Spike Energy Diagnostics

(and Similar Techniques)

History, Usefulness & Future Outlook


by

Franois (Frank) Gagnon


2006 by Frank Gagnon









The use of the CMVA logo does not indicate any endorsement by that organization.
This paper or its original version was presented at a CMVA event.




October 2006 / Frank Gagnon
- 492 -
Spike Energy Diagnostics
(and Similar Techniques)

History, Usefulness & Future Outlook
by
Frank Gagnon, Vibra-K Consultants Ltd.

ABSTRACT
Analysts may already make good use of available HF / ultrasonic functions but at times forget the
origin, specifics and significance of these peculiar approaches, as well as potential pitfalls leading
to improper diagnostics. This justifies the choice of including a number of trademarked functions
in the same paper. They are ALL, in fact, germane to one central concern: high-frequency, stress-
wave and acoustic-emission (AE) based diagnostics. Furthermore, they all detect or corroborate
the same aspect of our work. History went: NDT Acoustic Emissions technique led to the Shock
Pulse Method (SPM). Followed Spike Energy, HFD, Acceleration Enveloping, SEE and PeakVue
while in parallel, appeared the Kurtosis Meter and the simple Crest Factor.


1) The Bearing Life Context
Once a millwright handles and mounts a
rolling-element bearing properly while
availability of adequate and clean lubrication
is maintained, the probable causes of failure
largely disappear, with the notable exception
of material fatigue. And even the life-
threatening effect of that particular
mechanism has been beaten back
considerably, as we will see.

The bearings life depends on proper design
and manufacturing practices, and once
installed, also must rely on the amicable
restraint of the working environment:
cleanliness should remain constant, and
potential chemical or other types of attacks
should be eliminated. From that point
forward, life depends on the ability of the
elastohydrodynamic (EHD) lubricant film to
maintain rolling-elements and races apart,
as well as providing some cushioning for
cage web, alveoli walls and element
Hertzian modulation events.

Whether created from oil or grease, the
thickness of the film shield barely manages
to maintain a sufficient separation of the
combined height of surface imperfections
from facing components (such as roller and
race). In other words, asperities (surface
roughness) can pierce the film thickness.

Hydrodynamic Film & Pitting
When the one of the spurs pierces through
the film, it leaves either indentation or salient
point on the opposite surface. Steel will
behave like modeling clay: if two pieces are
pressed together, the resulting surfaces can
be altered by receiving / losing material to
the other piece, although in the case of
steel, it will not be through adherence unless
the load is immense, but rather through
embedding (of one sides spurs or salient
projections into its neighbors surface).

Race surface pitting or miniature craters
arise from the previous mechanism.

Bearing Life & Fatigue Damage
Bearing life is calculated in function of the
environment, taking potential contamination
hazards into account, and in virtue of the
expected number of cycles of rotation
confronted with a combination of radial and
axial loads, both static and dynamic.

The industrial standard remained B10 or
then L10 for decades, and while machinery
design engineers remain aware of the two
usual targets, most people involved in
condition monitoring and reliability lack
exposure to the two key numbers: 50,000 or
100,000 hours. Translated back into
mundane expected life, thats respectively 6
or 12 years.

Steel shows an inordinate capacity: unlike
(most) other materials, if the load-supporting
component is made large enough relative to
the combined loads it supports, the cyclic
loading will not reach failure, in spite of
continued in-service exposure. This meant a
potential for a permanent bearing, but
permanent only applies to fatigue. So in
spite of increased cost (larger components),
they STILL might fail due to contaminant
exposure, lubrication problems, etc.

Further research into failure mechanisms
improved our comprehension: we now grasp
that fatigue occurs where dislocations join
up. Inclusions (contaminants within the
bearings steel) create material
imperfections or voids. Rolling (from the
load) favors crack propagation from one
such void to the next. Successive cycles of
passing rolling-elements then favor spalling
(dislocation of a metal scale).

The conjoining of dissimilar crystalline
structures at an interface located within the
steel also likely favors void creation. The
difference in structure appears due to steel
hardening (done through a heat treatment
such as quenching; in the case of bearing
components, manufacturers typically limit
such quenching to surface or case
hardening). A very hard steel offers a better
resistance to deterioration over time, so a
hardened skin or strata (bainite to perlite)
reaches down until the steel crystalline
(phase) composition changes to a different
composition, still tough, but somewhat more
flexible, somewhere below the surface.

Such choices largely depend on the end
application for the bearing. A straight
through hardening method leaving the
entirety of rings and rolling elements into
martensite (another crystalline structure of
steel) can also be used. Obviously, a
through treatment eliminates the potentially
troublesome interface area.

If the steel contains fewer and smaller
contaminant inclusions, and was cast with a
care to lower oxygen
1
contamination, the
end product proves considerably better at
enduring without traces of fatigue into a
long, productive life: a threefold increase (or
sometimes even more) of fatigue life is thus
easily reached.
Such understanding of bearing failures
occurred through experience when
analyzing bearings removed under
recommendation from the condition
monitoring departments of many a plant.


1
Low oxygen levels during smelting also proved
a factor in favoring longer bearing service life
since this limits the oxidization facilitated by high
temperatures. We can equate this to elimination
or reduction of rust particle inclusions.
Extensive work is needed to reveal these
faults: NDT, cutting, electron microscope
inspections of the slices, acid etching of
surfaces, all told, the type of work performed
by a well-equipped materials sciences
laboratory. For most plants, this approach
can only be obtained when sending the
removed bearing to its manufacturer, paying
to have the bearing thoroughly examined.
This was much more often required before
the causes of invisible damage were known.


Figure 1 / Cavities in bearing steel from
contaminant inclusion, from Ref (9)

Current plant maintenance approaches differ
greatly from those of the past: properly
interpreted and presented data does support
a damaged bearing conclusion. Yet, still
seen in some places, often from a
transmission of bad habits, the old way
sometimes persists: a failing bearing is
mistakenly understood as one that has failed
and finds itself as debris.

Considerable progress has been made. All
the training sold over the past 20 years must
bear fruit: while we do want to extract as
much life from the bearing as possible,
proper asset exploitation should not tempt
fate through protracted service once
damage becomes evident. Operation
prolonged well into the danger zone where
imminent catastrophic-failure increases in
probability makes the risk untenable.

Once we identify the principal mechanism
causing a bearings fatigue spalling, our
mental image of incipient defects becomes
clear: micro or even nanovoids from
contaminants form dislocations or
separations located below the materials
surface. These patches of unglued
493
material grow in size, but should the bearing
be removed, still remain hidden from view.

Defect size growth implies the spreading of
a fracture from one void to another. Voids
under load (a passing rolling-element) would
tend to compress, causing a (very) minor
impact. As voids grow, these impacts or
shocks grow in magnitude.

There are significant challenges to reliable
detection of bearing damage: a bearing sits
in some type of housing (pillow block,
lodging or other), access to the bearings
skin (outer ring surface) remains scarce
(although it has been attempted
2
), and such
can even be qualified as undesirable due to
contamination concerns. There can be ever
so slight relative movements between the
bearing and its seating or surrounding walls.
The bearing also transmits dynamic loads
through a fluid-barrier. And some bearing
components float: the criticality of any
cage-related vibration is well known, a
consequence of its well isolated position
from any real transmission path since the
cage only touches (we also expect to find
lubricant here) the elements which in turn
meekly transmit any cage message to the
raceways (through yet another film of
lubricant) and then through the bearings
support to the outside world.

2) NDT Acoustic Emission
The late 60s brought research into sciences
enabling to find the presence of damage in
mechanical components. Acoustic Emission
(=AE) got its first working committee in
1967. The technique uses a microphone to
listen for faint noises arising from material
giving a little under strain. Example: a
storage tank may be sealed hermetically
and pressurized while recordings are made
to listen in to AE: creaking, pings, pops and
other abnormal noises would be indicative of
damage. As research moved forth, what
tools were available were applied to any


2
Bently Nevadas REBAM system targets the
outer ring of a bearing with a displacement
proximity probe. Unfortunately, vibration
generated by incipient deterioration can still at
times go unseen in this fashion. Installing such a
system can be expensive given the prox probe
lodging requirement: the pillow block must be
drilled and tapped.
number of items. Rolling-element bearings
were one of those!

Figure 2 / AE Event, Ref (4)

The AE sensor usually covers a target
frequency range of 100 kHz to 1MHz. This
means capturing events with periods falling
in a 1 to 10 sec range. Shorter period
events cycling for an equivalent or longer
time would also get measured.

AE-based methods have been
demonstrated to detect damage as small as
0.25 microns (1/100
th
of a thousandth of an
inch; 0.001 =25 meters). This could
otherwise be described as extremely light
pitting. By the same token, depending on
what we seek to isolate from the signal, too
much precision can be undesirable for our
ends. For example, in an AE context, as far
back as 1984, the... response of the AE
sensor was puzzling since the transducer
was responding to once-per-ball distorting in
the casing at frequencies as low as 1Hz
3

Obviously too much of a good thing! Since
micro-modulations are inherent to bearing
operation, and considering how much we
seek to know, we must still avoid triggering
any over-reaction or false alarms.

It is largely misunderstood or misstated in
literature, perhaps at times in slightly
disingenuous fashion, that AE
measurements only perceive stress waves.
Acoustic emission measurements do
perceive strain-linked activity (such as
listening in on a tank while it is subjected to
internal pressurization), but performing AE
measurements on rotating machinery will

3
McFadden, P.D., Smith, J.D., Acoustic
Emission Transducers for the Vibration
Monitoring of Bearings at Low Speeds, 1984
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, UK
494
read / perceive / measure ALL activity falling
within its measurement bandwidth. On a
running machine, relative to design specifics
of course, there are quite a few potential
sources of, for example, Fn excitation.

Putting it in extremely blunt terms, high-
frequency / ultrasonic functions are
variations on a theme, but nobody really
likes us to put in those terms.

3) The HF / Ultrasonic Functions

Shock Pulse Method
The wild 70s gave rise, amongst other
things, to the advent of a Shock Pulse
Method technology. Its precise bandwidth
focus seemed largely empirical
4
, based on
research work likely steeped in Acoustic
Emissions
5
.

SKF distributed this technology under the
guise of the SPM meter. It was the only
condition-monitoring item in the SKF catalog
of those days, making exception of such
classics as the stethoscope and its faithful
companion, the thermometer.

In some ways, the SPM item felt and looked
right to the millwright of that period: akin to
a more accurate, instrumented version of
the stethoscope (or screwdriver for some), it
appeared to perform as a listening device,
but reality attained a far greater complexity
than what was intuitively imagined by its
users. It had borrowed from Acoustic
Emissions, and was listening in on stress
waves, although the expression might not
yet have been coined at that point in time.
6


4
Arising from experimentation.
5
The timeframe fits, with American AE NDT
committees forming in 67, Shock Pulse getting
filed in 68, patented in 71 and SPM being born
as a corporation in 1970.
6
While we could assume stress waves, it would
require considerable advances for
instrumentation to adequately model their
propagation. As an approximate timeline, late
70s and the 80s allow stress wave hard
science to evolve until dedicated sensors appear
in the 90s. Stress wave velocity CAN be
measured, and it has its own NDT approach,
involving the use of an impact hammer, and the
measure of the frequency or frequencies
produced by the impact. Wave propagation will
be ALTERED by the presence of a discontinuity
or a variation in material density. Most will
The SPM approach measures the
mechanical shock speed, measuring the
compression wave produced when rolling-
element and race interact and with damage
or failing lubrication, eventually, collide.
When contact occurs, a surface reaction
manifests as a compression wave and
travels at the indicated speed of sound
within the given material.

In practice, field evaluation of the signal
required a certain degree of sophistication
and some manipulation on the users part:
while a rotating wheel allowed to make
sensitivity adjustments in virtue of shaft
diameter and RPM (this adjustment likely
defines the time unit for SPMs listening over
one a period of a single shaft revolution).

Early models also required the operator to
listen in and set the threshold above which
the noise pops from bearing shocks and
fatigue cracking were no longer heard. This
meant a certain amount of subjectivity. With
headphones to be worn and values to jot
down manually, the contraption was
unwieldy and often unpopular. At that time,
negativism concentrated on those issues,
but the degree of variance introduced by the
listener rarely influenced measured levels
to the point of either exaggerating or
obliterating an alarm.

The original SPM required RPM and also
bearing bore (presumably to fix the proximity
of bearing component natural frequencies to
the listening frequency range and probably
correct accordingly: for a given bore,
component size can be estimated fairly
accurately). Nowadays, the new SPM also
uses the bearings ISO number.

recognize this method as a close relative of FRF
(Frequency Response Function) analysis. It is
used on museum wood pieces, steel plates, etc.
495
The SPM accelerometers 32 KHz
7
natural
frequency would capture what we now call a
stress waves shock front. Given SPMs
first to market status and its aggressive
market-resurgence, understanding their
approach may prove beneficial for all.

A fault-free working bearing (properly
designed and selected for its application,
under normal loads, adequately lubricated
and operating uncontaminated within a
reasonably survivable environment)
generates friction AE activity (acoustic
emission) to the tune of a carpet value
relative to RPM and shaft size (bearing
bore). Empiric testing established a table of
such normal noise level expectations, or a
quantifiable Carpet value measured in
dBs (the decibel logarithmic scale here
refers to the transducers voltage where the
reference is 100 volt). A brand new bearing
entering service already has an expected
Shock Pulse value measurable in dB. In the
same way as it would to our ear generate a
regular, unvarying noise
8
.
Figure 3 / dB level Progression, Ref (3)

7
One source reports the current design as 36
kHz instead, but this remains unconfirmed.
8
Presumably, the presence of rollers versus balls
or double row versus single row would also have
an influence. In the case of Spike Energy, we will
mention what allowances were made in severity
considerations for such variants in configuration.

This baseline / carpet value holds friction
noise, but also the modulation noises from
elements entering and leaving the load
zone, the contacts of elements and cage,
the rolling noise of the elements themselves,
the occurrence of sliding, normal or not, etc.

Even at that point in time, minor noises from
impulses will rise above the average carpet
noise. The maximum observed excursion
reflects the number of shocks from all
sources. A phenomenon such as the slight
catching of an out-of-round imperfection
would be much more pronounced and would
generate a rise of the maximum rather than
in the overall noise. Clashing surface finish
protrusions also contribute to the maximum.

While some reference sources equate a) the
Carpet value to the state of the lubricant and
the film it forms while also stating b) the
maximum value reflects the actual state-of-
health of the bearing, BOTH values evolve
over time. This yields not two, but rather,
three values: the carpet, the maximum, and
the difference between them.

Assigning carpet =lube and max =bearing
condition can be called a reduction or
oversimplification, but it does approach a fair
description of reality. It further meshes with
Reference (10)s From the comparisons of
the energy distribution versus frequency
within stress wave generating events, it is
concluded they are similar with the
exception that the equivalent contact time
for friction is less than that caused by
impacting by a factor of 2-4 times that
from impacting. This translates to the
frequency band where the dominant
energies resides will be higher (factor of 2
4) for friction generated events than those
from impacting events. Emphasis (bold)
was added by this writer.

Why should the lubrication-linked factor
grow in amplitude or rise as the maximum
does? After all, some bearings are system-
fed with circulating oil and do have filtration
to remove impurities, contaminants and
debris. Obviously, the carpet-noise is not
just lubrication related, but close enough.
Carpet noise will rise as the population of
small deformations or shape alterations
rub or contact neighboring surfaces.
496
The carpet versus maximum approach
finds a parallel in classic vibration
parameters whereas a bearing deterioration
progressing from an incipient fault to a
serious one will often see:
- relatively stable RMS amplitudes,
eventually followed by a rise
- a contrasting sharp rise of peak
amplitudes, followed by a decline
- a quick rise and then a fall of the Crest
Factor (qv), meaning of the relative values
between Pk and RMS.

Take note that the original SPM only
devolved overall values, but recent versions
also offer shock pulse based spectra, not as
a diagnostic tool but rather as a bearing-
defect frequency confirmation item.

The SPM invention was clearly the very first
to monitor bearings based on an
accelerometers signal within a resonant
high frequency / ultrasonic band.

SPM quantifies the efficiency of lubrication,
whereas most other approaches detect
failing lubrication, but do so without any
great detail. That is a significant nuance.
SKFs SEE (apparently abandoned / no
longer supported: option not offered in
current products) did yield a lubrication
quality value. The ultrasonic detection
grease guns that first appeared some 10
years ago fulfill a similar role.

Shock Pulse first introduced the simplifying
approach of green-yellow-red alarm code
later recuperated by numerous vendors.

Repetitiveness of the measurement location
and possible angularity effects of the hand-
held probe already were and might still be
issues: such problems have plagued data
collection for some time and have, by and
large, finally been eliminated through the
favored use of sensor magnetic mounting.

Analysts immediately recognized, though
not always fully embraced, that the SPM
meter did something more for them than the
mere collection of classic vibration
parameters. The concern in the field then
became one of having to measure the
compulsory and much needed vibration
(velocity, acceleration or otherwise) with one
instrument while alternating with the SPM
unit, or running two different routes on the
same race track. Considering the usual
anxiety of any purchasing department to
spend money, particularly on something that
would be used for maintenance, combined
with the enthusiasm of doubling ones data
collection workload, the concept was found
unsavory. In todays context where
companies wish (as in wishful thinking)
predictive maintenance personnel to monitor
hundreds of machines with vibration while
simultaneously applying other techniques,
complaints would surely arise...

As a note, many companies merely ran SPM
tests and managed quite a few saves
leading to an excellent ROI (return on
investment), but that doesnt mean that
desired reliability targets sustainability could
be achieved in this fashion alone.

SPMs main advantage, 30 years after its
birth, is that its parent company has stuck
with it, creating a huge database and
refining the process along the way. Former
limitations, the absence of the other
vibration parameters, have been resolved by
offering instrument models that cover the
gamut of diagnostic functionality, offering
collection of the remainder of normal
parameters as well as spectral information.

Since SPM confines itself to a very specific
frequency area, screw, lobe and other
compressor-type OEMs often recommend it
as a tool of choice for monitoring their
machines. The reason for this preference is
simple: normal parameter spectral data
(such as velocity and acceleration) tend to
be highly saturated (contents shows high
amplitudes and a dense peak population),
making analysis feasible but complex, and
thus requiring considerable proficiency,
whereas the lubrication analysis and simpler
bearing report of the SPM seems to
provide a more readily usable picture.

Prftechnik currently (or until recently)
includes a version of shock pulse
measurements in some of its instruments.
Since no SPM licensing seems implied or
mentioned in available literature, it is likely
based on a reworked or recycled shock
pulse approach based on the by now
expired original patent.
497
Stress Waves
example, while an accelerometer seeking
stress waves should have its primary
resonant frequency between 30 KHz and 40
KHz. Several problems may arise should
sensor design fail to completely eliminate
the occurrence of any secondary
resonances from the high-frequency zone of
interest since noise contamination from
other sources will then 1) affect, and 2) be
counted within the stress waves amplitude
level. This affects measurement accuracy
and therefore, undermines repeatability.
Surface disturbance propagation or stress
waves remained little known in the late 60s
and early 70s. Their inclusion out of
historical sequence has a lot to do with their
capture by the SPM instrument.

By definition, a stress wave is an extremely
short TRANSIENT phenomenon: an
impulse-born wavefront hitting the
transducer, whether shock pulse model or
otherwise, causing an oscillation of the
sensor's mass-piezo internal assembly. The
oscillation dampens out quickly. The exact
mechanics depend entirely on component
design and assembly. Stiffness, mass (and
thus, the resulting natural frequency of the
assembly) and damping, all may affect
response. Peak amplitude will be a function
of impact velocity and depending on the
exact measurement type, of the material
through which the wavefront must travel. As
such, they are best described as high-
frequency structure borne (ultra)sounds.

How is SWAN technology different from
Shock Pulse Method (SPM) and other
high-frequency schemes? Relative to
SWAN, Shock Pulse Method (SPM) has
low diagnostic accuracy, reliability, and
not realistic ability for projection of
remaining useful life. Shock Pulse
Method and demodulation are older,
traditional methods of condition
monitoring that also base their findings
on high-frequency sound to measure
energy just as SWAN technology does.
However, SWAN technology has
distinctive and proven advantages over
these technologies and differs in the
frequency range used, sensor design,
and in signal conditioning. - Swantech
website

Any time stress waves are considered, the
running parameters (RPM, size, and
additionally, lube type
9
and even bearing
design versus load, although this last one is
disputed by some) play a significant role and
must be best be documented as well as
occasionally compensated in the
interpretation bias of data.

The previous statement may be somewhat
gratuitous, considering that SPM inventor
Shoels patent filing specifically stated a 30
40 kHz band, while one of Swantechs
patents (US Pat #6,679,119) states ...it is
preferred to detect stress waves in a narrow
frequency range such as, but not limited to,
35 kHz to 40 kHz.

A narrowed frequency range of 35-40 KHz
allows us to perceive stress waves from
friction and impact sources propagating
through machine structures at detectable
amplitudes. By the same token, it may be
wishful thinking to believe that a mere
bandpass filter would suffice in isolating
stress wave measurements from the
perception, capture or inclusion of other
phenomena entering that same frequency
zone.

The bandpass filter slope would need to be
draconian to make a considerable difference
(a 5 kHz difference around a 35 kHz center
hardly constitutes an octave or a decade),
although the apparent use of the sensors
Fn amplification range already contributes in
limiting its own perception to a narrow sliver
of the frequency scale.

Early attempts at detecting / measuring /
analyzing stress waves have relied on
specially designed and processed
accelerometers doubling as stress wave
sensors, but shortcomings of both Analog
Signal Conditioning (ASC) and Digital Signal
Processing (DSP) would obviously favor
later dedicated or specialized sensors. For

9
Grease can also play tricks due to its
solid-fluid nature.
498
Crest Factor Simultaneous
Development
The Crest Factor, highly popular in Europe
and currently shown as a sidebar to CSIs,
IMS and other vendors Time Waveform
graphic representations, represents a very
basic calculation of peak / RPM amplitudes
(whole band). It is preferably calculated on
the waveform using the absolute value of
peak amplitude (maximum excursion,
whether positive or negative). This equals
the amplitude maximum if the waveform
were rectified.

The Crest Factor value, ranging from 1.0 for
a square wave, to a more normal 1.41 in the
case of a sine wave and higher values as
peak activity reaches higher amplitudes over
a narrower time period, yields an
instantaneous contents assessment for the
analyst. A tall, narrow peak in a waveform
means high amplitude, extremely short
duration. This also translates into a
negligible RMS value.
Figure 4 / Crest Factor Values Vs
Waveform

Trending this value for a typical bearing fault
scenario would normally show a rise in the
Crest Factor value (peak amplitude values
increasing while RMS fails to immediately
follow suit), and an eventual drop of same.

While the parameter can be present in
analytical form, no trending of CF can be
found on any (current) condition monitoring
software package. A logarithmic scale has
sometimes been used to this effect in the
past, although it is a bit nonsensical to trend
CF in such a fashion.

Kurtosis, Five Bands, Six Values
As a function, the Kurtosis or 4
th
statistical
moment largely concerns itself with the
distribution of contents (samples, or peaks)
within the span (graph, or frequency
spectrum). This can be applied to IQ as
much as to vibration or political surveys. Key
concept: the Kurtosis seeks to describe
whether peak or energy contents is evenly,
smoothly distributed, or whether it is highly
concentrated, with one (or several) spike(s) /
dominant peak(s). For vibration, it then
becomes Are there small peaks buttered
throughout the entire spectrum, or are there
dominant peaks sticking out at specific
positions? Where are they relative to the
frequency span?

The actual value will also vary according to
location of energy concentrations: at the
center, upper and lower tails (ends), and the
shoulders (between the center and tails).
The descriptors are platykurtic or leptokurtic,
where this last qualifies a Kurtosis >3,
meaning in our context peaks sticking out of
a normal configuration.

The Kurtosis method, developed by British
Steel and the University of Southampton in
the late 70's, calculates the Kurtosis to
assess peak distribution within each one of
five distinct filtered (bandpassed) frequency
bands or spectral slices. Some of these
bands were wide enough to qualify as
regions. The Kurtosis was thus calculated
for the following spans: 2.5-5 kHz, 5-10 kHz,
10-20 kHz, 20-40 kHz and 40-80 kHz. The
Kurtosis values were displayed and stored
individually (under b1, b2 for band 1, band 2,
etc) as well as summed up in an aggregate
figure of merit value, reflecting the
spreading presence of peaks within spectral
higher frequency contents.

There were no special provisions to ensure
reasonable high-frequency measurement
accuracy. The 3
rd
band, covering 10-20 kHz,
would already be in trouble if accurate
measurement were the objective. The next
two bands, 20-40 kHz and 40-80 kHz, are
499
clearly reaching but they have been
confirmed time and again as regions of key
interest.

With respect to that last band, and while the
attempted measurement was surely
deficient to some degree (the accelerometer
of that time was incapable of reaching that
range linearly), it is nonetheless fascinating
to compare the science to the Reference 10
statement to the effect that for stress wave
consideration of fatigue cracking, No
specific data is readily available to quantify
the equivalent contact time at this time;
however, past experiences have suggested
the duration (and hence, contact time) of
these events is less than that from friction-
generated events. They would likely still be
in the few sec range (not the nanosecond
range), hence the dominant energy would
be in the few kHz range (4080 kHz range).
Within that context, we presumably count
the event duration and ensuing dampening
cyclic activity.

Did this system function properly? British
Steel thought so and used it as the heart of
its machinery monitoring efforts for some
time. While the science may at first seem
slightly complex, little or no interpretation is
required, meaning no training on the part of
end-users. Why then did it not grab a larger
market share? From memory, the meter
offered a route system with the velocity or
acceleration overalls as well as the Kurtosis.
For 1985-1986, it delivered decent value in
the $5-10K price range, but was hobbled by
lack of spectral measurements (needed for
better diagnostics), limited distribution and a
rabidly (pun intended) evolving market: the
newfangled thing was that our instruments
were to keep pace with computer
developments (at a bit of a distance, but
still). As is often the case for lower sales
volume products, too slow a payback likely
spelled a limited capacity to redevelop the
next generation.

Spike Energy Measurement
Technique
Other companies caught on, and IRD
Mechanalysis (eventually Entek IRD, and
now RA Entek) sought to emulate the SPM
approach. There was a market for this sort
of thing, and the field-proven approach
sometimes left classic parameters in a lurch.
Completing the measurement capacity of
IRD vibration instruments while avoiding the
original SPMs perceived pitfall, which called
for a cumbersome switchover from one
analyzer to another to complete the full
machine behavior picture, IRD prevented
the duplication of certain field tasks and
Spike Energy completed standard
parameters (displ, vel, accel) into a first
instance of the one system does it all
approach.

This was of some importance since ISO
2372 vibration standard had unwittingly
prejudiced the perception capacity of peak
activity by requiring RMS to be the favored
overall. Adoption of a peak-peak detector
did a lot to compensate for this state of
affairs, if and when the function was
collected and used judiciously. In Europe,
the Crest Factor served this purpose.

The new arrival only provided an overall
value, based on a high-frequency zone,
partly sonic and partly ultrasonic (sounds
threshold =20 kHz), empirically determined
as the 300K 3M CPM range (5 kHz to 50
kHz). IRDs standard accelerometer, the IRD
970
10
, would become one of the workhorses
of condition monitoring. The targeted
frequency zone (defined as 30 40 kHz with
a 32 kHz Fn in SPM, as the reader will
remember) moved a bit to the 970
transducers inner component Fn (natural
frequency) of 27 kHz.

The overall measurement is collected on the
same basis (or same filter) as would be the
spectrum and is expressed in units of
acceleration g with the notation SE to
underline the bandpassed nature of this
retained or filtered portion of signal contents.
In the same way as if you threw out half the
contents of this paper, it would be
impossible to read the missing pages, the g-

10
The 970 accompanied IRD analyzer
models 810, 820, 840 and 880, data
collector models 817, 818, 840, as well as
the Fast Track, certainly the hottest selling
collector of its time, and remained an option
for early DataPac purchases. All told, this
one sensor got widely distributed for the
better part of 20 years.
500
SE overall (or spectral contents when an
FFT is collected) does not allow a
backtracking calculation of acceleration.

Once spectra were to be obtained from
Spike Energy, a selectable high-pass
threshold of 100 Hz, 200 Hz, 500 Hz, 1 kHz,
2 kHz and 5 kHz (the previous standard)
appeared. The upper cutoff (or low-pass
filter threshold) sits permanently at 65 kHz.

Spike Energys high-pass filter seeks to
reject lower frequency signal components,
such as unbalance and misalignment, since
amplitudes from gears or bearing defects
tend to be much smaller than those of rotor
behavior (1X, 2X, 3X RPM, for instance).
Larger amplitudes tend to cover up the tinier
peaks of impulsive or impacting nature.

Spike Energy preserves the severity of
defects by holding the peak-to-peak
amplitude of the impulses, reflecting the
amplitude present in the waveform on the
negative side of the signal. Usual
acceleration measurements are solely
peak gs or m/s
2
. As a passing note, at
least one API standard referred to pk-pk
velocity to precisely avoid the possibility of
missing key information.

Later, when replacements were considered
for the 970, the major concerns arose from
market-driven economics, with Spike Energy
capability taking a remote backseat.

What customers want, customers usually
get and the inconvenient obligation to use
an IRD 970 accelerometer needed to make
way for the marketplaces newly appearing
product (not to mention falling sensor price).

A range of accelerometers became
available, but each one would show a
different natural frequency for its internal
components, and thus, major discrepancies
in gSE measurements could (and did) occur.

Whether from lack of damping in the area of
concern or from other design peculiarities,
one widely distributed accelerometer model
just created havoc with widely (wildly)
varying Spike Energy amplitudes leading to
completely useless amplitudes and
incoherent trending.
If the filter width (band pass) varies, the end
result (gSE overall) would also change.

Many users have observed the sluggish
reaction of Spike Energy amplitude, when
observed over time (whether with an older
analog meter such as the 810, or with a
modern LCD screen): unlike the quickly
reacting classical parameters, g-SE levels
show a laborious rise time and SLOW
DECAY. This feature is inherent to gSE
processing. What it means: cumulative or
multiple event impulse energy is required to
push the g-SE level up. A period of
quiescence is needed to settle back down.

The delay prevents amplitude modulation
(AM) from imposing their fluctuations as
repercussions in gSE amplitude.

In recent years, the reactive feature has
been further enhanced in becoming adaptive
when spectral data is collected: to avoid
having a single decay constant that might
create a solid wall (flatline) in the
waveform, the decay constant became
proportional to the frequencies manifest
within the Spike Energy signal.

The damping of internal components also
was to have some influence on the resonant
response and thus, on the amplitude. The
better a peak finds itself centered into the
response amplification bell, the greater the
perceived amplitude (from a rise in
amplitude response of internal components).

Quick overview of Spike Energy, then:

- expressed as gSE units
11

- extracted from acceleration
- using peak-to-peak detection
- bandpassed from 5kHz 50 kHz
- later from user selected 65 kHz
- sensor internal component Fn MUST be
near center of bandpass
- built-in delay in rising or decaying
- sensitive to friction & repetitive though
not necessarily periodic, impacts




11
gSE could be called impulsive or
impacting gs
501
changes in perceived amplitude, voiding or
hindering the trending capability, an obvious
difficulty for variable speed machines given
their proliferation in the marketplace (VFDs
and a renewed desire for energy savings).
Application & notes
- measurement must be trended
- easily compromised, but...
- good indication of spurious data
- sensitive to lubrication issues
- good indication of bearing problems
Lower damping means more sensitivity to
the previously described moving frequency
peak issue.
- higher amplitudes for rollers (two ends)
- higher amplitudes for double row
- first and foremost a DETECTION tool
12


The genius of this approach obviously
enabled the capture of something within a
range of frequency that was unattainable for
measurement under normal monitoring
practice.

It grants an overview of what might be going
on in that inaccessible region, so in a way, it
might be called an impressionistic rendition,
or perhaps, something for nothing.

Figure 5 / Q (resonant amplification factor)
Vs. Frequency Match (forcing / natural) for
various damping coefficient (zeta) Figure 6 / Tightly Fitted Filter, centered on
sensor Fn, Ref 7 (Patents)

If accurate response were a concern for HF /
Ultrasonic function, we would almost require
a correction curve of amplitude in virtue of
frequency, since amplification provided by a
lowly-damped sensor internal assembly will
also tend to alter the amplitude significantly
in relation to Ff/Fn (forcing frequency defect
versus natural frequency).

As can be seen in Figure 6, a glove-fit of
resonant amplification and filter is possible,
such as in the case of a narrowly targeted
Stress Wave sensor, but hardly feasible on
a function such as Spike Energy where the
bandwidth covers a much wider range (5
kHz 65 kHz) and where a high-damping
value would limit the functions efficiency,
whereas a low damping value (high
amplification) defines a hyper sensitive
frequency area. Again, centering on a
value (sensor component Fn) that we leave,
by design, outside of the standard
measuring range clashes with desirable
features of our accelerometer: the price for
accurate high-frequency measurements is
time-efficiency (thus, $$$). Consequently, a
transducer rated to 25 kHz (requiring rigid
mounting) with a 60 kHz Fn probably yields
great HF measurements, but likely behaves
poorly for quick Spike Energy detection.

Since the frequencies are perceived through
a resonant response of the accelerometers
internal components, the amplitude itself can
mean very little EXCEPT when trended
(compared to itself) over time.

Moving a frequency around within the
bandpass, which occurs whenever the
machine RPM varies, also moves the
generated frequency with relation to the
natural frequency. This would lead to

12
The gSE spectrum would be the
diagnostic tool.
502
Severity
A Spike Energy severity chart was
eventually empirically developed by the Ford
Motor Company. Widely distributed by the
trademark holder, the chart showed g-SE
amplitude versus SPINDLE (machine tool)
shaft speed (FIGURE X) many complaints
arose when pulling bearings that failed to
SHOW evidence of damage. Of course, we
now fully understand that failure mechanics
may often hide any VISUAL signs of fatigue.

Figure 7 / gSE Severity Chart

Several factors could otherwise have led to
erroneous calls:

- Failure to trend measurements
- Careless or improper measurement
practices
- Failure to double-check (validating the
measurement)
- Appearance of other components
contaminating the signal
13

The prevalent factor of interest when
assessing Spike Energy measurements
remains the increase of amplitude (and/or
appearance of spectral peaks) in an
otherwise stable (unvarying) context,
meaning the Spike Energy goes up (or
peaks appear), and everything else stays

13
Potential contamination from other vibration
sources was and remains possible in spite of
filtering, given the quantity and nature of potential
nearby sources to the subject of interest.
the same. If the measurement is valid, you
have a clear case!

The reverse, failure to capture an incipient
or advanced fault, usually only involves the
immeasurable: long distances, multiple
interfaces, masking secondary source
contaminant, etc. Keeping this in mind,
assessment of a bearing without available
prior (reference) data or trending remains
feasible, but doing so requires great care
and should be left to seasoned analysts.

While the 970 was still in vogue,
this writers approach usually set
gSE alarm at 0.3 or 0.5 gSE, but
this would now depend on the
accelerometer used (the current
difficulty with both Spike Energy &
PeakVue, generic functions
sensibly functional with almost
any accelerometer). To explain
the previous choice, an external
resource needs to be more
sensitive than an ever-present
one, and getting an early warning
proved very useful. Obviously,
many points called for alarm-level
readjustment, also useful when
starting a monitoring survey since
the already troubled machines
are then easier to spot and can be
segregated from the naturally noisier units.

High Frequency Detection / HFD
14
Since Shock Pulse and Spike Energy
required hard-wiring, the best emulation to
get a similar (competitive) result became the
simple bandpass applied to acceleration
with no further processing. Internal
programming came to the fore later.

In SKFs case, HFD was performed on a
5kHz to 60 kHz range, whereas CSI gave
themselves the opportunity for variants: the
amplitude of vibration in g's over a broad
frequency band from 5 kHz up to 20 kHz or
greater. SKFs was fairly close to the initial
Spike Energy bandpass, but did not offer
peak-to-peak or rectified / True Peak

14
A dynamic high frequency signal from an accelerometer
which includes the accelerometers resonant frequency. For
assessing the condition of rolling element ball or roller
bearings. SKF Condition Monitoring, Catalog, 2000
503
detection. It is a matter of record that SKF
and CSI HFD values DID NOT MATCH and
were not interchangeable if a program
switched from one to the other. As a warning
or detection system, HFD offered a
reasonable performance.

SEE
SEE (SKFs Spectral Emitted Energy):
method of monitoring bearings combining
high-frequency acoustic emission detection
in the 250-350 kHz range with enveloping
techniques. Use of a low pass filter fulfilled
an essential role identical to what was
needed for Spike Energy, conserving low-
frequency modulations (enveloped peaks)
components to easily link back to known
bearing defect frequencies: the enveloped
signal (demodulated) can be decomposed
using a normal FFT instrument, although the
technique obviously implies that peaks
remaining in the spectrum found their source
in modulations contained within the original
(and since altered through filtration) signal.

Enveloping / Demodulation
Enveloping can be defined as a technique
using a less detailed curve to espouse the
contour (outer shape) of a denser waveform.

Initial efforts likely go back to B&K in the late
70s, early 80s. Enveloping is still performed
on raw or bandpassed acceleration signals
to extract hidden components: curve fitting
or molding of the outer shape of the
waveform can as readily be done on an
unprocessed waveform as a filtered one.

The curve or mold replaces a waveform.
This new waveform is then FFT processed.

It is also the universally used technique
allowing the production of FFT from a higher
frequency contents area back down to a
region where defect frequencies may
become more apparent. That last region can
be defined to extend as high as 3-5X BPFI
or 6-7X BPFO (they are roughly equivalent),
and also apply universally.

The filtered or bandpassed signal is full
wave (or half wave) rectified (the negative or
lower portion is mirrored to the positive and
then eliminated).

The now fully-positive rectified signal is low
pass filtered to separate modulation (usually
the defect) frequency from its carrier
frequency. Low-pass filtering provides an
averaging effect on the rectified signal and
peaks get smoothed out in the enveloped or
demodulated waveform. For gSE, peak-
peak values are retained instead of rectified.

Certain well established rules (of thumb?)
apply to enveloping and were initially graven
in stone with g-SE spectra, since there were
no possibilities of opting out or choosing
differently. Under normal circumstances, for
best results, desirable separation between
band-pass threshold and demodulated FFT
spectrum Fmax would be FIVE to ONE.
Example: for gSE spectra, initial (Fast Track
model) high-pass was set at 5 kHz (300
KCPM) and Fmax at 1kHz (60,000 CPM).
The rule was dutifully obeyed.

Can the ratio be altered a little or
significantly and still yield decent results? A
10:1 ratio can be attempted, or a 2:1 in
certain cases of low frequency. Variations
are needed in virtue of the variable high-
pass threshold shown below.


Figure 8 / Threshold values for gSE spectra

Figure 9 / Appearance of gSE waveform

Specifically for g-SE signals, the waveform
would not be very revealing since
504
rectification and prolonged decay affect the
data, altering considerably both digitalization
values and visual information (see previous
Figure), but the modulations would still get
extracted (to their modulating fundamental),
whereas PeakVue waveform may still
maintain more information. This essentially
boils down to the moment in the processing
sequence at which the waveform is captured
and displayed. PeakVue TWF, seemingly
caught before rectification and
demodulation, show information differently
than Spike Energy TWF displayed after the
same two operations have taken place.

Enveloping Numerical Analysis
In an attempt at further strengthening SEE
technology, SKF attempted a breakdown of
SEE values into frequency bands, an
approach reminiscent of the British Steel
Kurtosis meter (qv) of the early 80s. Given
the technology seems to altogether have
disappeared from SKFs online catalog (at
least currently), and adding to that the fact
that this author has little dealt with it and
never in the above specified form, suffice it
to say multiple band numerical analysis of
enveloping has been attempted.

Spike Energy & PeakVue
Spectrum
Once decay of spike amplitude gets slowed
down, the wave generated by an impulse
will necessarily end up looking like a
triangular wave. While it can be argued that
a quasi peak hold will cause to appear
multiple harmonics of the fundamental, a
fundamental representing an impulse
creates that very same phenomenon of
diminishing amplitude picket-fence
harmonics of the fundamental.
Figure 10 / Typical gSE spectrum

That has been the cause of oft times harsh
criticism of the HF/Ultra functions It invents
things. Spike Energy (or PeakVue) throws in
harmonics that are not there !
15
We can
likely agree on that, as long as we remain
focused on one single fact of importance:
the harmonics are of a little consequence
given that the fundamental MUST be
present as a frequency modulating contents
within a higher frequency band. That is all
we need to satisfy the veracity obligation.

This fact is hard evidence, confirming the
presence of an anomaly, whether it is
lubrication problem or damage per say
remains to be seen.

Is the purpose of these Spike Energy &=
spectra to complete a full diagnostic based
on engineering measurements? Does the
amplitude matter much when the observed
phenomenon is an indication of ACTUAL
DAMAGE? The overall figure of merit trend
of amplitude detected a problem and/or the
spectra spotted an anomaly, is that not
enough? If we can FURTHER support /
sustain / explore machine behavior using
this tool, it is merely an additional benefit!

In various locations throughout this paper,
the pitfalls and dangers of gSE &=signal
contamination or bad measurements are
mentioned. It is possible to push the overall
upwards, but it is very difficult to introduce
through happenstance vibration at a
frequency that would exactly match the
BPFO, BPFI or other defect frequency.

Examples are often given of data where the
problem can be seen in regular data (vel or
accel) as well as HF / Ultra spectra. In fact,
such are typically easier to draw parallels
between the to type of measurements.

Here then is the blatant admission: data for
which HF / Ultra is alone in providing
detection or indication of abnormal spectral
contents is a rarity (albeit NOT a complete
impossibility). After all, the data did get
extracted from a normal parameter source,
so given time, patience and a will to
manipulate the signal for a while, often in
ways that will approach Spike Energy &=
methods, we will reach the same result,
perhaps in a manner wasteful of resources.

15
The previous are not invention on the part of
the author but rather ACTUAL quotes and could
readily be assigned to people.
505
Sensor Positioning
While various authors in the field affirm that
positioning or direction changes little in the
way of perception of defects when using
gSE &=, experience tends to point us in a
different direction:

a) it may be true for stress waves to
propagate in all directions, but they are also
within an extremely high-frequency range
and those tend to not travel very far,
b) stress waves are not the only pertinent
activity in this context,
c) several conclusive tests had shown a
significant rise in gSE amplitude in the
horizontal or axial direction while the other
directions showed little or no increase in
gSE or other amplitude,
d) whether the previous occurred from pillow
block configuration, or from defect shape
and position in relation to bearing design
and measurement location, is not known,
e) the observation would have been
impossible without collection of gSE (or
other, as the period dictated) in all directions

We seek to monitor activity closely
resembling tiny hammer-blows (a ball
dropping into a race pothole), and given the
expected behavior when such an event
occurs (blow-directed motion), direction
should remain pertinent.

We can presume that in most instances of
fatigue, damage will first occur in the load
zone, and thus, we can choose a pertinent
spot for our measurement, BUT, where load
is carried along multiple axes, do try to
measure along all of them.

Figure 11 / Angular Contact Ball Bearing

Imagine a
race fault on
an angular-
contact ball-
bearing
(thus made
for radial
and thrust
loads). These can be used in pairs, front-to-
front or back-to-back. Lets presume
excessive angular misalignment has worked
out a spall, placing the fault more onto the
shoulder (thrust) of the rolling-elements
support. If it is indeed a tandem, it is a given
that measuring axially would likely capture a
higher amplitude on the side of the damaged
bearing than on the side of its counterpart.

Doppler Laser & Interferometer
When writing course notes some 3 or 4
years back, the best laser interferometer
conceivably usable within an industrial
environment (as opposed to a lab) could
deliver a precision of one angstrom in
displacement, meaning 1/10,000
th
of a
MICRON (1x 10E-10 meter). In terms of
thousandths of an inch or Mils, the
previous means 1/250,000
th
part of a Mil.
Sub-angstrom precisions can now be
achieved to ultra-slow frequencies as well as
above the 1 GHz level (think in terms of
0.000-something CPM to 60 Billion CPM).

While technology offers the benefit of a
precise metrology of these heretofore
unmeasured (unmeasurable) vibrations, is it
useful? Should I endeavor to mount an
interferometer on an inertia-block fitted
tripod to capture high-frequencies issuing
from a 100 HP electric motor?

Is this science-fiction? Since 1994, the
International Conference on Vibration
Measurements by Laser Techniques is held
every two years in Ancona, Italy
(aivela.org). A laser sensor first showed
up on the vendor side of vibration
conventions circa 1995 (discounting the
Hewlett-Packards that have been around
since the 70s). Some years ago, an
interferometer was the sole purview of R&D,
but the cheaper ones are now accessibly
priced in the $5K range while others can still
reach $18K.

From an industrial standpoint, it would be a
strange case indeed that might require the
use of interferometry. Some years back, a
300,000 RPM experimental spindle on
pneumatic bearing forced our hand in this
respect.

But given the scope of our USUAL condition
monitoring concern, what we need is a
quick, cheap, uncomplicated routine to
see if there appear to be abnormal high-
frequency peaks. We are well served by our
currently available methods.

506
Spike Energy Versus PeakVue
Given the description of prior art in a
patent application by people in the know, A
final method, known as "spike energy
detection" or alternatively "Peak Vue", has
been used by the assignee of the present
application as well as others to generate a
measure of the high frequency energy in a
vibration signal. Ref (7), #6,868,348.

As can be inferred from the previous,
processing may still differ to some degree,
as does the moment in time when certain
bits of information are captured, but the
functions seem very closely related.

PeakVue stands for Peak Value. PeakVue
analysis is actually a measure of "stress wave"
activity in a metallic component. Stress waves
are associated with impact, friction, fatigue
cracking, lubrication, etc., and
generate faults in various components such as
rolling element bearings and gears.
16

PeakVue roughly adheres to the same
approach as Spike Energy. Discrepancies
occur not so much in processing as they do
in choices of when to capture certain events.
PeakVue also offers a selection of band-
pass as well as high-pass filters.

Condition Monitoring Fallacies &
Pitfalls
Immune to or not affected by a rise in
amplitudes linked to other phenomena
might be obviously applicable ONLY when
the newly appearing or developing
phenomenon does not cause the
appearance of signal contents (new peaks)
within (or very close to) the band-pass. The
very close to implicates the limitations of
the filtering: a band-pass filter is not usually
a guillotine. It is of varying efficiency, usually
expressed in terms of dB/octave or
dB/decade, where dB will be a multiple of 6
(since a reduction of 6dB equates a halving
of amplitude) while an octave means for a
doubling of frequency and a decade
signifies for a frequency change of one
magnitude (=X10). Example: For a
6dB/octave (halving amplitude per frequency
doubling), an amplitude of 0.5 g at 250Hz
will be perceived as 0.25 g if the threshold is
set at 500 Hz.

16
CSI 2004 End-User Conference Leaflet
How sharp an amplitude rise also affects the
outcome: ringing occurs within a bearing
when unbalance forces shake things about.
Same is true of misalignment. The greater
the movement, the more aggravated the
ringing becomes and commensurately, the
contamination of the Spike Energy signal
with a variety of minor natural frequency
responses (resonances). In some poorly
fitted cases, otherwise tolerable looseness
(usually of no consequence) may start
acting up and causing impulses between
shaft and inner ring, or bearing and pillow
block. To some degree, we might say that
the carpet level rises a bit. Examining the
same through an AE lens, severe
unbalance, misalignment or other
noisemakers can cause alternating-stresses
on the bearing and its supporting structure,
thus working out a pinging effect within the
perceivable AE (or other) range.

While the previous statement remains true in
most cases, meaning a slight increase in
unbalance or misalignment related
amplitude will usually NOT affect Spike
Energy amplitudes overly much, there will
be notable exceptions, namely when the rise
in amplitude from any source doubles,
and/or when the amplitude reaches 0.3
inch/second pk. An attempt at trend
weighting was attempted in the past and
showed some promise (the authors own Ref
2), but was not pursued beyond the initial
stages, though it was finally assessed that
the proper weighting factor hinged on the
amplitude root-sum-square of the first three
orders of rotation, as in a relation to...
___________________
(a1x) + (a2x) + (a3x)

with variations in virtue of machine specifics:
since generation of a wide array of
harmonics, such as harmonics of a
compression cycle in a lobe-blower (4x, 8x,
12x, 16x, or other series relative to rotor
configuration) or similar machine-specific
behavior such as blade-pass frequency
peaks also needed to be taken into account,
the approach proved fairly accurate but
impractical unless built-in.

Looseness is sometimes erroneously
mentioned as another mechanism not likely
to affect Spike Energy &=. In fact, some of
507
our HF/Ultra functions are excellent at
spotting looseness and very often useful in
pinpointing its location with accuracy. Again,
the lack of transmissibility of high-frequency
comes into play. This time, instead of
hindering as it usually does, it may serve our
purpose. Finding the exact location of
looseness is often difficult, but since HF
travels with difficulty, the resonant pings
from rattling components may be easier to
pinpoint than the exact source of 1X and/or
2X and/or multiple harmonics of a
fundamental.

The reader has already seen some of the
inherent differences between these
functions, hence, no surprises should arise
from a statement to the effect that the
previous paragraph is entirely relative. The
best method to pinpoint looseness relies on
amplitude mapping (exploration of the
structure while moving the sensor around
slowly to find amplitude maxima).

Fallacy: We are collecting acceleration
measurements when Spike Energy &=is
collected. A processed / bandpassed peak
detection function is NOT the equivalent of
acceleration.

Fallacy: the reverse of the previous, or We
are collecting Spike Energy measurements
when in fact, acceleration was collected.
This honest mistake arose due to potential
misunderstanding when switching over to
Entek Odyssey software. Basically, the
Spike Energy function did not have its usual
units assigned but remained as an easily
mistaken g without the SE appellation.
Memory fails as to whether the label was
deemed Spike Energy with gs or
Acceleration and then might have had a
subheading of Spike Energy.

g-SE & Fluid-Film Bearings
Fallacy: High-frequency / demodulation
functions serve no purpose with fluid-film
bearings. This assertion was initially made
by people who understood that Shock Pulse,
Spike Energy, etc, monitored the rolling
lubricated contact of race and element. They
theorized (or were told, since some vendors
had published documents to that effect) that
since no contact existed in babbitt
applications, the functions would be useless.
Szent-Gyorgyi, a medicine Nobel prize
winner, tells us that A discovery is said to
be an accident meeting a prepared mind, a
statement akin to the traditional definition of
success; this writers confirmation of Spike
Energys usefulness for fluid-film bearings
arose from condition monitoring software
templating (using in-house sequence of
measurements applied indiscriminately to
most machines) combined with time
compressions (aka a serious rush) for a
program start-up.

Much tailoring occurred on the other
measurements, but since required time for
Spike Energy measurement did not really
influence total route time allotment, and
given the spurious measurement spotter
advantage, g-SE was collected every time
these (several) air-separation plants were
monitored. The gSE got trended until one
day, the displacement
17
, velocity,
acceleration, and prox-probe obtained
signals (trend and FFT spectra) showed
nothing, BUT, the Spike Energy shot up!
Babbitt? The data was double checked, and
was found to be sound. Measuring g-SE
properly detected and reported in obvious
fashion the sleeve deterioration. This
doesnt guarantee that it always would, but
traces of damage in other data (even at the
analytical under the microscope time, not
at the quick detection time) were faint and
easily missed.

In another similar case, the author appeared
confounded when exacting analytical work
performed on the basis of a Spike Energy
alarm justified inspection of an oxygen
compressor sleeve bearing. The cruel
customer called to complain that the bearing
appeared flawless! After leaving this sword
of Damocles hanging in the air for a few
excruciatingly long seconds (where one
imagines responsibility insurance vanishing
up in smoke), he added But were pretty
happy to have caught a rub of the shaft with
the labyrinth seal! Distance between the

17
Was used as a comparative between case /
pedestal vibration and prox probe results. Often
revealing. While few people are aware of this,
Factory Mutual used to (and may still) require
both and have demonstrated cases where
pedestal vibration showed more than the Eddy-
Current probes.
508
end of the sleeve and the outer lip of the
seal is roughly , so no amount of
vibratory measurement exploration would
have successfully separated these
neighboring potential sources.

Over many a training session, much debate
has ensued over this particular approach of
using Spike Energy for fluid-film bearings. Of
course, over the years, the Dont bother
school stuck to its guns, but all those who
have used it AND come across CLEARLY
identified trouble
18
tend to smile knowingly.
One colleague used an (older) SPM version
to do the same thing, with many instances of
confirmed positive results.

Does this make sense?
a) Think oil! Circulation of oil! Shaft-
regulated feed in some cases, circulation in
others! A fluid we trust to arrive at the proper
location, or serious damage will ensue. This
could allow cavitation. And with it,
imploding bubbles acting as excitation for
rotor component resonance, and
progressive erosion of babbitt surfaces.
Does cavitation occur within sleeves? It is a
recognized failure mechanism. Would a
normal FFT spectrum covering up to 10X
RPM detect cavitation? Not likely:
amplitudes would likely be hidden if the
RPM is high enough for 10X to reach the
relevant frequency span, or the frequency
span will simply not cover this mechanism.

b) Under abnormal circumstances, metal to
metal contact might occur, leading to
occasional high-frequency noise.

c) Fluid-film bearings can support a steam
turbine rotor. Steam leaks occur often
enough and oil circulation may promote the
aspiration of some condensing steam into
the oil stream. Water or water-contaminated
oil fail miserably at maintaining protective
films. Metal might meet metal. The proximity
of the leak may itself be found through a rise
in Spike Energy.


18
Lest we forget, on some high-powered
synchronous motor, centrifugal compressor or
steam turbine, 20 years may go by before the
sleeve shows distress. Thus, widespread
statistical sampling of detectable faults on large-
sized turbomachinery tends to require
considerable time.
d) Shaft-babbit or shaft-to-particle-to-babbit
(particle could be debris, or fatigue spall)
contact could occur. In some cases, a
whirling rotor (such as crossing a critical
speed event or being operated at an RPM
causal to quasi-critical deformation, with or
without the help of a rub) could have the
shaft mildly entering contact.

I sn't SWAN j ust for rolling-
element bearings? No, SWAN
technology works well on and has
been proven on rolling element
and fluid film bearing and all types
of gears. (Swantech Corp. website).
Furthermore, diehard skeptics might
want to read Barkov (Ref 1) on the
possible use of ENVELOPING to detect
fluid-film bearing deterioration.

While any of these functions may assist in
the detection of fluid-film bearing problems,
it can be difficult to perform adequate
detection and analysis of these bearings due
to their frequently deep encasing and lack of
readily available transmission pathway to
facilitate measurement. Caveats regarding
the low capacity for high-frequency
propagation over long distances also
apply.
19

The wary analyst should best support
vibration measurement efforts with oil
analysis. In many cases, in-depth analysis of
vibration data will reveal the presence of a
problem, but the experience, knowledge-
base and extensive digging required to
achieve this result may not be economically
viable.

On an asynchronous induction motor (the
most common industrial beast), the rotor bar
pass and slot pass frequency and
harmonics, as well as sidebands, all fall
within the standardized band-pass of many
of these functions. Adjustments to chosen
high-pass filtering threshold may concretize
(or invalidate) this approach.


19
As a pragmatic example, a passing car
with music playing full-blast projects bass or
low-frequency noise, not high-pitched
sounds.
509
On low-speed bearings, the activity arrives
at a lower relative velocity of internal
components, but the end-result remains very
similar. The judicious selection of the high-
pass filter will assist considerably in
maintaining function usefulness.
Occasionally, elimination of any filter may be
best when a specific function allows for such
measures. For such low speed monitoring
applications, Spike Energy tends to have a
TINY amplitude, remaining stable (as long
as the proper attention is given to the usual
details) and trending flatly until a fairly
SMALL rise appears. Unlike a higher speed
application, this should IMMEDIATELY call
for the analysts attention. Of course, further
investigation must then ideally be pursued,
deploying the idealized filter in relation to the
sought key frequencies.

On DC motors, brushes, springs, brush-
holder assemblies and the direct contact of
brush and rotor collector can all generate
very faint HF detectable by these functions.

On pumps, high-frequency activity of
cavitation or recirculation affect gSE
measurements. Thus, changes in operating
conditions drawing pump operation AWAY
from BEP (best efficiency point) may lower
or boost gSE amplitude. Normally, from a
spectral standpoint, this SHOULD only be
within random energy (noise floor), but the
increased amplitude blade-pass modulation
of a perturbed fluid environment can
certainly cause unwanted peaks to appear.

On geared systems, the question arises
whether or not separation exists between
the frequency area where bearing defects
would appear and the gearmesh &
harmonics area. Gears share with fluid-film
bearings the potential need for oil analysis
coverage. It can be incredibly complex to
analyze gears, particularly in transmissions
(epicyclic gear sets in series). This paper
does not propose an extensive discussion of
gear diagnostics and HF / ultra spectra.
Reference (10) already covers extensive
ground on that topic, and although already
aged a few years, the paper remains
available on the Web. Also be aware that
other techniques complete the analytical
toolset to fully analyze gears, such as
judicious use of the Hilbert transform and
any detection of irregularity. For 2006
CMVA, see Archambault and Saiah.

On bearing pillow blocks, where the ongoing
battle against corrosion calls for thick
coatings, it may be necessary to sand and
repaint.

A caveat: if the function offers an
ADJ USTABLE band-pass, many
phenomena can be kicked out of the
perceivable range: many frequencies ideally
excluded from the band-pass could then be
unwittingly included, causing considerable
contamination of the signal. Furthermore,
the reverse can also become true!

Empirical Tricks of the Trade
If Spike Energy and, by extension, a number
of similar functions seem hypersensitive to
certain behaviors, always keep in mind their
excuse s found in a partial coverage of the
ultrasonic range. Dedicated ultrasound
detectors may cover ranges akin to 16 kHz
100 kHz. Obviously, our vibration techniques
cover a large swath of their domain. In a
pinch, a Spike Energy capable vibration
meter fitted with an accelerometer could
replace an ultrasonic measurement device.
The measured frequency range may not be
a perfect fit, but the overlapping section will
usually enable performance of accurate
ultrasonic source detection routines.
However, dedicated instrumentation can
now perceive ultrasounds from 20 away,
hardly the case (or a desirable end) for our
accelerometers.

4) Conclusion / A Look to the
future
The elegance of the Shock Pulse, Spike
Energy and comparable techniques,
combined with demodulation (enveloping) to
obtain a spectrum, rests in a quick,
inexpensive detection of POSSIBLE activity
within a largely inaccessible frequency
region, and this without the full measures
needed to obtain accurate measurements
within said region. There are, and likely will
always be, CAVEATS! True, we can now
sometimes
20
get the exact measurement
(special accelerometer, proper mounting, or
interferometer targeted at a legible area),

20
Given proper access.
510
but not as cheaply and not as readily. Some
are better than others, but an analyst
accustomed to the workings of one function
will likely perform better with the known tool.

HF / Ultra functions often provide WARNING
of:
- lubrication deficiencies
- bearing damage
21
(fatigue or wear)
- gear damage
22
(fatigue or wear)
- babbitt damage
- oil cavitation (in plain bearings)
- pumped-fluid cavitation /
recirculation in pumps (an example)
- hints specific to each machine type
or component

The volume of vibration data within an
extensive predictive programs scope can
easily overwhelm most anyone, but such
high-frequency functions underline or render
obvious otherwise hard-to-catch peak
amplitude activity from impacts. Depending
on operation set-up, large paper mills (three
machines, with refining, pulping, etc) can
easily reach 800 to 1200 monitored
machines.

Unless it is a critical application with huge
$$$ outcome or extremely difficult faint
signal / far removed measurement point
conditions, we do NOT wish to fully
analyze
23
data for bearings or gears for
mere detection purposes: it is prohibitively
expensive, and incompatible with current
corporate requirements of reduced
multitasking manning.

Other calculations or simpler functions
would likely offer this same benefit, such as
trending of the Crest Factor, a simple yet
unavailable
24
function. Similarly, even a


21
Whether incipient or advanced
22
Same / Whether incipient or advanced
23
Some people still have trouble with the nuance
involved between detection and analysis; by
definition, analytical diagnostics imply in-depth
work, recordings, post-processing, stretching and
zooming data, and spending a few hours or days,
at times, on a single machine.
24
To the best of this authors knowledge, not a
single vendor offers this simple approach,
although the French Movilog and its software
package trend a Fault Factor for bearings, likely
using the Crest Factor and a bias correction. The
cursory review of waveforms will show
SOME of the otherwise missed activity, but
few vendor platforms afford the automatic
capture of waveforms during routes. Many
require considerable more time to deliver
waveforms: the lack of forethought in losing
something we needed to get to obtain a
spectral result is astounding, but is only
excusable inasmuch as the discovery of a
need for waveforms as an FFT parallel
came to us rather late.

Frequently, these functions will evidence
trouble otherwise unseen in the usually
favored linearly-scaled FFT spectrum (at
least in North American predictive efforts).
There are degrees: logarithmic-scaled
spectra will often reveal peaks hidden by the
linear display. At the limit, if the signal is
quiet and little noise pollutes the noise floor,
statements regarding a perfectly healthy
bearings absence of defect frequencies or
modulations can become fallacious. Of
course, the amplitudes would then be
negligible.

HF / Ultra Function or Parameter

We can readily grasp the facts:

- measurement repeatability can be shaky,
but it is not a huge issue,
- distance to the source and intervening
interfaces will ALWAYS be a problem,
- presence of activity or peaks is more
important than their amplitude,
- reviewing this type of data calls our
attention to ongoing phenomena,
- functions sometimes detect otherwise
unseen events
25
,
- functions sometimes better perceive or
reveal concealed / buried events,
- the more options a function offers, the
greater the knowledge proficiency required
to best use it and the easier it is to err in its
configuration,

vendor states quasi total independence from
bearing bore-size, load and shaft RPM.
25
Admittedly seldom unmeasured, although it does
happen: events are usually present within the
collected analytical, not always detection-oriented,
measurements. However, and before the usual
bunch derides the comment, the point is to NOT
spend hours on end of ones (or worse, somebody
elses) time to get the job done.
511
- a vendor platform without any similar
function is now often perceived as deficient;
it is lacking or missing an essential
component.

Giving the inventors their due, these
functions or processing techniques have
been available for close to 40 years starting
with SPM, almost 30 years for Spike Energy,
while others celebrate different
anniversaries. These functions will long hold
a place in our monitoring efforts. Other
techniques can be implemented to monitor
machines, whether audio or motor-current
analysis, but within a vibration context, even
post-processing of recorded vibration data is
sometimes at a loss and fails to reproduce
or emulate HF / Ultra functions. Perhaps a
100 kHz bandwidth recording might suffice,
but even then, there may be variations. For
that reason, HF / Ultra will likely remain for
incipient damage detection even should
vibration monitoring disappear (keep in mind
that basic detection based on velocity and
acceleration may already be replaced by in-
depth motor-current analysis, at least to
some extent, and that might be completed
with a microphone for audio detection, etc.).

A final element: perhaps one of the primary
reasons for writing this article, an attempt at
fortifying our collective memory would prove
useful. If we forget that 10, 15 or 20 years
ago, such product already existed (and even
often worked as promised), the salesman
will again sell them to us as brand new.

This becomes particularly important at a
time when there is considerable change but
not necessarily real (condition monitoring)
PROGRESS. We are even at times the
unwitting victims of corporate regression,
loss of memory or even the loss of crucial
recipes.

Feel free to send comments and
suggestions to the author by email at
fgagnonvib@gmail.com
Trademarks
FFT is a trademark of Monsieur Fourier (no
lawsuit forthcoming)
PeakVue is a trademark of CSI / Emerson
Process Management
SEE or S.E.E. is a trademark of SKF
Condition Monitoring / SKF Reliability
Spike Energy and DataPac are trademarks
of Rockwell Automation Entek
SPM is a trademark of SPM Instrument AB
SWAN is a trademark of Swantech

References
(1) Azovtsev, A., Barkov, A., Carter, D.,
"Fluid Film Bearing Diagnostics Using
Envelope Spectra", Proceedings, 21
st

Annual Meeting, Vibration Institute, 1996

(2) Gagnon, F., Making Spike Energy a
Better Bearing Diagnostic Tool, Shock &
Vibration Digest, Sep/Oct 1994, Vibration
Institute

(3) Lundy, J ames A., Detecting Lubrication
Problems Using Shock Pulse, Lubrication &
Fluid Power, J an-Feb 2006

(4) Miettinen, J ., Andersson, P. Methods to
Monitor the Running Situation of Grease
Lubricated Rolling Bearings, COST 516
Tribology Symposium, Technical Research
Centre of Finland, 1989

(5) Unknown, Swantech Corp. website

(6) Unknown, Vibration Guide, SKF Reliability,
2000

(7a, 7b, etc) US Patents, #3,554,012,
#4,089,055, #4768380, #5,679,900, #6,526,356,
#6,553,839, #6,679,119, #6,684,700, #6,868,348,
#7,030,046

(8) Xu, Ming, Le Bleu, J ulien J r., Condition
Monitoring of Sealless Pumps Using Spike
Energy, P/PM Technology, Vol. 8, Issue 6, pp.
42-49, December, 1995

(9) Zhang, L., Thomas, BG, Inclusions in
Continuous Casting of Steel, 24th National
Steelmaking Symposium, Mexico, 2003

(10) Berry, J E, Robinson, J C, Walker, J W,
Description of PeakVue and Illustration of its
Wide Array of Applications in Fault Detection and
Problem Severity Assessment, CSI & TAC, 2001

512