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Development and

application of nickel
alloys in aerospace
engineering
R.J. Smith
G.J. Lewis and
D.H. Yates
Introduction
Since the development of the Nimonic alloys
for Sir Frank Whittle's first jet engine, Henry
Wiggin Ltd, now part of Special Metals
Corporation, has been involved with the
continuous design and improvement of nickel
alloys for aerospace engineering. Whilst much
of this work continues to be in relation to alloys
for the high strength/high temperature
applications of turbine blades, discs, seals,
rings and casings of aero engines, nickel alloys
are being utilised and further developed for
other key aerospace engineering areas such as
tooling for composite manufacture. SMC, at
its sites in Huntington (West Virginia), New
Hartford (New York), and Hereford (UK)
continues to develop alloys for the demands of
the aerospace industry.
Historical background
The ultimate success of Whittle's jet engine
was dependent on the special materials
developed to withstand the operating
conditions. The first alloy to be developed to
obtain such high temperature creep strength
was Nimonic alloy 75, consisting of the basic
80-20 Ni-Cr. Further development of
wrought alloys for blading was pioneered by
Henry Wiggin Ltd from the 1940s onwards
(Thomas, 2000), with additions of the
precipitation hardening elements aluminium
and titanium and also solid solution
strengthening elements such as molybdenum.
This led to the family of turbine blade alloys
such as Nimonic alloys 80A, 90, 101,105 and
115.
The need for such materials was very much
user driven, the aero engine manufacturer
demanding improved creep life at higher
temperatures. Such evolution of wrought
products is given in Figure 1 (Thomas, 2000).
This paper will focus on four more recent
developments in nickel alloys for aerospace
engineering, namely:
(1) disc alloys;
(2) low expansion superalloys;
(3) Inconel alloy 718SPF a nickel base
superalloy capable of being
superplastically formed; and
The authors
R.J. Smith is Industry Manager, and G.J. Lewis is
Aerospace Sales Manager, both are based at Special
Metals Wiggin Ltd, Hereford, UK.
D.H. Yates is Industry Manager at Special Metals
Corporation, Huntington, West Virginia, USA.
Keywords
Aerospace engineering, Alloys, Nickel, R&D, Components
Abstract
Since the development of the Nimonic
1
alloys for Sir
Frank Whittle's first jet engine, Henry Wiggin Ltd, now
part of Special Metals Corporation, has been involved
with the design and improvement of nickel alloys for
aerospace engineering. Whilst much of this work
continues to be in relation to alloys for the high strength/
high temperature applications of turbine blades, discs,
seals, rings and casings of aero engines, nickel alloys are
being utilised for other key aerospace engineering areas
such as tooling for composite manufacture. The focus of
this paper is on four recent developments in nickel alloys
for aerospace engineering, namely: disc alloys; low
expansion superalloys; Inconel alloy 718SPF a nickel
base superalloy capable of being superplastically formed;
Nilo (low expansion alloys) for composite tooling.
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Contributed paper
Nimonic
1
, Udimet
1
, Incoloy
1
, Inconel
1
and
Nilo
1
are trademarks of the Special Metals group
of companies.
# Special Metals Corporation
138
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology
Volume 73
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Number 2
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2001
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pp. 138146
MCB University Press
.
ISSN 0002-2667
(4) Nilo (low expansion alloys) for composite
tooling.
Nickel superalloys as aero engine disc
materials
The trend towards employment of higher
operating temperatures has witnessed engine
designers selecting superalloys of steadily
increasing alloying element content. Of recent
times this has led to the use of Waspaloy, a
nickel base alloy of the following composition:
Cr 20%, Al 1.5%, Ti 3%, Mo 4.5%,
Co 13.5%, Ni - Bal.
The high alloying content provides excellent
high temperature creep/fatigue properties, but
can present difficulties in manufacture.
Initially the alloy underwent vacuum
induction melting (VIM) followed by vacuum
arc remelting (VAR) (see Figure 2 for
schematic of various melt/remelt practices),
however, this practice gave rise to some
problems:
.
White spot, a localised formof segregation.
.
An undesirable carbide distribution, with
carbides in cluster formation, which gave
rise to reduced life of the disc material.
The aero engine design choice was therefore
made difficult unless a manufacturing
solution to the problem could be found by
alloy producers. The commissioning of a new
computer controlled electro slag remelting
(ESR) furnace at Special Metals Wiggin Ltd
(SMWL), UK (then known as Inco Alloys
Ltd) and a carefully thought out VIM/ESR
melt route offered such a solution, giving
material free from white spot, with improved
cleanliness and an improved, more dispersed
carbide distribution. Billet then underwent
forging at Special Metals' facilities in the
USA. The supply of billet to a forge house in
the USA showed the superiority of this
product. Demand for the disc alloy increased
supply from SMWL from just 25T in 1988 to
493T in 1999 (see Figure 3), with
Figure 1 Temperature capability of superalloys against year of introduction
Figure 2 Schematic diagram of VIM melting and VAR/ESR remelt process
139
Development and application of nickel alloys in aerospace engineering
R.J. Smith, G.J. Lewis and D.H. Yates
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology
Volume 73
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Number 2
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2001
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138146
employment on some of the most recently
developed European aero engines.
Future disc requirements
The design of more recent and future aero
engines has required an alloy of even higher
temperature/strength capability. Udimet
1
alloy 720 was first developed as a blade alloy
(offering improvements over Nimonic alloys
105 and 115), but initial thoughts to utilise
the alloy in large disc forgings suggested the
need for powder metallurgy techniques due to
an even higher alloying content:
Cr 16%, Al 2.5%, Ti 5%, Mo 3%, Co
14.7%, W 1.25%, Ni - Bal.
It is pleasing to note that SMC has again been
able to provide a solution to the engine
designers. Wrought billet at 250mm diameter
has now been forged and successfully validated
for use on some of the latest civil and military
aero engines. The success of this depended on
research with respect to both melt/remelt
technology and forging techniques, but has
allowed the use of conventionally melted
means, though a powder route remains an
alternative. The stringent grain size, ultra sonic
testing (UST) and mechanical property
requirements have been met.
Development of low expansion
superalloys
History (Smith and Smith, 1990)
The high expansion values of chromium-
containing superalloys (such as Inconel alloy
718) in gas turbine engines created several
problems, including tolerance controls. The
usual design approach to solving these
expansivity problems resulting from their use
was to design elaborate and expensive
``active'' mechanical cooling systems to
reduce part temperatures and to maintain
efficient clearances between rotating parts
and seals. Since this time, gas turbine
efficiency has been optimised in designs that
exploit the characteristics of low coefficient of
expansion (Low-CTE) superalloys. Such
efficiency is achieved through ``passive''
means as these alloys offer tight control of
blade tip clearances over the range of turbine
operating temperatures. Initial development
saw the use of low expansion compressor
cases and shrouds produced from Incoloy
alloy 903, which was developed specifically
for this application, the low chromium
content giving rise to good CTE
characteristics.
Further development
Incoloy alloy 907 represented an
improvement over Incoloy alloy 903 by
addition of niobium and reduction of
aluminium content. An increase in silicon
content gave rise to Incoloy alloy 909 which
had the benefits of improved rupture life and
ductility. A problem, however, remained in
that the oxidation resistance of the alloy was
poor and necessitated the use of thermal
barrier coatings. Oxidation at elevated
temperature can manifest itself both as
general oxidation, but also as a stress
accelerated grain boundary assisted
intergranular cracking phenomena, SAGBO.
Inconel alloy 783 was developed to offer
relief from this SAGBO problem (Heck et al.,
n.d). Its chemistry differs greatly from the
Incoloy alloy 907 series and was the result of
an extensive development program (see
Table I).
The alloy has a CTE that lies between that
of Inconel alloy 718 and Incoloy alloy 909 as
shown in Figure 4.
The major advantage of Inconel alloy 783
over Incoloy alloy 907 is its oxidation and
SAGBO resistance, allowing the material to
be used at temperatures up to 7008C without
Figure 3 Growth of Waspaloy business
Table I Incoloy
1
alloy series
Ni Cr Co Nb Al Ti Si
Incoloy
1
alloy 903 38.0 15 3.0 0.9 1.4
Incoloy
1
alloy 907 38.4 13 4.75 <0.1 1.5
Incoloy
1
alloy 909 38.2 13 4.7 <0.1 1.5 0.4
Inconel
1
alloy 783 28.5 3.0 34.0 3.0 5.4 0.1
140
Development and application of nickel alloys in aerospace engineering
R.J. Smith, G.J. Lewis and D.H. Yates
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology
Volume 73
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the need for a coating to be applied (Figure 5
shows a comparison of oxidation resistance).
The material's stress rupture properties at
6508C are better than those of Incology alloy
909, a controlled CTE material used in much
aero engine construction (see Figure 6).
In summary, Inconel alloy 783 represents
the conclusion to a major aerospace
development project. The high aluminium
content within its low expansion Ni-Co-Fe
matrix results in an austenitic matrix capable
of gamma prime and beta phase precipitation.
It offers a suitably low CTE, yet the alloy
content give resistance to oxidation. The alloy
is age hardenable by gamma prime
precipitation heat treatments compatible with
other superalloys, such as Inconel alloy 718.
Control of beta phase precipitation through
processing and heat treatment assists the alloy
with SAGBO resistance, a phenomenon that
has plagued low chromium, gamma prime
strengthened superalloys since their
inception.
Inconel alloy 718 SPF a nickel base
superalloy capable of being
superplastically formed
Unlike other alloy developments, which relied
upon aero engine designers to provide much
of the driving force for the required research,
Inconel alloy 718SPF represents a major alloy
development offering something new for the
design engineer to consider, but created by
the alloy manufacturer.
The SPF process itself is still not as widely
known by design engineers as perhaps it could
be (see Figure 7).
Primarily, the SPF process has allowed the
design and manufacture of complex aerospace
components in aluminium or titanium alloys.
Inconel alloy 718 SPF was developed to offer
a nickel base alloy capable of being
Figure 4 Thermal expansion behaviour of some annealed and aged
superalloys: candidate materials for gas turbine casings and rings
Figure 5 Cyclic oxidation-resistance at 1,3008F (7048C) 15 minutes
heating/ five minutes cooling
Figure 6 Stress-rupture properties at 1,2008F (6508C)
Figure 7 Schematic of superplastic forming process
141
Development and application of nickel alloys in aerospace engineering
R.J. Smith, G.J. Lewis and D.H. Yates
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology
Volume 73
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2001
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superplastically formed. As such, components
normally made from the standard Inconel
alloy 718 grade can be manufactured using
the SPF technique to achieve greater
complexity and cost savings in fabrication.
The ability to superplastically form the nickel
base alloy offers components with higher
strength/temperature capability than parts
traditionally superplastically formed from
aluminium or titanium alloys.
The alloy was designed to meet the
chemistry and mechanical property
requirements of standard grade Inconel alloy
718, AMS 5596. As such, the chemistry is as
given below:
Ni 50%, Cr 17%, Al 0.6%, Ti 1%, Mo 3%,
Nb5%, Fe - Bal.
However, the alloy has received its own AMS
specification, AMS 5950, reflective of the
differences between the standard grade and
SPF grade. Such differences include high
cleanliness of the SPF grade obtained by
thorough melting practice, and fine grain size,
typically ASTM 10-13, achieved by
optimisation of thermomechanical
processing. This latter requirement (to
achieve super plastic forming characteristics)
has had another significant benefit; namely up
to a 100-fold increase in fatigue life as can be
seen from Table II.
Forming
The alloy has been successfully formed into
complex shaped parts using a forming
temperature of 9548C with much data now
being available on the accompanying flow
stresses/SPF parameters.
The creation of a nickel base superalloy
capable of this process represents the latest in
materials technology in the SPF arena.
Nilo (low expansion) alloys for
composite tooling (Curwick et al., 1992)
The fabrication of aircraft surfaces has moved
from the use of aluminium to the use of
carbon reinforced thermoset and
thermoplastic resins. The manufacture of
these structural composites is very different
from the techniques used for conventional
metalworking. This age of composite
structure for aircraft fabrication has put ever
increasing demands on tooling materials as
the need for precise aerodynamic surfaces and
exact mating part matches requires precision
moulds and tools.
This need for a tooling material with similar
expansion characteristics (over the composite
curing temperature range) to the composite
structure being formed, leaves little choice.
Aluminium alloys and steels expand too much
(over this temperature range) to yield
components of close tolerance. Use of
composite moulds for composite manufacture
is possible, however, sometimes the reduced
mould life makes volume production costs
prohibitive. Nilo alloys make use of the ``Invar
effect'' (discovered in 1896), or very low
expansion for particular nickel contents. This
effect is shown in Figure 8.
Table II Axial fatigue results for Inconel alloy 718 SPF (ASTM grain size 13) vs conventional alloy 718 (ASTM grain
size 4.5) 70m
Alloy Heat treatment Test temp. C Max/Min stress MPa Cycles
Inconel alloy 718 B + C 316 655/131 395, 898 FG
B + C 316 689/138 242, 598 FG
B + C 316 758/152 129, 464 FG
Inconel alloy 718 SPF A + C 316 758/152 10,033, 154 RO
A + C 316 965/193 >2,625,914 TAB
A + C 316 1,241/248 21,600 FG
Inconel alloy 718 B + C 538 621/124 >862, 762 PH
B + C 538 655/131 >273, 663 PH
B + C 538 689/138 >151, 516 FG
Inconel alloy 718 SPF A + C 538 689/138 11,128,768 RO
A + C 538 827/165 13,999,099 RO
Notes
A = 954 C/2h/muffle cool in air; B = 1066 C/30 min/muffle cool in air; C = 718 C/8h/FC at 56 C/h to 620 C /8h/AC;
FG = Failed in gauge section; RO = Runout; PH = Pin hole failure; TAB = Failed outside gauge area
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Development and application of nickel alloys in aerospace engineering
R.J. Smith, G.J. Lewis and D.H. Yates
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology
Volume 73
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Development
Nilo alloys, particularly Nilo alloy 36, have
been used for composite tooling to great effect
since 1985. At the time, Special Metals
Corporation had been producing numerous
Ni-Fe alloys (e.g. Nilo alloys 36 and 42 with
36 per cent and 42 per cent Nickel content
respectively), but not in the product form
required for large composite tools. A
development program for the production of
wide plate, extruded section and rectangular
bars was quickly completed. The CTE benefit
of using Nilo alloys for composite tooling is
shown in Figure 9, giving a comparison of the
total thermal expansion for a variety of tooling
materials that occurs in a 4.9m long tool
heated to 1778C.
Nilo alloy 36 is most often used for thermoset
epoxy systems. At temperatures above 2008C,
the CTEof Nilo alloy 36 begins to rise sharply,
so for this reason Nilo alloy 42 is the preferred
tooling material for thermoplastic composites
that are cured at higher temperatures.
Fabrication
Nilo alloys are relatively easy to fabricate into
the sometimes complex shapes required for
composite tools. At 276 MPa yield strength,
138 GPa tensile elastic modulus, and 50 per
cent elongation, combined with low work
hardening/low elastic spring back, Nilo alloy
36 can be readily hot- and cold-formed.
Design
Most large aircraft component tools are
designed using ``eggcrate'' construction. An
illustration of a typical tool is shown in
Figure 10 (Meredith, 1992). Faceplates are
typically formed from 16mm or thicker plate.
Support headers (eggcrate) are usually made
from 6mm thick sheet or plate. Support
headers are oriented at 458 angles to the tool
periphery to increase the racking or torsional
stiffness of the tool. Support header spacing is
typically 380mm. In order to reduce the total
tool weight and improve airflow in the
autoclave, support headers usually have holes
cutout that leave 76mm of material between
Figure 9 Total thermal expansion for a variety of tooling materials in a
(4.9m) tool, heated to 1778C
Figure 10 Typical ``eggcrate'' support headers for 36% Ni-Fe composite
tool
Figure 8 The ``Invar'' effect
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Development and application of nickel alloys in aerospace engineering
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Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology
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the cutout and adjacent headers, facesheet or
the base plate. Cutouts typically have a 76mm
radius on the corners but can be as small
as 38mm. Support headers are scalloped onthe
contoured edges to help reduce weld stresses
between the substructure and facesheet.
Although facesheet plates can be obtained in
dimensions up to 2,438mm 7,620mm, in
most instances, particularly where the design
involves compound contours, the facesheets
are cut and formed in separate smaller pieces.
Thicker plates are easily plasma cut. Eggcrate
support pieces are often cut with water jet
equipment.
Welding development of suitable
consumables
The use of nickel-iron alloys for composite
tooling was limited in the early development
days by the lack of welding consumables that
would produce sound welds with matching
CTE. Matched composition weld metals were
prone to severe cracking in multipass welds.
Manganese titaniumfiller metals, often used to
weld nickel iron alloys, are also crack sensitive
and have a CTE about three times that of base
metal. Concurrent with the development
program to establish manufacturing
procedures for the large product forms
necessary to fabricate composite tools, Special
Metals undertook a welding research project to
develop filler wires with expansion rates similar
to those of the base metals. These niobium-
carbon modified compositions, CF36 and
CF42, produce high-quality crack-free,
vacuumtight welds by the submerged-arc, gas-
metal-arc, and gas-tungsten-arc processes.
The resulting weld deposits have expansion
rates similar to the base metals. Compositions
of the filler metals are shown in Table III.
Specific welding parameters are defined in
product literature (Special Metals
Corporation, 1998).
Annealing
Ni-Fe alloy tools should be annealed
following final forming and welding
operations. Annealing at 7608C for two hours
followed by oven or air cooling stress relieves
the assembly and stabilizes it for finish
machining.
Economics
The experienced tool designer or tool maker
knows that durability is just one of a number
of factors that need to be considered before
selecting the most appropriate tooling
material for a given application. Why is
durability of prime consideration in aircraft
composite tools? Assembly schedules demand
that quality parts be delivered on time.
Excessive tool repair time or the untimely
demise of a critical production tool can
cause line shortages and impact on
production schedules. The ``cost of
ownership'' of composite tools can be
much greater than that of a more durable
metallic tool. Many cost analyses used to
select a tooling approach only consider initial
tooling costs or the cost of building a tool.
From this limited analysis, composite tooling
may appear more cost effective in comparison
to metal tools, particularly if the cost of the
model required for the composite tools can
be amortized over multiple tooling units.
However, initial tooling costs are only a
portion of the overall cost of ``owning'' a
production tool. For composite tools,
which are susceptible to damage and wear,
there are hidden costs that should be included
in the overall analysis. These other costs
include: periodic tool repair, total tool
replacement based on a limited service life,
associated composite part rework and scrap
caused by marginally acceptable tool surfaces,
and poor vacuum integrity common to worn
composite tools.
Alloy development
Again aerospace engineering has called
upon the alloy producer for a product
improvement. Despite the worldwide success
of Nilo alloy 36 as a tooling alloy, certain
applications would benefit from a tooling
material (still of matched CTE) having higher
Table III Nominal compositions (%) of Nilo filler metals
CF36 and CF42
CF36 CF42
C 0.2 0.2
Mn 0.4 0.4
Fe Bal Bal
Ni 36.0 41.5
Nb 1.5 1.5
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Development and application of nickel alloys in aerospace engineering
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strength to offer greater rigidity, increased
hardness for better durability, whilst
maintaining similar weldability and
fabricability.
The response from Special Metals R&D
Dept at Huntington, West Virginia, USA,
was Nilo alloy 365, an alloy of similar
composition to the successful Nilo alloy
36, but with additions of niobium and
titanium:
Ni 43.5%, Fe Bal, Nb 3.3%, Ti 1.4%,
Co 0.2%
These additions provide an age hardening
mechanism, giving increased hardness and
strength after the age hardening treatment.
Additional tooling benefits include tooling
engineers being able to make tooling light
in weight (for the same strength and rigidity),
giving shorter cycle time in autoclaves
and associated cost savings. Tool wear
attributed to use of knives for composite
trimming whilst in the mould for composite
removal can be significantly reduced or
eliminated. The higher hardness further
improves machinability. The property
benefits of this alloy compared to Nilo alloy
36 are given in Figures 11, 12 and 13.
Examples of some of the use of Nilo alloy
tooling are given in Plates 1-4.
Figure 11 Property comparison NILO alloys 36 and 365
Figure 12 Property comparison NILO alloys 36 and 365
Figure 13 Property comparison NILO alloys 36 and 365 hardness
Plate 1 Sikorsky Camanche helicopter, an example of the use of
composite structures in modern aircraft
Plate 2 A NILO alloy 36 tool for the upper skin of the Sikorsky
Comanche helicopter. The intricate mould shows removal inserts allowing
undercut contours without creating lock-on conditions (STADCO, Los
Angeles, USA)
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Development and application of nickel alloys in aerospace engineering
R.J. Smith, G.J. Lewis and D.H. Yates
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology
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Overall conclusions
In the areas of engine disc materials, low
expansion alloys for aero engine casings etc.
SMC continues to input to aerospace
engineering development as requested by the
demands of the engine manufacturers.
Further to this it has contributed to offer
aerospace designers alloys capable of more
novel fabrication processes, such as super
plastic forming. Similarly, in the field of
composite manufacturing, SMC's
contribution to tooling alloy supply and
development has been considerable with
some tooling having passed the 1,000-part
production threshold. From the aero engines
of the 1940s to today's composite aircraft
structures, nickel alloys and their continued
development play a vital part in aerospace
engineering.
References
Curwick, L.R., Bowler, M. and Herrman, K.H. (1992),
``Technical/economic merits of fabricated
wrought invar tooling for composites'',
presented at ``Tooling for Composites '92'',
Anaheim, CA.
Heck, K.A., Smith, J.S. and Smith, R. (n.d.),
``Inconel
1
alloy 783: an oxidation-resistant,
low expansion superalloy for gas turbine
applications''.
Meredith, B.R. (1992), ``Development of INVAR
1
tooling for use on the B2 program'',
presented at ``Tooling for Composites '92'',
Anaheim, CA.
Smith, D.F. and Smith, J.S. (1990), ``A history of
controlled, low thermal expansion
superalloys'', in Russell, K.C. and
Smith, D.F. (Eds), Physical Metallurgy of
Controlled Expansion Invar-type Alloys, The
Minerals, Metals and Materials
Society, Warrendale, PA.
Special Metals Corporation (1998), The Nilo
1
Nickel-Iron
Alloys for Composite Tooling, Special Metals
Corporation, Huntington, WV.
Thomas, M. (2000), ``Materials development in
aero gas turbines'', Proceedings of the
5th International Charles Parsons Turbine
Conference.
Plate 4 Mid-engine cowl bond jig tool of NILO alloy 42
for P&W engine on Airbus A340
Plate 3 Comanche RAH-66 helicopter tools
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Development and application of nickel alloys in aerospace engineering
R.J. Smith, G.J. Lewis and D.H. Yates
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology
Volume 73
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Number 2
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2001
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