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Multimedia enhancement of opportunities and outcomes for learners engaged in

open, flexible and distance learning: Theory and practice

Please cite as: Owen, H., & Martin, H. (In press). Multimedia enhancement

of opportunities and outcomes for learners engaged in open, flexible

and distance learning: Theory and practice. Quality Connections -

Boundless Possibilities: Through Open, Flexible and Distance Learning -

DEANZ 2010, Wellington, New Zealand.

Hazel Owen

eThos Consultancy NZ

Helen Martin

eThos Consultancy NZ
ABSTRACT

The paper explores how multimedia for education enhances outcomes and

opportunities for learners and practitioners engaged in open, flexible and

distance learning. The 'quality connections' and 'boundless possibilities'

which are the theme for this conference are examined through exploration of

how embedding multimedia artefacts into meaningful tasks can scaffold

learners' understanding of concepts, demonstrate practical skills, and, where

learners are creating the multimedia, enable cultural appropriacy and foster

creativity. The paper demonstrates how the use of multimodal activities is

efficacious, motivating, and assists learner volition. Additional benefits

include catering to learning preferences, and enhancing accessibility. All of

these factors are key in enabling open learning, especially in flexible or

distance programmes. The argument is contextualised through a discussion of

the relevant literature and illustrated using research from two very different

institutions, Unitec New Zealand and Dubai Men's College, UAE.

INTRODUCTION

It is old news to most educators that “The young person who watches digital TV,
downloads MP3 music onto a personal player, checks e-mail on a personal organiser and

sends…messages to a mobile phone of a friend will not be satisfied with a 500-word

revision guide” (Bratina & Abbott, 2002, p. 2). But there is still work to do in seeing the

value of multimedia for education.

The aim of this paper is to explore ways in which multimedia for education enhances

outcomes and opportunities for learners and practitioners engaged in open, flexible and

distance learning. The 'quality connections' and 'boundless possibilities' which are the

theme for this conference will be examined through exploration of how embedding

multimedia artefacts into meaningful tasks can scaffold learners' understanding of

concepts, demonstrate practical skills, and, where learners are creating the multimedia,

enable cultural appropriacy and foster creativity. All of these factors are key in enabling

open learning (i.e. learning that is self-determined, independent and interest-guided),

especially in flexible or distance programmes1.

The argument will be contextualised through a discussion of the relevant literature and

illustrated using research from two very different institutions, Unitec New Zealand and

Dubai Men's College (DMC), UAE.

1
While distance learning is a fairly self-explanatory term, flexible learning (also known
as hybrid, or blended learning), is defined in this paper as "learning that is facilitated by
the effective combination of different modes of delivery, models of teaching and styles of
learning, and grounded on transparent communications amongst all parties involved with
a course” (Heinze & Proctor, 2004, p. 10).
WHAT IS MULTIMEDIA?

When the term 'multimedia' is employed within an education context, reference is often

made to principles underpinning the cognitive theory of multimedia learning. A human

brain is capable of processing and encoding simultaneous auditory and visual stimuli, and

research has indicated that text and speech are better remembered if accompanied by

visuals (Paivio, 1971). Baddeley and Hitch (1974) developed the theory of 'working

memory' to explain this phenomenon, which was further developed into dual coding

theory (Paivio, 1971), and later used by Mayer (1991) to describe how multimedia

impacts learning. Mayer (2001) defined multimedia as a learning environment where

more than one media format is used to help create mental models that meaningfully

interconnect verbal and pictorial communication, thereby promoting learning. As such,

within the context of this paper, multimedia for education purposes is defined as the

combination of more than one media format consecutively (including text, images,

animations, data, diagrams, audio, and video - see for example

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RyoFN_chOtw.)

Multimedia can be used for many purposes including for demonstrations (showing how

to do something, such as structuring a specific essay genre), insights into abstract ideas or

concepts (for example, 'justice'), as well as for storytelling / narrative, research, and
capturing events. In the context of the online environment, multimedia has a range of

advantages; for example, learners can collaboratively produce and share their work

(either locally or globally), inexpensively, and anywhere, at any time. The possibilities

for use of multimedia for education are unquestionably evolving.

ENHANCING OUTCOMES

With reference to multimedia for education, Mayer's (1991) cognitive theory of learning

is underpinned by three main assumptions - dual channel, limited capacity and active

processing (see Figure 1). Dual channel assumption is based around the notion that the

human brain possesses channels for processing sight and sound inputs. The information

in the two channels is processed independently but simultaneously in the working

memory, then integrated into existing information networks in the long-term memory.

However, the limited capacity assumption identifies that each channel can only process a

limited quantity (between five to seven 'chunks') of information at once - a phenomenon

known as cognitive load theory. This limitation results in the brain having to allocate

processing resources, often in response to affective factors, such as interest. Finally, the

active processing assumption refers to the engagement in cognitive processing required to

build organised, systematic personalised mental models of inputs. As such, the human

brain is constantly occupied with the selection, organisation, and amalgamation of input

with existing 'knowledge' (Mayer, 2009).


Figure 1: Cognitive theory of multimedia learning (adapted from Mayer, 2001)

Multimodal learning environments should comprise a range of activities and resources

that require collaboration with peers and teachers, as well as interaction with artefacts

that use words (spoken and written), images, video, audio, movement and gesture

(Walsh, 2005). A report by Cisco (2008) indicates that studies have "shown…significant

increases in learning can be accomplished through the informed use of visual and verbal

multimodal learning" (p. 12), although they go on to say that mixed, but positive results,
point to a "lack of specificity of the type of multimedia intervention" (Cisco, 2008, p. 12),

highlighting the need for effective design and facilitation.

THEORY TO PRAXIS

In this section key factors around multimedia for education have been selected, discussed

in light of relevant literature, and illustrated with evaluation and research findings from

Unitec New Zealand and DMC, UAE.

DMC, UAE

DMC, one of fourteen colleges in the Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT) system,

offers a selection of career-oriented and vocational programmes, ranging from certificates

to Bachelors’ qualifications. To enrol on the HDF programme it is mandatory for students

to purchase laptops. The college is equipped with wireless connectivity.

The students at DMC are all Emirati males, and approximately seventy percent are

between seventeen and twenty years of age. They enter Foundations with a low-

intermediate level of English proficiency and often come from a strongly teacher-centred
learning environment, exacerbated by the challenge of studying in an English language

environment, poor research, study, critical, evaluative and analytical skills (Henderleiter

& Pringle, 1999).

Unitec NZ, Auckland

Unitec NZ was established as a tertiary education provider in 1976, originally as

Carrington Technical Institute, to offer trades-based training and qualifications

(Northover, & Donald, 2001). The focus on practical qualifications has remained,

although more academic programmes are now offered, ranging from certificate level to

PhDs. The student population comprises a variety of ages, ethnicities, backgrounds, and

levels of ICT literacy.

Designing flexible and distance programmes that meet learners' needs

Academic tertiary programmes, although usually based on sound principles of teaching

and learning, often assume "a homogeneous form of motivation that applies to any

students, anywhere, anytime" (Dee, 2003, p. 42), irrespective of the multi-cultural nature
of many institutions' students 2, and range of cognitive and learning styles 3 (McLoughlin,

1999). Awareness of learning styles, and the concept they are culturally shaped (Belay,

1992), could be one positive way to improve approaches whereby educators would need

to employ a variety of strategies to meet the needs of culturally diverse students (Sutliff

& Baldwin, 2001). However, there is a tendency to disagree on basic concepts of learning

styles, where a variety of (often non-compatible) terminology and different instruments

(see for example Honey & Mumford, 2000) are used.

Given the controversial nature of learning styles they fall in and out of favour (Fleming,

2007), but, as Sadler-Smith and Riding (1999) argue, awareness of learning styles has the

potential to “improve the effectiveness and efficiency of learning, help in identifying

learning difficulties and improve the performance of individuals” (p. 3). For example, in

2002, a study was conducted with four-hundred-and-thirty-eight Foundations students at

DMC to identify their learning styles using the VARK online survey (Hatherley-Greene,

2003). Results were compared with data collected by Fleming (2007). The belief that

Emirati learners are strongly auditory or visual was challenged because the majority

(63%) of participants expressed a preference for multimodal approaches, which had a

significant implication for the design of activities and resources. Learners found the

results to be useful as it raised their awareness so they could effectively interact within

(but not be confined by) the learning environment (Owen & Durham, 2007). The results

from this study highlight key factors to consider around the design of open, flexible and

2
A full discussion of the considerations around designing and facilitating culturally
responsive programmes is not within the remit of this paper, especially as the subject area
is not unproblematic (McLoughlin, 1999).
3
Learning styles and learning preferences are intimately related and the terms are often
used interchangeably.
distance learning programmes, especially the importance of providing a variety of media,

activities, and topics, and building in elements of choice (Chan, 2002).

Programme design also needs to encourage process (Beaudoin, 1990) rather than

focussing on the production of assessed artefacts, while also embracing the intellectual

(te taha hinengaro), the spiritual (te taha wairua), the emotional (whatumanawa), and the

physical (te taha tinana) (Irwin, 2005). As such, learning experiences should include fun,

feeling safe, involving people, and requiring participation in personally meaningful

contexts (Palmer, 1998). A case study (Owen, 2009d) was conducted at Unitec NZ in

2009 with the Governance in Not-for-profit (NFP) Organisations course. Unitec NZ

pioneered a programme to meet the needs of managers and front line employees in the

Not-For-Profit (NFP) sector. However, many were finding it difficult to attend

classroom-based professional development courses. Requests for other flexible study

options resulted in the suggestion that the course be offered in online distance mode.

The course was originally designed as an intensive, highly participative one-day face-to-

face experience, which included, for instance, sharing experiences and stories. It was key,

therefore, to attempt to excite learners’ interest, creativity and engagement, while also

developing a community of inquiry and learning. A space was created in the Learning

Management System, Moodle, based on components identified in the ICTELT design

process (Owen, 2009a) including cultural responsiveness, learning styles, students’


access to technology, Internet connectivity, navigability, support that could be provided

by Unitec NZ, and interaction with more experienced peers. Multimodal scaffolding

resources were devised to assist participants, not only with governance concepts, but also

with using the communication and collaboration tools. One example of cultural

responsiveness enabled by multimedia was the welcome video (Figure 2), whereby a

sense of person, place, and community identity was evoked. In the post-pilot feedback

participants commented about feeling "connected and engaged", that it was "fun to

interact with the other class members", and in part this was initiated by the "warm

welcome".
Figure 2: Example of a welcome (http://blip.tv/file/1554564)

A further benefit of multimedia is that it can offer a culturally inclusive way to share

reflection and celebrate success. Some cultures have preferences or restrictions around

how they express themselves and celebrate their achievements. As such, being asked to

celebrate one's successes can be at best uncomfortable, and at worst upsetting and

incredibly uncomfortable (Owen, 2009a). However, multimedia may provide options for

individuals to seek the input of their community to speak on their behalf, or to record
their reflections and performance of skills (Owen, 2009b) (see Figure 3).

Figure 3: An example of choice - audio/video reflection (http://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=c8IZSVtaMmM)

Providing accessible, empowering scaffolding

It has been recognised that because thinking, decision-making, and structuring of long-

term memories entail processing by the cognitive centre of the brain (which works

serially), cognitive overload will occur when excessive demands are made (Cisco, 2008).
Scaffolding can help with this phenomenon by assisting the creation of "schemas of

understanding" (Cisco, 2008, p. 11). In this process a learner's current level of skills or

previous knowledge are foregrounded into the working memory, and then actively

invoked by incremental input. For example, Okolo and Ferretti (1998), studying a wide

range of learners, found that student composition that utilised multimedia increased

acquisition of understanding complex concepts, as well as resulting in students being

"highly motivated by the opportunity to augment their writing with other media" (p. 54).

Participation in a learning experience that is also social has the potential to bridge the gap

between a learner’s already assimilated knowledge or skills and knowledge or skills yet

to be assimilated through collaboration with more advanced peers or a teacher (Wertsch,

1998).

One issue identified by Foundations’ course leaders at DMC was that the curriculum did

not “account for software…that students are expected to be able to use…[including]

WebCT…, SharePoint, Outlook and Calendar, Portal (and email)” (Godfrey, 2006, p. 2).

The Computer, Research Skills and Projects (CRSP) course approach aimed to address

this, partly through the use of self-access multimedia resources. A research study was

conducted to explore the design, facilitation, assessment and evaluation practices

employed in the CRSP course. Data was collected in the 2003-2004 (n=189), 2004-2005

(n= 199), 2005-2006 (n= 201) academic years and semester one of 2006-2007 (n=211).

Results from the study are extensive, and only data directly related to the use of

multimedia in the CRSP course will be referred to.


Multimedia resources, including downloadable videos that combined visual, audio and

short segments of text, were provided to help students who had pre-intermediate English

skills. Learners were able to watch the videos meaning that language did not become a

barrier, and did not have to rely on teachers to take them step-by-step through the

concepts, ideas or skills, or have to worry if they had not understood a key point.

Students could revisit videos as many times as needed, and then seek peer or teacher

support if they wished. Teachers were thereby freed up to facilitate and maximise the

support they could offer. Furthermore, marking rubrics were developed to accept

multimedia as well text for some assessments, as long as learning outcomes were

achieved, thus recognising the preference of some students to express themselves through

multimedia.

Multimedia was furthermore used extensively to provide opportunities for guided

discovery, examples and models to scaffold students. Some concepts appeared to be most

relevant when captured in longer videos that could be accessed in parts or as a whole. A

demonstration video that focussed on specific skills was best split into short segments

and indexed, and for large-group work, or break-out groups, a video of between three to

six minutes appeared to be optimum. For example, because of the benefits of

synchronous communication, MSN chat was chosen to brainstorm ideas as an initial step

to writing a collaborative academic essay. Previous experience had illustrated that unless

awareness was raised around the reason for the task, as well as providing a model and
guidelines, chat sessions could rapidly disintegrate. As such, a five-minute video was

made demonstrating a chat session that began informally and then modelled the type of

interchange desired. A whole-class discussion (after watching excerpts of the video)

encouraged reflection on the authentic purpose for the upcoming chat-sessions, and

resulting benefits.

Findings from the CRSP study indicated that multimedia was used extensively by the

majority (85.4%) of students. Specific comments around the use of videos included

affective factors such as motivation (comments are as they were written): "I had fun and

learnt to focus because im always lost in my imagination"; skill-related comments: "It

was very useful and I think it will help me a lot to improve my writing", and comments

around collaboration: "When we watch the video its funny when Arguing with a friend

about the topic...but stell the new ideas i got from my partner is useful and its new create

way to learn".

Fostering literacies

Literacies now required in many countries range far beyond the ability to decipher the

written text. Hall in 1996 accentuated how we live in the information age where we

require “the wherewithal to think, understand, create, renew, maintain, and adapt within
many different material and cultural contexts” [italics in the original] (p. 27). Literacy

skills now include decoding and conceptualising multimedia, multiple cultures, ICT,

digital, and information, to name but a few (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001).

At Unitec NZ, from July to August 2008 two groups from Kumamoto University, Japan

came to study English. Prior to the visit, the group's assigned teacher and an academic

advisor designed a course aimed at engaging the students in a creative, fun way. The

course was formulated to assist listening skills by using existing videos; writing and

communication skills by blog journalling (http://www.vox.com -

http://blip.tv/file/1415487); and speaking skills by encouraging students to discuss their

media shared through Flickr (http://www.flickr.com - http://blip.tv/file/1431373). It was

known that students would require substantial initial scaffolding, and it was decided to

offer a ‘one stop shop’ in the form of a Moodle course to enable students to contact

teachers easily, and have access all the resources, instructions, and multimedia. Once the

students arrived they were introduced to the context and resources. However, their

expectations of the role of themselves as learners, as well as their culturally shaped media

literacy, meant that they had to be guided through how to use resources such as the

demonstration videos (Owen, 2009c).

While not an unproblematic comparison, these tendencies are interesting when seen

alongside those observed in an intervention with Vet Nursing students at Unitec NZ in

July 2008, whereby ePortfolios were introduced. The selected platform was PB Wiki

(http://pbworks.com/), and an equivalent set of activities and resource bank were


developed, including a demonstration video (http://blip.tv/file/1432737). In the initial

session, the concept of ePortfolios was introduced and students accessed and followed the

video to set up their PBwiki site, offering peer support or asking the facilitator when

required. The session appeared successful, with all students engaged and positively

motivated, and successfully setting up a wiki site. One student commented that she

expected it to be a lot more difficult, and only one respondent to the session evaluation

survey said that she neither agreed nor disagreed that she was confident about her wiki

skills, compared with other participants who were confident or very confident.

Multimedia for education can also be utilised to foster specific skill areas such as

information literacy. At Unitec NZ, a small-scale study was conducted in 2008 to help

identify and evaluate the stages of an alternative 'tradeshow' approach towards

Professional Development (PD) (Owen & Schwenger, 2009) utilised with Automotive

education practitioners. The first two-hour tradeshow 'workshop' was organised into three

main segments, the final part of which involved visiting six workstations to complete

tasks, watch short demonstrations, and ask questions. Three of the workstations

showcased multimedia: 1) using videos (with text/audio and mixed media) (see Figure 4);

2) providing ‘pop ups’ within the text (written, visual, and audio); and 3) using reusable

learning object animations

(http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/nmp/sonet/rlos/studyskills/referencing_books/index.html).

Workstations were conceptualised, dealing with authentic automotive texts, vocabulary

and resources, thereby drawing on discipline practices, expertise, and specialised


vocabulary. Staff feedback was positive, and there was a significant increase in

recognition of practical strategies and approaches that would help students acquire

literacy and numeracy necessary for vocational success.

Figure 4: Supporting acquisition of information literacy skills

(http://blip.tv/file/1415856)

Empowering learners and academic practitioners


Gross and Wolff (2001) argue that the use of ICTELT, when developed on a base of

cognitive and socio-constructivist learning psychology, can encourage learner reflection,

awareness of audience, autonomy and creativity. Such benefits can be seen when

academic faculty produce multimedia artefacts as part of their own PD, in particular

where the artefacts comprise part of a developmental (and later showcase) ePortfolio. At

Unitec NZ in 2009, for example, faculty have been encouraged to capture their teaching

practice using audio recorders, cameras, and/or camcorders (see Figure 5). The resultant

multimedia, alongside evaluations from the session, are hosted in an ePortfolio, shared

with peers (where the individual feels comfortable to do so), reflected on, and a plan for

changes or innovations made. Later in the same semester, the faculty member repeats the

process. With this artefact they may choose to include the result, along with an overview

of the 'journey' in their showcase ePortfolio. Opportunities for deep, reflective thinking,

trial and practice in a 'safe' environment are increased in a cumulative, sequential,

relevant, and accessible form.


Figure 5: Capturing teaching practice (http://blip.tv/file/2263072)

CONCLUSION

This paper has explored ways in which multimedia can create quality connections while

also opening up boundless possibilities for deep learning, creativity, and self-direction

within culturally responsive contexts that acknowledge factors such as learning styles.

Furthermore, it has discussed how multimedia for education, when embedded within a
programme, can scaffold learners while also encouraging them to work in groups, express

themselves in multiple ways, and construct knowledge.

Research in the field of multimedia, learning, and student engagement is evolving. As

discussed and illustrated with practical examples from the UAE and NZ, the use of

multimodal activities is efficacious, motivating, and assists learner volition. Furthermore,

learners studying in a language that is not their first can be scaffolded through the

combination of visuals, audio and short segments of text. Learning through process is

facilitated when learners have opportunities to practice in informal contexts with low risk

exchanges that may encourage improvements in confidence and participation (Owen,

2009c).

Caveats to bear in mind include practical factors such as relevance and contextualisation.

In addition, the design and facilitation of learning activities will have an impact on how

effective multimedia is, thereby influencing students' achievement of learning outcomes.

Activities that utilise multimedia, therefore, have to be carefully designed around clear

learning outcomes, which can be time-consuming and complex. Both the practitioner and

the learners need to have (or be willing to develop) a certain level of digital literacy.

Nevertheless, when multimedia is used as part of PD and/or within a community of

learners who are participating in collaborative activities, multimedia appears to be

invaluable.
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