
g

(
1
0
0

)
15
30.6
60
126
252
507

d /2k
s

Smooth turbulent The limiting line of turbulent flow.

All value of relative roughness tend toward this as Re decreases.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8
lg (Re)
l
g

(
1
0
0

)
15
30.6
60
126
252
507

d /2k
s

Transitional turbulentThe region which ssvaries with

both Re and relative roughness. Most pipes lie in this region.
) (Re,
d
k
f
s
=
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8
lg (Re)
l
g

(
1
0
0

)
15
30.6
60
126
252
507

d /2k
s

Rough turbulent. remains constant for a given relative

roughness. It is independent of Re.
Nikuradses Experiments
In general, friction factor
Function of Re and
roughness
Laminar region
Independent of roughness
Turbulent region
Smooth pipe curve
All curves coincide @
~Re=2300
Rough pipe zone
All rough pipe curves
flatten out and
become independent
of Re
Re
64
=
( )
Blausius
Re
4 / 1
k
=
Rough
Smooth
Laminar Transition Turbulent
BlausiusOK for smooth pipe
)
k
(Re,
s
D
F =
Re
64
=
2
74 . 5
log
25 . 0

+
=
e

9 . 0
10
Re 7 . 3


D
Regions on plot of Nikuradessdata
Turbulent flow in a circular pipe may be classified
as: smooth pipe region, rough pipe region and
transition region.
8.8.2 Moody chart
The Moody chart is a graphical method to find the friction factor
in pipes.
Colebrook and White proposed the following general equation
after studying flow in real pipes:
)
Re
51 . 2
7 . 3
lg( 2
1
f
d
e
f
+ =
The values of friction factor obtained from the equation are
plotted on a Moody diagram, which shows a family of curves
for f plotted against the relative roughness and Reynolds
number.
Colebrook-White Equation
A good approximate equation for the turbulent region
of the Moody chart is given by Haalands equation:
Haalandsequation is valid for turbulent
flow (Re > 2300)
Pipe roughness
pipe material pipe roughness
e (mm)
glass, drawn brass, copper 0.0015
commercial steel or wrought iron 0.045
asphalted cast iron 0.12
galvanized iron 0.15
cast iron 0.26
concrete 0.18-0.6
rivet steel 0.9-9.0
corrugated metal
45
PVC
0.12
8.24
Question
If the flow is in turbulent transition region, the Frictional
factor f of the industrial pipes _____ with the increase of the
Reynolds number
A increases B reduces C keeps constant.
Question
There are two pipes, one transports oil and the other transports
water. If diameter d ,length l and roughness coefficient of the
two pipes are all the same, kinematicviscosity
oil
is bigger
than
water
, the Reynolds Numbers are equal, then the
Frictional Loss______
A. h
fo
=h
fw
B. h
fo
>h
fw

C. h
fo
<h
fw
D.uncertain.
8.9 Single Pipe Flowssolution basics
2
4
D
Q
V

=

VD VD
= = Re
g
V
D
L
f h
L
2
2
=
Re
64 64
= =
DV
f

=
Re
9 . 6
7 . 3
log 8 . 1
1
11 . 1
D e
f
Four simultaneous equations:
continuity
energy loss
Reynolds
number

) / (Re, D e f f =
For
ColebrookWhite
)
Re
51 . 2
7 . 3
/
lg( 2
1
f
d
D e
f
+ =
Haaland
3 types of pipe flow problems:
1. Head loss (find h
L
given D, Q or V)
2. Discharge (find Q given D and h
L
)
3. Sizing problem (Find D given Q and h
L
)
Example ( Laminar flow):
Water, 20
o
C flows through a 0.6 cm tube, 30 m long, at a
flow rate of 0.34 liters/min. If the pipe discharges to the
atmosphere, determine the supply pressure if the tube is
inclined 10
o
above the horizontal in the flow direction.
10
L =30 m
D =.6 cm
1
2
Water Properties:
= 998 kg/m
3
g = 9790 N/m
3
= 1.005 E-6 m
2
/s
Energy Equation (neglecting )
P
2
= 0
P
1
g
= Z
2
Z
1
+ h
f
= L sin 10
o
+ h
f
V =
Q
A
=
0.34E
3
m
3
/ min*1min/ 60s
0.3/100 ( )
2
m
2
= 0.2m/ s
Re=
V D

=
0.2*0.006
1.005E
6
=1197 laminar flow
P
1
= 9790 N/m
3
*5.75 m = 56.34 kN/m
2
(kPa)
Example (turbulent flow):
Oil, = 900 kg/m
3
, = 1 E-5 m
2
/s, flows at 0.2 m
3
/s
through a 500 m length of 200 mm diameter, cast
iron pipe. If the pipe slopes downward 10
o
in the
flow direction, compute h
f
, pressure drop.
L
10
o
L =500 m
D =200 mm
1
2
The energy equation for = 1 can be written as follows
V =
Q
A
=
0.2m
3
/ s
.1 ( )
2
m
2
= 6.4m/ s
cast iron, ks= 0.26 mm
Re=
V D

=
6.4*.2
1E
5
= 128,000turbulent flow
Since flow is turbulent, use Haalandsequation to determine
friction factor (check your work using the Moody chart).
Z
2
Z
1
+ h
f
= - 500 sin 10 + 116.6 = - 86.8 + 116.6 = 29.8 m
Solution Summary
To solve basic pipe flow frictional head loss problem, use the
following procedure:
1. Use known flow rate to determine Reynolds number.
2. Identify whether flow is laminar or turbulent.
3. Use correct expression to determine friction factor (with
ks/dif necessary).
4. Use definition of h
f
to determine friction head loss.
5. Use general energy equation to determine total pressure drop.
8.10 Minor Losses in Turbulent Flow
Where K is minor loss coefficient
Transitions in pipe systems, such as bends, valves, changes in
diameter, entrances and exits, cause head losses in the system.
Head losses at transition points are called minor losses. A minor
loss is usually a function of the velocity head as follows:
g
V
k h
Minor L
2
2
) (
=
Sources of minor losses
Additional pressure (energy) losses
due to:
Fittings, bends, orifice plates, and valves
Losses due to physics
Vena contracta
Abrupt changes in flow area
Losses due to piping networks for fluid distribution
Typical piping elements with minor losses
Minor losses in piping networks
8.10.1 Sudden Enlargement
)
2 2
( ) ( ) (
2
2 2
2
1 1 2 1
2 1
g g g
p
g
p
z z h
j


+ + =
Momentum equation:
) ( ) (
1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1
v v Q z z gA A p A p = +
g
v v v
g
p
g
p
z z
2 1 1 2 2 2 1
2 1
) (


= +
g
v v
g
v v v
h
j
2
) (
2
2 2
2
1 1 2 1 1 2 2

+

=
( )
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1 2
) 1 (
2 2
) 1 (
2
) (
) 1 (
2 2
) 1 (
2
= = =

=
= = =

=
A
A
K
g
V
K
g
v
A
A
g
v v
h
A
A
K
g
V
K
g
v
A
A
g
v v
h
j
j
g
v
K h
A
A
K
j
2
1 5 . 0
2
2
2
=
1
2
A
1
A
2
v
1
v
2
A
1
8.10.2 Sudden Contraction
8.10.3 Gradual Expansion (Diffusor)

( )
g
V V
K h
E E
2
2
2 1

=
diffusor angle ( )
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0 20 40 60 80
K
E
2
1
2
2
2
1
2

=
A
A
g
V
K h
E E
Loss due to gradual enlargement
g
V
K h
e e
2
2
=
0 . 1
e
K
5 . 0
e
K
04 . 0
e
K
8.10.4 Entrance Losses
Losses can be
reduced by
accelerating the
flow gradually and
eliminating the
8.10.5 Head Loss in Valves
Function of valve type and valve
position
The complex flow path through valves
can result in high head loss (of course,
one of the purposes of a valve is to
create head loss when it is not fully
open)
g
V
K h
v v
2
2
=
In a sudden expansion pipe shown in figure, velocity is v
1
and v
2
respectively. A middle diameter pipe is connected between the
two pipes to form a two-sudden-expansion pipe. The interaction
of minor resistances is negligible. That is, superposition method
can be applied here. Determine: (1) the velocity of the middle
pipe when the total minor head loss of the pipe is the least. (2)
the total minor head loss, and the comparison with the one
sudden expansion pipe.
Example
Solution: (1) The minor head loss of the two-sudden-expansion
pipe.
Assume the velocity of middle pipe is v, and make the total
minor head loss be the least, so
2The total minor head loss is
the minor head loss of the one sudden
expansion pipe is
the total minor head loss of the two-sudden-expansion pipe is
half of the minor head loss of the one sudden expansion pipe.
8.11 Branching Pipes
Branching pipe systems, such as the one shown by Figure
8.27, can be solved using the following:
1. Q
1
= Q
2
+ Q
3
.
2 The elevation of P is common to all pipes.
Branching pipe systems
8.12 Pipes in Series
Pipes in series, as shown by Figure 8.29, can be solved as
follows:
Q = Q
1
= Q
2
= Q
3
h
L
= h
L1
+ h
L2
+ h
L3
Fig. Pipes in series
The pipe elements of the pipes in series have:
A.the same head loss
B. the same total head loss
C. the same hydraulic slope
D. the same discharge through them
Consider the two reservoirs shown in figure, connected by a single
pipe that changes diameter over its length. The surfaces of the two
reservoirs have a difference in level of 9m. The pipe has a diameter
of 200mm for the first 15m (from A to C) then a diameter of
250mm for the remaining 45m (from C to B).
Example
For the entrance use k
L
= 0.5 and the exit k
L
=1.0. The join at C is sudden.
For both pipes use = 0.04.
Total head loss for the system H =height difference of reservoirs
and solve for Q, to give Q =
0.158 m
3
/s
8.13 Pipes in Parallel
Parallel pipes, as shown by Figure 8.30, can be solved as
follows:
Q = Q
1
+ Q
2
+ Q
3
h
L
= h
L1
= h
L2
= h
L3
Pipes in parallel
Question
From the figure, we can see that the relationship among the
head losses from A to B in the pipes in parallel 1, 2, 3 is:
A. h
fAB
h
fl
+h
f2
+h
f3

B. h
fAB
h
fl
+h
f2

C. h
fAB
h
f2
+h
f3

D. h
fAB
h
fl
=h
f2
=h
f3
.
Example
Two pipes connect two reservoirs (A and B) which have a height difference
of 10m. Pipe 1 has diameter 50mm and length 100m. Pipe 2 has diameter
100mm and length 100m. Both have entry loss k
L
= 0.5 and exit loss k
L
=1.0
and Darcy f of 0.008.
Calculate:
a) rate of flow for each pipe
b) the diameter D of a pipe 100m long that could replace the two pipes
and provide the same flow.