Chap 18

1685
Chapter 18
Heat and the First Law of Thermodynamics

Conceptual Problems

1 Object A has a mass that is twice the mass of object B and object A
has a specific heat that is twice the specific heat of object B. If equal amounts of
heat are transferred to these objects, how do the subsequent changes in their
temperatures compare? (a)
A B
4 = T T , (b)
A B
2 = T T , (c)
A B
= T T ,
(d)
B 2
1
A
T T = , (e)
B 4
1
A
T T =

Picture the Problem We can use the relationship T mc Q = to relate the
temperature changes of objects A and B to their masses, specific heats, and the
amount of heat supplied to each.

Express the change in temperature of
object A in terms of its mass,
specific heat, and the amount of heat
supplied to it:

A A
A
c m
Q
T =
object B in terms of its mass, specific
heat, and the amount of heat supplied
to it:

B B
B
c m
Q
T =
Divide the second of these equations
by the first to obtain:

B B
A A
A
B
c m
c m
T
T
=

Substitute and simplify to obtain:

( )( )
4
2 2
B B
B B
A
B
= =
c m
c m
T
T
B 4
1
A
T T =
and ( ) e is correct.

2 Object A has a mass that is twice the mass of object B. The
temperature change of object A is equal to the temperature change of object B
when the objects absorb equal amounts of heat. It follows that their specific heats
are related by (a)
A B
2 = c c , (b)
A B
2 = c c , (c)
A B
= c c , (d) none of the above

Picture the Problem We can use the relationship T mc Q = to relate the
temperature changes of objects A and B to their masses, specific heats, and the
amount of heat supplied to each.

Chapter 18

1686
Relate the temperature change of
object A to its specific heat and
mass:

A A
A
c m
Q
T =
Relate the temperature change of
object B to its specific heat and
mass:

B B
B
c m
Q
T =
Equate the temperature changes and
simplify to obtain:

A A B B
1 1
c m c m
=
Solve for c
A
:
B 2
1
B
B
B
B
A
B
A
2
c c
m
m
c
m
m
c = = =
and ) (b is correct.

3 [SSM] The specific heat of aluminum is more than twice the specific
heat of copper. A block of copper and a block of aluminum have the same mass
and temperature (20C). The blocks are simultaneously dropped into a single
calorimeter containing water at 40C. Which statement is true when thermal
equilibrium is reached? (a) The aluminum block is at a higher temperature than
the copper block. (b) The aluminum block has absorbed less energy than the
copper block. (c) The aluminum block has absorbed more energy than the copper
block. (d) Both (a) and (c) are correct statements.

Picture the Problem We can use the relationship T mc Q = to relate the amount
of energy absorbed by the aluminum and copper blocks to their masses, specific
heats, and temperature changes.

Express the energy absorbed by the
aluminum block:

T c m Q =
Al Al Al

Express the energy absorbed by the
copper block:

T c m Q =
Cu Cu Cu


T c m
T c m
Q
Q
=
Al Al
Cu Cu
Al
Cu

Because the blocks masses are the
same and they experience the same
change in temperature:

1
Al
Cu
Al
Cu
< =
c
c
Q
Q

or
Al Cu
Q Q < and ) (c is correct.

1687
4 A block of copper is in a pot of boiling water and has a temperature of
100C. The block is removed from the boiling water and immediately placed in
an insulated container filled with a quantity of water that has a temperature of
20C and has the same mass as the block of copper. (The heat capacity of the
insulated container is negligible.) The final temperature will be closest to
(a) 40C, (b) 60C, (c) 80C.

Determine the Concept We can use the relationship T mc Q = to relate the
temperature changes of the block of copper and the boiling water to their masses,
specific heats, and the amount of heat supplied to or absorbed by each.

Relate the heat supplied by the block
of copper to its specific heat, mass,
and temperature change as it cools to
its equilibrium temperature:

( ) C 100

equil Cu Cu
Cu Cu Cu Cu
=
=
T c m
T c m Q

Relate the heat absorbed by the
water to its specific heat, mass, and
temperature change as it warms to its
equilibrium temperature:

( ) C 20

equil O H O H
O H O H O H O H
2 2
2 2 2 2
=
=
T c m
T c m Q

Because thermal energy is conserved in this mixing process:

0
O H Cu
2
= + = Q Q Q
or
( ) ( ) 0 C 20 C 100
equil O H O H equil Cu Cu
2 2
= + T c m T c m

Because the mass of the water is equal to the mass of the block of copper:

( ) ( ) 0 C 20 C 100
equil O H equil Cu
2
= + T c T c

Solving for T
equil
yields:

( ) ( )
O H Cu
O H Cu
equil
2
2
C 20 C 100
c c
c c
T
+
+
=

Substitute numerical values (See Table 18-1 for the specific heats of copper and
water.)and evaluate T
equil
:

( ) ( )
C 27
C kg
kJ
18 . 4
C kg
kJ
386 . 0
C kg
kJ
18 . 4 C 20
C kg
kJ
386 . 0 C 100
equil

+

= T ( ) a is correct.

Chapter 18

1688
5 You pour both a certain amount of water at 100C and an equal
amount of water at 20C into an insulated container. The final temperature of the
mixture will be (a) 60C, (b) less than 60C, (c) greater than 60C.

Determine the Concept We can use the relationship T mc Q = to relate the
temperature changes of the room-temperature water and the boiling water to their
masses, specific heats, and the amount of heat supplied to or absorbed by each.

Because thermal energy is conserved in this mixing process:

0
O H O H hot
2 2
= + = Q Q Q
or
( ) ( ) 0 C 20 C 100
equil O H O H equil O H hot O H hot
2 2 2 2
= + T c m T c m

Because the mass of the boiling water is equal to the mass of the water that is
initially at 20C and the specific heat of water is independent of its temperature:

0 C 20 C 100
equil equil
= + T T

Solving for T
equil
yields:

C 60
equil
= T
and ( ) a is correct.

6 You pour some water at 100C and some ice cubes at 0C into an
insulated container. The final temperature of the mixture will be (a) 50C, (b) less
than 50C but larger than 0C, (c) 0C, (d) You cannot tell the final temperature
from the data given.

Determine the Concept We would need to know the mass of the boiling water
and the mass of the melting ice in order to determine the final temperature of the
mixture. ( ) d is correct.

7 You pour water at 100
o
C and some ice cubes at 0C into an insulated
container. When thermal equilibrium is reached, you notice some ice remains and
floats in liquid water. The final temperature of the mixture is (a) above 0C,
(b) less than 0C, (c) 0C, (d) You cannot tell the final temperature from the data
given

Determine the Concept Because some ice remains when thermal equilibrium is
reached, the equilibrium temperature must be the temperature of the ice cubes at
their melting point. ( ) c is correct.


1689
8 Joules experiment establishing the mechanical equivalence of heat
involved the conversion of mechanical energy into internal energy. Give some
everyday examples in which some of the internal energy of a system is converted
into mechanical energy.

Determine the Concept One example from everyday life is that of a hot gas that
expands and does workas in the piston of an engine. Another example is the gas
escaping from a can of spray paint. As it escapes, it moves air molecules and, in
the process, does work against atmospheric pressure.

9 Can a gas absorb heat while its internal energy does not change? If so,
give an example. If not, explain why not.

Determine the Concept Yes.
on in int
W Q E + = . If the gas does work at the same
rate that it absorbs heat, its internal energy will remain constant.

10 The equation E
int
= Q + W is the formal statement of the first law of
thermodynamics. In this equation, the quantities Q and W, respectively, represent
(a) the heat absorbed by the system and the work done by the system, (b) the heat
absorbed by the system and the work done on the system, (c) the heat released by
the system and the work done by the system, (d) the heat released by the system
and the work done on the system.

Determine the Concept According to the first law of thermodynamics, the
change in the internal energy of the system is equal to the heat that enters the
system plus the work done on the system. ) (b is correct.

11 [SSM] A real gas cools during a free expansion, while an ideal gas
does not cool during a free expansion. Explain the reason for this difference.

Determine the Concept Particles that attract each other have more potential
energy the farther apart they are. In a real gas the molecules exert weak attractive
forces on each other. These forces increase the internal potential energy during an
expansion. An increase in potential energy means a decrease in kinetic energy,
and a decrease in kinetic energy means a decrease in translational kinetic energy.
Thus, there is a decrease in temperature.

12 An ideal gas that has a pressure of 1.0 atm and a temperature of 300 K
is confined to half of an insulated container by a thin partition. The other half of
the container is a vacuum. The partition is punctured and equilibrium is quickly
reestablished. Which of the following is correct? (a) The gas pressure is 0.50 atm
and the temperature of the gas is 150 K. (b) The gas pressure is 1.0 atm and the
temperature of the gas is 150 K. (c) The gas pressure is 0.50 atm and the
temperature of the gas is 300 K. (d) None of the above.
Chapter 18

1690
Determine the Concept Because the container is insulated, no energy is
exchanged with the surroundings during the expansion of the gas. Neither is any
work done on or by the gas during this process. Hence, the internal energy of the
gas does not change and we can conclude that the equilibrium temperature will be
the same as the initial temperature. Applying the ideal-gas law for a fixed amount
of gas we see that the pressure at equilibrium must be half an atmosphere. ) (c
is correct.

13 A gas consists of ions that repel each other. The gas undergoes a free
expansion in which no heat is absorbed or released and no work is done. Does the
temperature of the gas increase, decrease, or remain the same? Explain your
answer.

Determine the Concept Particles that repel each other have more potential
energy the closer together they are. The repulsive forces decrease the internal
potential energy during an expansion. A decrease in potential energy means an
increase in kinetic energy, and an increase in kinetic energy means an increase in
translational kinetic energy. Thus, there is an increase in temperature.

14 Two gas-filled rubber balloons that have equal volumes are located at
the bottom of a dark, cold lake. The temperature of the water decreases with
increasing depth. One balloon rises rapidly and expands adiabatically as it rises.
The other balloon rises more slowly and expands isothermally. The pressure in
each balloon remains equal to the pressure in the water just next to the balloon.
Which balloon has the larger volume when it reaches the surface of the lake?
Explain your answer.

Determine the Concept The balloon that expands isothermally is larger when it
reaches the surface. The balloon that expands adiabatically will be at a lower
temperature than the one that expands isothermally. Because each balloon has the
same number of gas molecules and are at the same pressure, the one with the
higher temperature will be bigger. An analytical argument that leads to the same
conclusion is shown below.

Letting the subscript a denote the
adiabatic process and the subscript
i denote the isothermal process,
express the equation of state for the
adiabatic balloon:

a f, f 0 0
V P V P =
1
f
0
0 a f,

=
P
P
V V

For the isothermal balloon:

i f, f 0 0
V P V P =
=
f
0
0 i f,
P
P
V V

1691
by the first and simplify to obtain:

1 1
f
0
1
f
0
0
f
0
0
a f,
i f,

=
P
P
P
P
V
P
P
V
V
V

Because P
0
/P
f
> 1 and > 1:
a f, i f,
V V >

15 A gas changes its state quasi-statically from A to C along the paths
shown in Figure 18-21. The work done by the gas is (a) greatest for path
ABC, (b) least for path AC, (c) greatest for path ADC, (d) The same
for all three paths.

Determine the Concept The work done along each of these paths equals the area
under its curve. The area is greatest for the path ABC and least for the path
ADC. ) (a is correct.

16 When an ideal gas undergoes an adiabatic process, (a) no work is done
by the system, (b) no heat is transferred to the system, (c) the internal energy of
the system remains constant, (d) the amount of heat transferred into the system
equals the amount of work done by the system.

Determine the Concept An adiabatic process is, by definition, one for which no
heat enters or leaves the system. ) (b is correct.

17 True or false:

(a) When a system can go from state 1 to state 2 by several different processes,
the amount of heat absorbed by the system will be the same for all
processes.
(b) When a system can go from state 1 to state 2 by several different processes,
the work done on the system will be the same for all processes.
(c) When a system can go from state 1 to state 2 by several different processes,
the change in the internal energy of the system will be the same for all
processes.
(d) The internal energy of a given amount of an ideal gas depends only on its
absolute temperature.
(e) A quasi-static process is one in which the system is never far from being in
equilibrium.
(f) For any substance that expands when heated, its C
p
is greater than its C
v
.

Chapter 18

1692
(a) False. The amount the internal energy of the system changes along any path
depends only on the temperatures at state 1 and state 2, but because
on in int
W Q E + = , Q
in
depends on W
on
, which, in turn, depends on the path taken
from state 1 to state 2.

(b) False. The work done on the system depends on the path taken from state 1 to
state 2.

(c) True. The amount the internal energy of the system changes along any path
depends only on the temperatures at state 1 and state 2.

(d) True. For an ideal gas, nRT E
2
3
int
= . For a given amount of an ideal gas, n is
constant.

(e) True. This is the definition of a quasi-static process.

(f) True. All materials have values for C
p
and C
v
for which it is true that C
p
is
greater than C
v
. For liquids and solids we generally ignore the very small
difference between C
p
and C
v
.

18 The volume of a sample of gas remains constant while its pressure
increases. (a) The internal energy of the system is unchanged. (b) The system
does work. (c) The system absorbs no heat. (d) The change in internal energy
must equal the heat absorbed by the system. (e) None of the above.

Determine the Concept For a constant-volume process, no work is done on or by
the gas. Applying the first law of thermodynamics, we obtain Q
in
= E
int
. Because
the temperature must change during such a process, we can conclude that
E
int
0 and hence Q
in
0. ) (d is correct.

19 When an ideal gas undergoes an isothermal process, (a) no work is
done by the system, (b) no heat is absorbed by the system, (c) the heat absorbed
by the system equals the change in the systems internal energy, (d) the heat
absorbed by the system equals the work done by the system.

Determine the Concept Because the temperature does not change during an
isothermal process, the change in the internal energy of the gas is zero. Applying
the first law of thermodynamics, we obtain Q
in
= W
on
= W
by the system
. Hence
) (d is correct.


1693
20 Consider the following series of sequential quasi-static processes that a
system undergoes: (1) an adiabatic expansion, (2) an isothermal expansion, (3) an
adiabatic compression and (4) an isothermal compression which brings the system
back to its original state. Sketch the series of processes on a PV diagram, and
then sketch the series of processes on a VT diagram (in which volume is plotted as
function of temperature).

Determine the Concept In the graphs shown below, I denotes an isothermal
process, A denotes an adiabatic process, E denotes an expansion, and C
denotes a compression.

V
P
AE
IE
AC
IC

V
AE
IE
AC
IC
T

21 [SSM] An ideal gas in a cylinder is at pressure P and volume V.
During a quasi-static adiabatic process, the gas is compressed until its volume has
decreased to V/2. Then, in a quasi-static isothermal process, the gas is allowed to
expand until its volume again has a value of V. What kind of process will return
the system to its original state? Sketch the cycle on a graph.

Determine the Concept During a
reversible adiabatic process,
PV is
constant, where < 1 and during an
isothermal processes PV is constant.
Thus, the pressure rise during the
compression is greater than the pressure
drop during the expansion. The final
process could be a constant volume
process during which heat is absorbed
from the system. A constant-volume
cooling will decrease the pressure and
return the gas to its original state.
V
P
adiabatic
isothermal
i
V
i 2
1
f
V V =
constant volume

Chapter 18

1694
22 Metal A is denser than metal B. Which would you expect to have a
higher heat capacity per unit mass, metal A or metal B? Why?

Determine the Concept We can use the definition of heat capacity, the Dulong-
Petit law, and the relationship between the mass of a substance and its molar mass
to predict whether metal A or metal B has a higher heat capacity per unit mass.

The specific heat of metal A is given
by:
A
A
M
c'
c =

From the Dulong-Petit law, the
molar heat capacity of most metals is
approximately:

R c' 3 =
Substituting for c yields:
A
A
3
M
R
c =

Similarly, the specific heat of metal
B is given by:

B
B
3
M
R
c =
Dividing c
A
by c
B
and simplifying
yields:
A
B
B
A
B
A
3
3
M
M
M
R
M
R
c
c
= =
B
A
B
A
c
M
M
c =

Because metal A is denser than metal
B:
B A
c c >

23 An ideal gas undergoes a process during which constant = V P and
the volume of the gas decreases. Does its temperature increase, decrease, or
remain the same during this process? Explain.

Picture the Problem We can use the given dependence of the pressure on the
volume and the ideal-gas law to show that if the volume decreases, so does the
temperature.

Were given that:
constant = V P

Because the gas is an ideal gas: ( )
nRT
V V V P PV
=
= = constant

Solving for T yields:
( )
V
nR
V
T =
constant


1695
Because T varies with the square root of V, if the volume decreases, the
temperature decreases.

Estimation and Approximation

24 During the early stages of designing a modern electric generating
plant, you are in charge of the team of environmental engineers. The new plant is
to be located on the ocean and will use ocean water for cooling. The plant will
produce electrical power at the rate of 1.00 GW. Because the plant will have an
efficiency of one-third (typical of most modern plants), heat will be released to
the cooling water at the rate of 2.00 GW. If environmental codes require that only
water with a temperature increase of 15F or less can be returned to the ocean,
estimate the flow rate (in kg/s) of cooling water through the plant.

Picture the Problem The rate at which thermal energy is delivered to the ocean
by the power plant is given by t Q P = where T mc Q =

Express the rate at which thermal
energy is delivered to the ocean:
( ) T c
t
m
T mc
t t
Q
P
= = =

Our interest is in the flow rate of the
cooling water. Solving for t m
yields:
T c
P
t
m

=

Substitute numerical values and
evaluate t m :
kg/s 10 7 . 5
F 9
C 5
F 15
C kg
kJ
4.184
J/s 10 00 . 2
4
9
=
=
t
m

25 [SSM] A typical microwave oven has a power consumption of
about 1200 W. Estimate how long it should take to boil a cup of water in the
microwave assuming that 50% of the electrical power consumption goes into
heating the water. How does this estimate correspond to everyday experience?

Picture the Problem Assume that the water is initially at 30C and that the cup
contains 200 g of water. We can use the definition of power to express the
required time to bring the water to a boil in terms of its mass, heat capacity,
change in temperature, and the rate at which energy is supplied to the water by the
microwave oven.

Use the definition of power to relate
the energy needed to warm the water
to the elapsed time:

t
T mc
t
W
P
=
P
T mc
t

=
Chapter 18

1696

Substitute numerical values and evaluate t:

( ) ( )
min 1.6 s 63 . 97
W 600
C 30 C 100
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 200 . 0
=

= t ,
an elapsed time that seems to be consistent with experience.

26 A demonstration of the heating of a gas under adiabatic compression
involves putting a small strip of paper into a large glass test tube, which is then
sealed off with a piston. If the piston compresses the trapped air very rapidly, the
paper will catch fire. Assuming that the burning point of paper is 451F, estimate
the factor by which the volume of the air trapped by the piston must be reduced
for this demonstration to work.

Picture the Problem The adiabatic compression from an initial volume V
1
to a
final volume V
2
between the isotherms at temperatures T
1
and T
2
is shown below.
Well assume a room temperature of 300 K and apply the equation for a quasi-
static adiabatic compression to 451F (506 K) with
air
= 1.4 to solve for the ratio
of the initial to the final volume of the air.
P
V
K 300
1
= T
K 506
2
= T
2
V
1
V

Express constant
1
=

TV in terms of
the initial and final values of T and
V:

1
2 2
1
1 1

=

V T V T
1
1
1
2
2
1

=

T
T
V
V

evaluate V
1
/V
2
:

69 . 3
K 300
K 506
1 4 . 1
1
2
1
=
=

V
V

27 A small change in the volume of a liquid occurs when heating the
liquid at constant pressure. Use the following data to estimate the fractional
contribution this change makes to the heat capacity of water between 4.00C and
100C. The density of water at 4.00C and 1.00 atm pressure is 1.000 g/cm
3
. The
density of liquid water at 100C and 1.00 atm pressure is 0.9584 g/cm
3
.


1697
Picture the Problem The heat capacity C
p
of a sample of water is equal to the
mass m of the sample times the specific heat capacity c
p
of water, where
c
p
= 4186 J/kgK. When the sample is heated, its temperature and its volume
increases. The increase in temperature reflects the increase in the internal energy
of the sample, and the increase in volume reflects the amount of work W
on
done
by the sample on its surroundings. That is, W
on
= PV, where P is the pressure
and V is the change in volume of the sample. We are looking for the ratio of the
work done by the sample to the heat absorbed by the sample.

The heat that enters the water during
the constant pressure process is
given by:

T mc Q =
p in

The work that is done by the sample
during this process is given by:

( )
C 4.00 C 100 by
= = V V P V P W

The volumes of the sample at these
temperatures is related to its
densities at these temperatures:

=

C 4.00 C 100
C 4.00 C 100
by
1 1

Pm
m m
P W

where m is the mass of the sample.

Taking the ratio of W
by
to Q
in
yields:

=

C 00 . 4 C 100 p
C 00 . 4 C 100 p in
by
1 1
1 1

T c
P
T mc
Pm
Q
W

Substitute numerical values and evaluate W
by
/Q
in
:

W
by
Q
in
=
101.32510
3
Pa
4186
J
kg K
96 K ( )
1
954.3
kg
m
3
1
1000
kg
m
3
= 1.2 10
3
%

Heat Capacity, Specific Heat, Latent Heat

28 You designed a solar home that contains 1.00 10
5
kg of concrete
(specific heat = 1.00 kJ/kgK). How much heat is released by the concrete at night
when it cools from 25.0C to 20.0C?

Picture the Problem We can use the relationship T mc Q = to calculate the
amount of heat given off by the concrete as it cools from 25.0C to 20.0C.
Chapter 18

1698

Relate the heat given off by the
concrete to its mass, specific heat,
and change in temperature:

T mc Q =
Substitute numerical values and evaluate Q:

( ) ( ) kJ 500 C 0 . 0 2 C 0 . 5 2
K kg
kJ
1.00 kg 10 1.00
5
=
= Q

29 [SSM] How much heat must be absorbed by 60.0 g of ice at 10.0C
to transform it into 60.0 g of water at 40.0C?

Picture the Problem We can find the amount of heat that must be absorbed by
adding the heat required to warm the ice from 10.0C to 0C, the heat required to
melt the ice, and the heat required to warm the water formed from the ice to
40.0C.

Express the total heat required:
water warm ice melt ice warm
Q Q Q Q + + =

Substitute for each term to obtain:

( )
water water f ice ice
water water f ice ice
T c L T c m
T mc mL T mc Q
+ + =
+ + =

Substitute numerical values (See Tables 18-1 and 18-2) and evaluate Q:

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
kJ 3 . 31
C 0 C 0 . 0 4
K kg
kJ
184 . 4
kg
kJ
5 . 33 3 C 0 . 0 1 C 0
K kg
kJ
05 . 2 kg 0.0600
=
+
+
= Q

30 How much heat must be released by 0.100 kg of steam at 150C to
transform it into 0.100 kg of ice at 0C?

Picture the Problem We can find the amount of heat that must be removed by
adding the heat that must be removed to cool the steam from 150C to 100C, the
heat that must be removed to condense the steam to water, the heat that must be
removed to cool the water from 100C to 0C, and the heat that must be removed
to freeze the water.


1699
Express the total heat that must be
removed:
water freeze water cool
steam condense steam cool
Q Q
Q Q Q
+ +
+ =

Substitute for each term and simplify to obtain:

( )
f water water v steam steam
f water water v steam steam

L T c L T c m
mL T mc mL T mc Q
+ + + =
+ + + =

Substitute numerical values (See Tables 18-1 and 18-2) and evaluate Q:

( ) ( )
( )
kJ 311
kg
kJ
5 . 333 C 0 C 100
K kg
kJ
184 . 4
kg
MJ
26 . 2 C 100 C 150
K kg
kJ
02 . 2 kg 0.100
=
+
+
= Q

31 A 50.0-g piece of aluminum at 20C is cooled to 196C by placing it
in a large container of liquid nitrogen at that temperature. How much nitrogen is
vaporized? (Assume that the specific heat of aluminum is constant over this
temperature range.)

Picture the Problem We can find the amount of nitrogen vaporized by equating
the heat gained by the liquid nitrogen and the heat lost by the piece of aluminum.

Express the heat gained by the liquid
nitrogen as it cools the piece of
aluminum:

N v, N N
L m Q =
Express the heat lost by the piece of
aluminum as it cools:

Al Al Al Al
T c m Q =
Equate these two expressions and
solve for m
N
:
Al Al Al N v, N
T c m L m =
and
N v,
Al Al Al
N

L
T c m
m =

Chapter 18

1700

Substitute numerical values (see Table 18-1 for the specific heat of aluminum)
and evaluate m
N
:

( ) ( ) ( )
g 48.8
kg
kJ
199
C 196 C 20
K kg
kJ
0.900 kg 0.0500
N
=

= m

32 You are supervising the creation of some lead castings for use in the
construction industry. Each casting involves one of your workers pouring
0.500 kg of molten lead that has a temperature of 327C into a cavity in a large
block of ice at 0C. How much liquid water should you plan on draining per hour
if there are 100 workers who are able to each average one casting every 10.0 min?

Picture the Problem Because the heat lost by the lead as it cools is gained by the
block of ice (were assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings), we can apply the
conservation of energy to determine how much ice melts.

Apply the conservation of energy
to this process:

0
W Pb
= + = Q Q Q
or
( ) 0
w f, casting 1 w, Pb Pb Pb f, Pb
= + + L m T c L m

Solving for m
w
yields: ( )
W f,
Pb Pb Pb f, Pb
casting 1 W,

L
T c L m
m
+
=

Because there are N workers each
turning out n castings per hour:
( )
W f,
Pb Pb Pb f, Pb
casting 1 W.
L
T c L nNm
nNm m
+
=
=

Substitute numerical values and evaluate m
w
:

( )( )( ) ( )
kg 60
kg
kJ
333.5
C 0 C 327
K kg
kJ
0.128
kg
kJ
7 . 24 kg 500 . 0 6 100
+
= m

Calorimetry

33 [SSM] While spending the summer on your uncles horse farm, you
spend a week apprenticing with his farrier (a person who makes and fits

1701
horseshoes). You observe the way he cools a shoe after pounding the hot, pliable
shoe into the correct size and shape. Suppose a 750-g iron horseshoe is taken from
the farriers fire, shaped, and at a temperature of 650C, dropped into a 25.0-L
bucket of water at 10.0C. What is the final temperature of the water after the
horseshoe and water arrive at equilibrium? Neglect any heating of the bucket and
assume the specific heat of iron is K) J/(kg 460 .

Picture the Problem During this process the water will gain energy at the
expense of the horseshoe. We can use conservation of energy to find the
equilibrium temperature. See Table 18-1 for the specific heat of water.

Apply conservation of energy to obtain:

0
horseshoe the cool water the warm
i
i
= + =
Q Q Q
or
( ) ( ) 0 C 650 C 0 . 10
f Fe Fe f water water
= + t c m t c m

Solve for t
f
to obtain:

( ) ( )
Fe Fe water water
Fe Fe water water
f
C 650 C 0 . 10
c m c m
c m c m
t
+
+
=

Substitute numerical values and evaluate t
f
:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
C 1 . 12
K kg
kJ
460 . 0 kg 750 . 0
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 0 . 25
C 650
K kg
kJ
460 . 0 kg 750 . 0 C 0 . 10
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 0 . 25
f
=
= t

34 The specific heat of a certain metal can be determined by measuring
the temperature change that occurs when a piece of the metal is heated and then
placed in an insulated container that is made of the same material and contains
water. Suppose the piece of metal has a mass of 100 g and is initially at 100C.
The container has a mass of 200 g and contains 500 g of water at an initial
temperature of 20.0C. The final temperature is 21.4C. What is the specific heat
of the metal?

Picture the Problem During this process the water and the container will gain
thermal energy at the expense of the piece of metal. Applying conservation of
energy will lead to an expression you can solve for the specific heat of the metal.
Chapter 18

1702


0
sample metal the cool container the warm water the warm
i
i
= + + =
Q Q Q Q
or
0
metal metal metal w metal container w w w
= + + T c m T c m T c m

Solving for c
metal
yields:
w container metal metal
w w w
metal

T m T m
T c m
c
=

Substitute numerical values and evaluate c
metal
:

( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )
K kg
kJ
39 . 0
C 0 . 20 C 4 . 21 kg 0.200 C 4 . 21 C 100 kg 0.100
C 0 . 20 C 4 . 21
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 0.500
metal
= c

Remarks: Consulting Table 18-1, we note that the metal is copper.

35 During his many appearances at the Tour de France, champion
bicyclist Lance Armstrong typically expended an average power of 400 W,
5.0 hours a day for 20 days. What quantity of water, initially at 24C, could be
brought to a boil if you could harness all of that energy?

Picture the Problem We can use T mc Q = to express the mass m of water that
can be heated through a temperature interval T by an amount of heat energy Q.
We can then find the amount of heat energy expended by Armstrong from the
definition of power.

Express the amount of heat energy Q
required to raise the temperature of a
mass m of water by T:

T mc Q =
T c
Q
m
=

Use the definition of power to relate
the heat energy expended by
Armstrong to the rate at which he
expended the energy:

t
Q
P
= t P Q =

Substitute for Q to obtain:

T c
t P
m
=


1703
evaluate m:
( )
kg 10 5 . 4
C 24 C 100
K kg
kJ
184 . 4
d 20
d
h
0 . 5
h
s 3600
s
J
400
2
=

= m

36 A 25.0-g glass tumbler contains 200 mL of water at 24.0C. If two
15.0-g ice cubes, each at a temperature of 3.00C, are dropped into the tumbler,
what is the final temperature of the drink? Neglect any heat transfer between the
tumbler and the room.

Picture the Problem First you need to convince yourself that there is enough
energy in the water to melt all the ice. Once youve done that you can use
conservation of energy to find the final equilibrium temperature. See Tables 18-1
and 18-2 for specific heats and the latent heat of fusion of water.

First, determine the energy required to warm and melt all the ice:

( ) ( ) ( )( )
kJ 10.19 kJ 01 . 10 kJ 1845 . 0
kJ/kg 5 . 333 kg 0300 . 0 C 00 . 3
K kg
kJ
2.05 kg 0300 . 0
f ice ice warm ice ice ice melt ice warm needed
= + =
+
=
+ = + = L m T c m Q Q Q

The maximum amount of energy available from the water and the tumbler
is:

( ) ( )
( )
kJ 20.59 kJ 08 . 20 kJ 5040 . 0
C 0 . 24 C 0
K kg
kJ
184 . 4
L
m 10
L 10 200
m
kg
10 00 . 1
C 0 . 24 C 0
K kg
kJ
.840 0 kg 0250 . 0

3 3
3
3
3
water max, water water water tumbler max, glass tumbler
water max, water water tumbler max, glass tumbler max available,
= =

=
+ =
+ =
T c V T c m
T c m T c m Q

Chapter 18

1704

Because
max available,
Q >
needed
Q , all the ice will melt and the final temperature will be
greater than 0C. Apply conservation of energy to obtain:

0
water ice the warm
ice the all melt ice the warm water warm the cool tumbler the cool
i
i
= +
+ + + =
Q
Q Q Q Q Q

or
0

water ice water ice ice f, ice
ice warn ice ice water water water tumbler glass tumbler
= + +
+ +
T c m L m
T c m T c m T c m

Substituting numerical values yields:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 0 C 0
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 0300 . 0 kJ 01 . 10 kJ 1845 . 0
C 0 . 24
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 200 . 0 C 0 . 24
K kg
kJ
840 . 0 kg 0250 . 0
f
f f
=
+ + +

t
t t

Solving for t
f
yields:

C 6 . 10
f
= t

37 [SSM] A 200-g piece of ice at 0C is placed in 500 g of water at
20C. This system is in a container of negligible heat capacity and is insulated
from its surroundings. (a) What is the final equilibrium temperature of the
system? (b) How much of the ice melts?

Picture the Problem Because we can not tell, without performing a couple of
calculations, whether there is enough heat available in the 500 g of water to melt
all of the ice, well need to resolve this question first. See Tables 18-1 and 18-2
for specific heats and the latent heat of fusion of water.

(a) Determine the energy required to
melt 200 g of ice:
( )
kJ 70 . 6 6
kg
kJ
5 . 33 3 kg 0.200
f ice ice melt
=

= = L m Q

The energy available from 500 g of water at 20C is:

( ) ( )
kJ 84 . 1 4
C 0 2 C 0
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 0.500
water water water max available,
=

= = T c m Q


1705
Because
max available,
Q <
ice melt
Q : C. 0 is re temperatu final The

(b) Equate the energy available from
the water
max available,
Q to m
ice
L
f
and
solve for m
ice
to obtain:

f
max available,
ice
L
Q
m =
evaluate m
ice
:
g 125
kg
kJ
5 . 33 3
kJ 84 . 1 4
ice
= = m

38 A 3.5-kg block of copper at a temperature of 80C is dropped into a
bucket containing a mixture of ice and water whose total mass is 1.2 kg. When
thermal equilibrium is reached, the temperature of the water is 8.0C. How much
ice was in the bucket before the copper block was placed in it? (Assume that the
heat capacity of the bucket is negligible.)

Picture the Problem Because the bucket contains a mixture of ice and water
initially, we know that its temperature must be 0C. We can apply conservation of
energy to find the amount of ice initially in the bucket. See Tables 18-1 and 18-2
for specific heats and the heats of fusion and vaporization of water.


0
block copper
the cool
water ice
the warm
ice the
all melt
i
i
= + + =
Q Q Q Q

Substitute for
ice the
all melt
Q ,
water ice
the warm
Q , and
block copper
the cool
Q to obtain:

0
Cu Cu Cu water ice water water ice f ice
= + + T c m T c m L m

Solving for m
ice
yields:

f
water ice water water ice Cu Cu Cu
ice
L
T c m T c m
m

=

Chapter 18

1706

Substitute numerical values and evaluate m
ice
:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
kg 17 . 0
kg
kJ
5 . 33 3
C 0 C 0 . 8
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 2 . 1
kg
kJ
5 . 33 3
C 0 . 8 C 80
K kg
kJ
386 . 0 kg 5 . 3
ice
=

= m

39 A well-insulated bucket of negligible heat capacity contains 150 g of
ice at 0C. (a) If 20 g of steam at 100C is injected into the bucket, what is the
final equilibrium temperature of the system? (b) Is any ice left after the system
reaches equilibrium?

energy in the steam to melt all the ice. Once youve done that you can use
and 18-2 for specific heats and the heats of fusion and vaporization of water.

(a) First, determine the energy
required to melt all the ice:

( )( )
kJ 03 . 50
kJ/kg 5 . 333 kg 150 . 0
f ice ice melt
=
=
= L m Q

Find the maximum amount of energy available from the steam is:

( ) ( ) ( )
kJ 51 . 53 kJ 8.37 kJ 14 . 45
C 00 1 C 0
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 020 . 0
kg
kJ
2257 kg 020 . 0
max water water steam v steam max steam,

= =

=
+ = T c m L m Q

Because
max steam,
Q >
ice melt
Q , all the ice will melt and the final temperature will be

0
water ice
the warm
ice the
all melt
hot water
the cool
steam
condense
i
i
= + + + =
Q Q Q Q Q
or

1707
( ) ( ) 0 C 0 kJ 03 . 50 C 100 kJ 14 . 45
f water ice f water hot water
= + + + t c m t c m


( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 0 C 0
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 150 . 0
kJ 03 . 50 C 100
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 020 . 0 kJ 14 . 45
f
f
=
+
+
+
t
t

Solving for t
f
yields:

C 9 . 4
f
= t

(b) Because the final temperature is greater than 0C, no ice is left.

40 A calorimeter of negligible heat capacity contains 1.00 kg of water at
303 K and 50.0 g of ice at 273 K. (a) Find the final temperature T. (b) Find the
final temperature T if the mass of ice is 500 g.

energy in the water to melt all the ice. Once youve done that you can use
and 18-2 for specific heats and the heat of fusion of water.

(a) Find the heat available to melt the ice:

( ) ( )
kJ 5 . 25 1
K 03 3 K 73 2
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 1.00
water water water max available,
=
= = T c m Q

Find the heat required to melt all of the ice:

( ) kJ 68 . 6 1
kg
kJ
5 . 33 3 kg 0.0500
f ice ice melt
=
= = L m Q

Because
ice melt max available,
Q Q > , we know that the final temperature will be
greater than 273 K. Apply conservation of energy to obtain:

0
water ice
the warm
ice the
all melt
water warm
the cool
i
i
= + + =
Q Q Q Q
or
Chapter 18

1708
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 0 K 273
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 0500 . 0
kJ 68 . 16 K 303
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 00 . 1
=
+
+
T
T

Solving for T
f
yields:
K 298
f
= T

(b) Find the heat required to melt 500
g of ice:
( )( )
kJ 67 1
kJ/kg 5 . 33 3 kg 0.500
f ice ice melt
=
= L m Q

Because the heat required to melt 500 g of ice is greater than the heat available,
the final temperature will be 0C.

41 A 200-g aluminum calorimeter contains 600 g of water at 20.0C. A
100-g piece of ice cooled to 20.0C is placed in the calorimeter. (a) Find the final
temperature of the system, assuming no heat is transferred to or from the system.
(b) A 200-g piece of ice at 20.0C is added. How much ice remains in the system
after the system reaches equilibrium? (c) Would the answer for Part (b) change if
both pieces of ice were added at the same time?

energy in the water and the calorimeter to melt all the ice. Once youve done that
you can use conservation of energy to find the final equilibrium temperature in
(a). In Part (b) you can find the energy required to raise the temperature of the
200 g of ice to 0C and then, noting that there are now 700 g of water in the
calorimeter, find the energy available from cooling the calorimeter and water
from their equilibrium temperature to 0C. Finally, you can find the amount of
ice that will melt in terms of the difference between the energy available and the
energy required to warm the ice. See Tables 18-1 and 18-2 for specific heats and
the latent heat of fusion of water.

Find the energy available to melt the ice:

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
kJ 81 . 53
C 0 . 20 C 0
K kg
kJ
900 . 0 kg 200 . 0
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 600 . 0

water cal cal water water water cal cal water water water max available,
=

=
+ = + = T c m c m T c m T c m Q


1709

Find the energy required to warm and melt all of the ice:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
kJ 45 . 37
kg
kJ
5 . 33 3 kg 0.100 C 0 . 20 C 0
K kg
kJ
2.05 kg 0.100
f ice ice ice ice

ice melt the
and warm
=

=
+ = L m T c m Q

(a) Because
ice melt max available,
Q Q > , we know that the final temperature will be

0
water ice
the warm
ice melt the
and warm
water warm
the cool
r calorimete
the cool
i
i
= + + + =
Q Q Q Q Q
or, using the results from our preliminary calculations,

( ) ( )
( ) 0 C 0
kJ 45 . 37 C 0 . 20 C 0 . 20
f water ice
f water water f Cu r calorimete
= +
+ +
t c m
t c m t c m


( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 0
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 100 . 0 kJ 37.45
C 0 . 20
K kg
kJ
4.184 kg 600 . 0 C 0 . 20
K kg
kJ
0.900 kg 200 . 0
f
f f
=
+ +

t
t t

Solve for t
f
to obtain:
C 26 . 5 C 262 . 5
f
= = t

(b) The mass of ice remaining in the system when equilibrium is reached is the
difference between the initial mass of ice and the mass of the ice that has melted:

f
C 0 to
ice warm avail
initially
ice
melted
ice
initially
ice
remaining
ice
L
Q Q
m m m m

= = (1)

Find the energy required to raise the temperature of the 200 g of ice to 0C:

( ) ( ) ( ) kJ 080 . 8 C 0 . 20 C 0
K kg
kJ
2.02 kg 0.200
ice ice ice
C 0 to
ice warm
=
= =
T c m Q

Chapter 18

1710
Noting that there are now 700 g of water in the calorimeter, find the energy
available from cooling the calorimeter and water from 5.262C to 0C:

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
kJ 359 . 16
C 0 C 262 . 5
K kg
kJ
900 . 0 kg 200 . 0
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 700 . 0

water cal cal water water water cal cal water water water avail
=

=
+ = + = T c m c m T c m T c m Q

Substitute numerical values in equation (1) and evaluate
remaining
ice
m :

g 00 2
kJ/kg 333.5
kJ 8.080 kJ 359 . 6 1
g 200
remaining
ice
=
= m

(c) No. Because the initial and final conditions are the same, the answer would be
the same.

42 The specific heat of a 100-g block of a substance is to be determined.
The block is placed in a 25-g copper calorimeter holding 60 g of water initially at
20C. Then, 120 mL of water at 80C are added to the calorimeter. When thermal
equilibrium is reached, the temperature of the system is 54C. Determine the
specific heat of the block.

Picture the Problem Let the subscript B denote the block, w
1
the water initially in
the calorimeter, and w
2
the 120 mL of water that is added to the calorimeter vessel.
We can use conservation of energy to find the specific heat of the block. See Table
18-1 for specific heats.


0
2 1
w cool w warm
r calorimete
the warm
block the
warm
i
i
= + + + =
Q Q Q Q Q
or
0
2 2 2 1 1
w w w w w Cu Cu B B
= + + + T c m T c m T c m T c m

where T is the common temperature change of the calorimeter, block, and water
initially in the calorimeter.


1711

Substitute numerical values to obtain:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 0 C 80 C 54
K kg
kJ
4.184 kg 0.120
C 0 2 C 54
K kg
kJ
4.184 kg 0.060
C 0 2 C 54
K kg
kJ
0.386 kg 025 . 0 C 0 2 C 54 kg 100 . 0
B
=
+ c

Solving for c
B
yields:
K kJ/kg 2 . 1
B
= c

43 [SSM] A 100-g piece of copper is heated in a furnace to a
temperature t
C
. The copper is then inserted into a 150-g copper calorimeter
containing 200 g of water. The initial temperature of the water and calorimeter is
16.0C, and the temperature after equilibrium is established is 38.0C. When the
calorimeter and its contents are weighed, 1.20 g of water are found to have
evaporated. What was the temperature t
C
?

Picture the Problem We can find the temperature t by applying conservation of
energy to this calorimetry problem. See Tables 18-1 and 18-2 for specific heats
and the heat of vaporization of water.

Use conservation of energy to obtain:

0
sample Cu
the cool
r calorimete
the warm
water the
warm
water
vaporize
i
i
= + + + =
Q Q Q Q Q
or
0
Cu Cu Cu w cal cal O H O H O H w f, vaporized O, H
2 2 2 2
= + + + T c m T c m T c m L m


( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 0 C 0 . 38
K kg
kJ
386 . 0 g 100
C 0 . 16 C 0 . 38
K kg
kJ
386 . 0 g 150
C 0 . 16 C 0 . 38
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 g 200
K kg
kJ
2257 g 1.20
C
=
t

Solving for t
C
yields:
C 618
C
= t
Chapter 18

1712
44 A 200-g aluminum calorimeter contains 500 g of water at 20.0C.
Aluminum shot with a mass equal to 300 g is heated to 100.0C and is then placed
in the calorimeter. Find the final temperature of the system, assuming that there is
no heat is transfer to the surroundings.

Picture the Problem We can find the final temperature by applying conservation
of energy to the calorimeter, the water in the calorimeter, and to the cooling
aluminum shot. See Table 18-1 for the specific heats of aluminum and water.

Use conservation of energy to obtain:

0
shot Al
the cool
r calorimete
the warm
water
the warm
i
i
= + + =
Q Q Q Q
or
[ ] 0
Al Al shot Al cal w w
= + + T c m T c m c m

where T is the common temperature change of the water and calorimeter.


( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 0 C 100
K kg
kJ
0.900 kg 0.300
C 0 . 20
K kg
kJ
900 . 0 kg 0.200
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 0.500
f
f
=
t
t

Solving for t
f
gives:
C 5 . 28
f
= t

First Law of Thermodynamics

45 A diatomic gas does 300 J of work and also absorbs 2.50 kJ of heat.
What is the change in internal energy of the gas?

Picture the Problem We can apply the first law of thermodynamics to find the
change in internal energy of the gas during this process.

Apply the first law of
thermodynamics to express the
change in internal energy of the gas
in terms of the heat added to the
system and the work done on the gas:

on in int
W Q E + =

1713
The work done by the gas equals the
negative of the work done on the gas.
evaluate E
int
:
kJ 2.20 J 300 kJ 50 . 2
int
= = E

46 If a gas absorbs 1.67 MJ of heat while doing 800 kJ of work, what is
the change in the internal energy of the gas?


Apply the first law of thermodynamics
to express the change in internal
energy of the gas in terms of the heat
added to the system and the work
done on the gas:

on in int
W Q E + =
The work done by the gas is the
negative of the work done on the
gas. Substitute numerical values and
evaluate E
int
:
MJ 7 0.8 kJ 800 MJ 67 . 1
int
= = E

47 If a gas absorbs 84 J while doing 30 J of work, what is the change in
the internal energy of the gas?


to express the change in internal
energy of the gas in terms of the heat
added to the system and the work done
on the gas:

on in int
W Q E + =
gas. Substitute numerical values and
evaluate E
int
:
J 54 J 0 3 J 84
int
= = E

48 A lead bullet initially at 30C just melts upon striking a target.
Assuming that all of the initial kinetic energy of the bullet goes into the internal
energy of the bullet, calculate the impact speed of the bullet.

Chapter 18

1714
Picture the Problem We can use the definition of kinetic energy to express the
speed of the bullet upon impact in terms of its kinetic energy. The heat absorbed
by the bullet is the sum of the heat required to warm the bullet from 303 K to its
melting temperature of 600 K and the heat required to melt it. We can use the first
law of thermodynamics to relate the impact speed of the bullet to the change in its
internal energy. See Table 18-1 for the specific heat and melting temperature of
lead.

Using the first law of
thermodynamics, relate the change in
the internal energy of the bullet to
the work done on it by the target:

on in int
W Q E + =
or, because Q
in
= 0,
( )
i
K K K W E = = =
f on int

Substitute for E
int
, K
f
, and K
i
to
obtain:

( )
2
2
1
2
2
1
Pb f, Pb Pb
0 mv mv mL T mc = = +
or
( )
2
2
1
Pb f, i MP Pb
mv mL T T mc = +

Solving for v yields:

( ) [ ]
Pb f, i MP Pb
2 L T T c v + =

Substitute numerical values and evaluate v:

( ) m/s 354
kg
kJ
24.7 K 303 K 600
K kg
kJ
0.128 2 =
= v

49 During a cold day, you can warm your hands by rubbing them
together. Assume the coefficient of kinetic friction between your hands is 0.500,
the normal force between your hands is 35.0 N, and that you rub them together at
an average relative speed of 35.0 cm/s. (a) What is the rate at which mechanical
energy is dissipated? (b) Assume further that the mass of each of your hands is
350 g, the specific heat of your hands is 4.00 kJ/kgK, and that all the dissipated
mechanical energy goes into increasing the temperature of your hands. How long
must you rub your hands together to produce a 5.00C increase in their
temperature?

Picture the Problem We can find the rate at which heat is generated when you
rub your hands together using the definition of power and the rubbing time to
produce a 5.00C increase in temperature from ( ) t dt dQ Q = and
Q = mcT.


1715
(a) The rate at which heat is
generated as a function of the friction
force and the average relative speed
of your hands is given by:

v F v f P
dt
dQ
n k
= = =
evaluate dQ/dt:
( )( )( )
W 6.13 W 6.125
m/s 0.350 N 35.0 .500 0
= =
=
dt
dQ

(b) Relate the heat required to raise
the temperature of your hands
5.00C to the rate at which it is
being generated:

T mc t
dt
dQ
Q = =
dt dQ
T mc
t

=
evaluate t:
( ) ( )
min 1 . 38
s 60
min 1
s 286 2
W 6.125
C 5.00
K kg
kJ
4.00 kg 0.350 2
= =
= t

Work and the PV Diagram for a Gas

50 The gas is allowed to expand at constant pressure until it reaches its
final volume. It is then cooled at constant volume until it reaches its final
pressure. (a) Illustrate this process on a PV diagram and calculate the work done
by the gas. (b) Find the heat absorbed by the gas during this process.

Picture the Problem We can find the work done by the gas during this process
from the area under the curve. Because no work is done along the constant
volume (vertical) part of the path, the work done by the gas is done during its
isobaric expansion. We can then use the first law of thermodynamics to find the
heat added to the system during this process.

Chapter 18

1716
(a) The path from the initial state (1)
to the final state (2) is shown on the
PV diagram.

2
0
1
0
P, atm
3.00
2.00
1.00
1.00 2.00 3.00
V, L

The work done by the gas equals the area under the shaded curve:

( )( )
J 608
L
m 10
L 2.00
atm
kPa 101.325
atm 3.00 L 2.00 atm 3.00
3 3
gas by
=
= = =

V P W

(b) The work done by the gas is the
gas. Apply the first law of
thermodynamics to the system to
obtain:

( ) ( )
( )
gas by int,1 int,2
gas by int,1 int,2
on int in
W E E
W E E
W E Q
+ =
=
=

evaluate Q
in
:
( )
kJ 1.06
J 608 J 456 J 912
in
=
+ = Q

51 [SSM] The gas is first cooled at constant volume until it reaches its
final pressure. It is then allowed to expand at constant pressure until it reaches its
final volume. (a) Illustrate this process on a PV diagram and calculate the work
done by the gas. (b) Find the heat absorbed by the gas during this process.

isobaric expansion. We can then use the first law of thermodynamics to find the
heat absorbed by the gas during this process


1717
PV diagram.

2
0
1
0
P, atm
3.00
2.00
1.00
1.00 2.00 3.00
V, L

The work done by the gas equals the area under the curve:

( )( )
J 05 4
L
m 10
L 2.00
atm
kPa 101.325
atm 2.00 L 2.00 atm 2.00
3 3
gas by
=
= = =

V P W

obtain:

( ) ( )
( )
gas by int,1 int,2
gas by int,1 int,2
on int in
W E E
W E E
W E Q
+ =
=
=

evaluate Q
in
:
( ) J 61 8 J 05 4 J 456 J 912
in
= + = Q

52 The gas is allowed to expand isothermally until it reaches its final
volume and its pressure is 1.00 atm. It is then heated at constant volume until it
reaches its final pressure. (a) Illustrate this process on a PV diagram and calculate
the work done by the gas. (b) Find the heat absorbed by the gas during this
process.

isothermal expansion. We can then use the first law of thermodynamics to find the
heat absorbed by the gas during this process.

Chapter 18

1718
PV diagram.

2
0
1
0
P, atm
3.00
3.00
2.00
2.00
1.00
1.00
V, L

The work done by the gas equals
the area under the curve:

[ ]
3 ln
ln
1 1
L 3.00
L 00 . 1 1 1
L 00 . 3
L 00 . 1
1 1
L 3
L 1
1 gas by
2
1
V P
V V P
V
dV
V P
V
dV
nRT dV P W
V
V
=
= =
= =

by gas
:

J 334 3 ln
L
m 10
L 1.00
atm
kPa 101.325
atm 3.00
3 3
gas by
=
=

W

obtain:

( ) ( )
( )
gas by int,1 int,2
gas by int,1 int,2
on int in
W E E
W E E
W E Q
+ =
=
=

evaluate Q
in
:
( ) J 790 J 334 J 456 J 912
in
= + = Q

53 The gas is heated and is allowed to expand such that it follows a single
straight-line path on a PV diagram from its initial state to its final state.
(a) Illustrate this process on a PV diagram and calculate the work done by the gas.
(b) Find the heat absorbed by the gas during this process.

from the area under the curve. We can then use the first law of thermodynamics to
find the heat absorbed by the gas during this process.


1719
PV diagram:

0
0
1
2
V,L
P, atm
3.00
3.00 2.00
2.00
1.00
1.00


( )( )
J 507
L atm
J 101.325
L atm 00 . 5
L 2.00 atm 2.00 atm 3.00
2
1
trapezoid gas by
=

=
+ =
= A W

obtain:

( ) ( )
( )
gas by int,1 int,2
gas by int,1 int,2
on int in
W E E
W E E
W E Q
+ =
=
=

evaluate Q
in
:
( ) J 63 9 J 507 J 456 J 912
in
= + = Q

Remarks: You could use the linearity of the path connecting the initial and
final states and the coordinates of the endpoints to express P as a function of
V. You could then integrate this function between 1.00 and 3.00 L to find the
work done by the gas as it goes from its initial to its final state.

54 In this problem, 1.00 mol of a dilute gas initially has a pressure equal
to 1.00 atm, a volume equal to 25.0 L and an internal energy equal to 456 J. As
the gas is slowly heated, the plot of its state on a PV diagram moves in a straight
line to the final state. The gas now has a pressure equal to 3.00 atm, a volume
equal to 75.0 L and an internal energy equal to 912 J. Find the work done and the
heat absorbed by the gas.

from the area under the curve and the heat absorbed by the gas from the 1
st
law of
thermodynamics.

Chapter 18

1720
The path from the initial state i to
the final state f is shown on the PV
diagram:
0
0
P, atm
i
f
V,L
3.00
2.00
1.00
75.0 50.0 25.0


( )
( )
kJ 1 . 10
L atm
J 101.325
L atm 100
L 25.0 L 0 . 75
atm 3.00 atm 1.00
2
1
trapezoid gas by
=

=

+ =
= A W

obtain:

( ) ( )
( )
gas by int,1 int,2
gas by int,1 int,2
on int in
W E E
W E E
W E Q
+ =
=
=

evaluate Q
in
:
( ) kJ 6 . 10 kJ 1 . 10 J 456 J 912
in
= + = Q

Remarks: You could use the linearity of the path connecting the initial and
final states and the coordinates of the endpoints to express P as a function of
V. You could then integrate this function between 25.0 and 75.0 L to find the
work done by the gas as it goes from its initial to its final state.

55 In this problem, 1.00 mol of the ideal gas is heated while its volume
changes, so that T = AP
2
, where A is a constant. The temperature changes from T
0

to 4T
0
. Find the work done by the gas.

Picture the Problem We can find the work done by the gas from the area under
the PV curve provided we can find the pressure and volume coordinates of the
initial and final states. We can find these coordinates by using the ideal gas law
and the condition .
2
AP T =


1721
Apply the ideal-gas law with
n = 1.00 mol and
2
AP T = to obtain:

2
RAP PV = RAP V = (1)
This result tells us that the volume
varies linearly with the pressure.

Solve T = AP
2
for the pressure of
the gas:

A
T
P
0
0
=
Find the pressure when the
temperature is 4T
0
:

0
0 0
2 2
4
P
A
T
A
T
P = = =
Using equation (1), express the
coordinates of the final state:

( )
0 0
2 , 2 P V
The PV diagram for the process is
shown to the right:

P
2P
0
P
0
V
0
T
0
4T
0
2V
0
V
i
f

The work done by the gas equals the
area under the curve:

( )( )
0 0 2
3
0 0 0 0 2
1
trapezoid gas by
2 2
V P
V V P P A W
=
+ = =

56 A sealed, almost-empty spray paint can still contains a residual amount
of the propellant: 0.020 mol of nitrogen gas. The cans warning label clearly
states: Do Not Dispose by Incineration. (a) Explain this warning and draw the
PV diagram for the gas if, in fact, the can is subject to a high temperature. (b) You
are in charge of testing the can. The manufacturer claims it can withstand an
internal gas pressure of 6.00 atm before it breaks. The can is initially at room-
temperature and standard pressure in your testing laboratory. You begin to heat it
uniformly using a heating element that has a power output of 200 W. The can and
element are in an insulating oven, and you can assume 1.0% of the heat released
by the heating element is absorbed by the gas in the can. How long should you
expect the heating element to remain on before the can bursts?

Picture the Problem This is a constant-volume process and so no work is done
on the system. The heat that is added to the gas by the heating element increases
the internal energy (and, hence, the temperature) of the gas. We can use the
definition of power to relate the minimum time-to-bursting to the internal energy
required to raise the temperature of the gas in the can and the rate at which energy
is supplied by the heating element. The energy required to burst the can is related
Chapter 18

1722
to the increase in the temperature of the can through the definition of the heat
capacity at constant volume C
v
.

(a) Because the volume of the can is
fixed (constant), the heat absorbed
by the gas in the can all goes into
increasing the internal energy of the
gas and, thus, its temperature. At
constant volume, the pressure rise is
the maximum possible, threatening
the structural integrity of the can and
possibly leading to a grenade-like
shrapnel explosion.

f
i
f
P
f
T
i
T
i
P
P
V

(b) The heating time required to
burst the container is related to the
rate at which the heating element
delivers energy to it:

P
Q
t

=

The heat that the heating element
must supply to the gas is given by:

T nR T C Q
2
5
v
= =
Substituting for Q yields:

P
T nR
P
T nR
t
2
5
2
5
= = (1)

The temperature difference that
corresponds to the bursting threshold
is given by:

i f
T T T = (2)
Apply the ideal-gas law to the gas in
the can to obtain:

f
f f
i
i i
T
V P
T
V P
=
or, because V
i
= V
f
,
f
f
i
i
T
P
T
P
=

Solving for the ratio of the final
temperature to the initial temperature
yields:

6
i
f
i
f
= =
P
P
T
T
i f
6T T =
Substitute for T
f
in equation (2) and
evaluate T:

i i i
5 6 T T T T = =

1723
Substituting for T in equation (1)
yields:

P
nRT
t
2
25
i
=
Substitute numerical values and evaluate t:

( ) ( )
( )( )
min .1 5
s 60
min 1
s 05 3
W 200 010 . 0 2
K 293
K mol
J
314 . 8 mol 020 . 0 25
= =
= t

57 [SSM] An ideal gas initially at 20C and 200 kPa has a volume of
4.00 L. It undergoes a quasi-static, isothermal expansion until its pressure is
reduced to 100 kPa. Find (a) the work done by the gas, and (b) the heat absorbed
by the gas during the expansion.

Picture the Problem The PV diagram
shows the isothermal expansion of the
ideal gas from its initial state 1 to its
final state 2. We can use the ideal-gas
law for a fixed amount of gas to find
V
2
and then evaluate
PdV for an
isothermal process to find the work
done by the gas. In Part (b) of the
problem we can apply the first law of
thermodynamics to find the heat added
to the gas during the expansion.

200
100
2
1
V
2
P, kPa
293 K
4.00
V, L

(a) Express the work done by a gas
during an isothermal process:

= = =
2
1
2
1
2
1
1 1 gas by
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
dV
V P
V
dV
nRT dV P W

Apply the ideal-gas law for a fixed
amount of gas undergoing an
isothermal process:

2 2 1 1
V P V P =
1
2
1
2
V
P
P
V =

evaluate V
2
:

( ) L 00 . 8 L 4.00
kPa 100
kPa 200
2
= = V

Chapter 18

1724

Substitute numerical values and evaluate W:

( )( ) ( )[ ]
( )
J 555
L
m 10
L kPa 5 . 554
L 4.00
L 00 . 8
ln L kPa 800
ln L kPa 800 L 00 . 4 kPa 200
3 3
L 8.00
L 00 . 4
L 8.00
L 00 . 4
gas by
=
=
=
= =
V
V
dV
W

(b) Apply the first law of
obtain:

on int in
W E Q =
or, because E
int
= 0 for an isothermal
process,
on in
W Q =

Because the work done by the gas is
the negative of the work done on the
gas:

( ) J 555
gas by gas by in
= = = W W Q
Remarks: in an isothermal expansion the heat added to the gas is always
equal to the work done by the gas (E
int
= 0).

Heat Capacities of Gases and the Equipartition Theorem

58 The heat capacity at constant volume of a certain amount of a
monatomic gas is 49.8 J/K. (a) Find the number of moles of the gas. (b) What is
the internal energy of the gas at T = 300 K? (c) What is the heat capacity at
constant pressure of the gas?

Picture the Problem We can find the number of moles of the gas from its heat
capacity at constant volume using nR C
2
3
V
= . We can find the internal energy of
the gas from T C E
V int
= and the heat capacity at constant pressure using
nR C C + =
V P
.

(a) Express C
V
in terms of the
number of moles in the monatomic
gas:

nR C
2
3
V
=
R
C
n
3
2
V
=

1725
evaluate n:

mol 99 . 3
mol 993 . 3
K mol
J
314 . 8 3
K
J
8 . 49 2
=
=
= n

(b) The internal energy of the gas is
related to its temperature:

T C E
V int
=
evaluate E
int
:

( ) kJ 9 . 14 K 300
K
J
8 . 49
int
=
= E
(c) Relate the heat capacity at
constant pressure to the heat capacity
at constant volume:

nR nR nR nR C C
2
5
2
3
V P
= + = + =
evaluate C
P
:
( )
J/K 0 . 83
K mol
J
314 . 8 mol 993 . 3
2
5
P
=
= C

59 [SSM] The heat capacity at constant pressure of a certain amount of
a diatomic gas is 14.4 J/K. (a) Find the number of moles of the gas. (b) What is
the internal energy of the gas at T = 300 K? (c) What is the molar heat capacity of
this gas at constant volume? (d) What is the heat capacity of this gas at constant
volume?

Picture the Problem (a) The number of moles of the gas is related to its heat
capacity at constant pressure and its molar heat capacity at constant pressure
according to
P P
nc' C = . For a diatomic gas, the molar heat capacity at constant
pressure is R c'
2
7
P
= . (b) The internal energy of a gas depends on its number of
degrees of freedom and, for a diatomic gas, is given by nRT E
2
5
int
= . (c) The
molar heat capacity of this gas at constant volume is related to its molar heat
capacity at constant pressure according to R c' c' =
P V
. (d) The heat capacity of
this gas at constant volume is the product of the number of moles in the gas and
its molar heat capacity at constant volume.

(a) The number of moles of the gas
is the ratio of its heat capacity at
constant pressure to its molar heat
capacity at constant pressure:
P
P
c'
C
n =
Chapter 18

1726
For a diatomic gas, the molar heat
capacity is given by: K mol
J
1 . 29
2
7
P
= = R c'

evaluate n:

mol 495 . 0
mol 4948 . 0
K mol
J
1 . 29
K
J
4 . 14
=
=
= n

(b) With 5 degrees of freedom at this
temperature:

nRT E
2
5
int
=
Substitute numerical values and evaluate E
int
:

( ) ( ) kJ 09 . 3 K 300
K mol
J
314 . 8 mol 4948 . 0
2
5
int
=
= E

(c) The molar heat capacity of this
gas at constant volume is the
difference between the molar heat
capacity at constant pressure and the
gas constant R:

R c' c' =
P V

Because R c'
2
7
P
= for a diatomic gas:

R R R c'
2
5
2
7
V
= =
Substitute the numerical value of R
to obtain:

K mol
J
8 . 20
K mol
J
79 . 20
K mol
J
314 . 8
2
5
V
= c'

(d) The heat capacity of this gas at
constant volume is given by:

V V
nc' C' =
evaluate
V
C' :
( )
K
J
3 . 10
K mol
J
79 . 20 mol 4948 . 0
V
=
= C'

60 (a) Calculate the heat capacity per unit mass of air at constant volume
and the heat capacity per unit mass of air at constant pressure. Assume that air has
a temperature of 300 K and a pressure of 1.00 10
5
N/m
2
. Also assume that air is

1727
composed of 74.0% N
2
molecules (molecular weight 28.0 g/mol) and 26.0% O
2

molecules (molar mass of 32.0 g/mol) and that both components are ideal gases.
(b) Compare your answer for the specific heat at constant pressure to the value
listed in the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics of 1.032 kJ/kgK.

Picture the Problem The specific heats of air at constant volume and constant
pressure are given by c
V
= C
V
/m and c
P
= C
P
/m and the heat capacities at constant
volume and constant pressure are given by nR C
2
5
V
= and nR C
2
7
P
= ,
respectively.

(a) Express the heat capacity per unit
mass of air at constant volume and
constant pressure:

m
C
c
V
V
= (1)
and
m
C
c
P
P
= (2)

Express the heat capacities of a
diatomic gas in terms of the gas
constant R, the number of moles n,
and the number of degrees of
freedom:

nR C
2
5
V
=
and
nR C
2
7
P
=
The mass of 1.00 mol of air is given
by:

2 2
O N
26 . 0 74 . 0 M M m + =
Substitute for C
V
and m in equation
(1) to obtain:

( )
2 2
O N
V
26 . 0 74 . 0 2
5
M M
nR
c
+
=

V
:

( )
( )( ) ( )( ) [ ] K kg
J
716
kg 10 0 . 32 260 . 0 kg 10 0 . 28 740 . 0 2
K mol
J
314 . 8 mol 00 . 1 5
3 3
V
=
+
=

c

Substitute for C
P
and m in equation
(2) to obtain:

( )
2 2
O N
P
26 . 0 74 . 0 2
7
M M
nR
c
+
=

Chapter 18

1728

P
:

( )
( )( ) ( )( ) [ ] K kg
kJ
00 . 1
kg 10 0 . 32 260 . 0 kg 10 0 . 28 740 . 0 2
K mol
J
314 . 8 mol 00 . 1 7
3 3
P
=
+
=

c

(b) The percent difference between the value from the Handbook of Chemistry
and Physics and the calculated value is:

% 3
K J/kg 1.032
K kJ/kg 1.00 K kJ/kg 1.032

61 In this problem, 1.00 mol of an ideal diatomic gas is heated at constant
volume from 300 to 600 K. (a) Find the increase in the internal energy of the gas ,
the work done by the gas, and the heat absorbed by the gas. (b) Find the same
quantities if this gas is heated from 300 to 600 K at constant pressure. Use the
first law of thermodynamics and your results for (a) to calculate the work done by
the gas. (c) Again calculate the work done in Part (b). This time calculate it by
integrating the equation dW = P dV.

Picture the Problem (a) We know that, during a constant-volume process, no
work is done and that we can calculate the heat added during this expansion from
the heat capacity at constant volume and the change in the absolute temperature.
We can then use the first law of thermodynamics to find the change in the internal
energy of the gas. In Part (b), we can proceed similarly; using the heat capacity at
constant pressure rather than constant volume.

(a) The increase in the internal
energy of a fixed amount of an ideal
diatomic gas depends only on its
change in temperature as it goes
from one state to another:

T nR E =
2
5
int

int
:

( ) ( ) kJ 24 . 6 kJ 236 . 6 K 300
K mol
J
314 . 8 mol 00 . 1
2
5
int
= =
= E

For a constant-volume process:
0
on
= W


1729
From the 1
st
law of thermodynamics
we have:

kJ 6.24
0 kJ 24 . 6
on int in
=
= = W E Q

(b) Because E
int
depends only on
the temperature difference:

kJ 24 . 6
int
= E
Relate the heat added to the gas to
its heat capacity at constant pressure
and the change in its temperature:

( ) T nR T nR nR T C Q = + = =
2
7
2
5
P in

Substitute numerical values and evaluate Q
in
:

( ) ( ) kJ 73 . 8 kJ 730 . 8 K 300
K mol
J
8.314 mol 1.00
2
7
in
= =
= Q

thermodynamics to find W:
kJ 2.49
kJ 6.236 kJ 730 . 8
in int on
=
= = Q E W

(c) Integrate dW
on
= P dV to obtain:

( ) ( )
i f i f on
f
i
T T nR V V P PdV W
V
V
= = =

evaluate W
on
:
( ) ( )
kJ 2.49
K 300
K mol
J
8.314 mol 1.00
on
=
= W

62 A diatomic gas is confined to a closed container of constant volume V
0

and at a pressure P
0
. The gas is heated until its pressure triples. What amount of
heat had to be absorbed by the gas in order to triple the pressure?

Picture the Problem Because this is a constant-volume process, we can use
T C Q =
V
to express Q in terms of the temperature change and the ideal-gas law
for a fixed amount of gas to find T.

Express the amount of heat Q that
must be absorbed by the gas if its
pressure is to triple:

( )
0 f 2
5
V
T T nR
T C Q
=
=

Chapter 18

1730

Using the ideal-gas law for a fixed
amount of gas, relate the initial and
final temperatures, pressures and
volumes:

f
0 0
0
0 0
3
T
V P
T
V P
=
0 f
3T T =
Substitute for T
f
and simplify to
obtain:
( ) ( )
0 0 0 0 0 2
5
5 5 3 V P nRT T T nR Q = = =

63 In this problem, 1.00 mol of air is confined in a cylinder with a piston.
The confined air is maintained at a constant pressure of 1.00 atm. The air is
initially at 0C and has volume V
0
. Find the volume after 13,200 J of heat are
absorbed by the trapped air.

Picture the Problem Let the subscripts i and f refer to the initial and final states
of the gas, respectively. We can use the ideal-gas law for a fixed amount of gas to
express V in terms of V and the change in temperature of the gas when 13,200 J
of heat are transferred to it. We can find this change in temperature using
T C Q =
P
.

amount of gas, relate the initial and
final temperatures, volumes, and
pressures:

f
f
i
i
T
V' P
T
V P
=
Noting that the process is isobaric,
solve for V to obtain:

+ =
+
= =
i i
i
i
f
1
T
T
V
T
T T
V
T
T
V V'

Relate the heat transferred to the gas
to the change in its temperature:

T nR T C Q = =
2
7
P

nR
Q
T
7
2
=
Substitute for T to obtain:

+ =
i
7
2
1
nRT
Q
V V'

One mol of gas at standard temperature and pressure occupies 22.4 L. Substitute
numerical values and evaluate V:

( )
( )
( ) ( )
L 6 . 59
K 273
K mol
J
8.314 mol 1.00 7
kJ 13.2 2
1 L 22.4 =
+ = V'


1731
64 The heat capacity at constant pressure of a sample of gas is greater
than the heat capacity at constant volume by 29.1 J/K. (a) How many moles of the
gas are present? (b) If the gas is monatomic, what are C
v
and C
p
? (c) What are the
values of C
v
and C
p
at normal room temperatures?

Picture the Problem We can use the relationship between C
P
and C
V

( nR C C + =
V P
) to find the number of moles of this particular gas. In Parts (b) and
(c) we can use the number of degrees of freedom associated with monatomic and
diatomic gases, respectively, to find C
P
and C
V
.

(a) Express the heat capacity of the
gas at constant pressure to its heat
capacity at constant volume:

nR C C + =
V P

R
C C
n
V P

=
evaluate n:

mol 3.50
mol 500 . 3
K mol
J
8.314
K
J
29.1
=
=
= n

(b) C
V
for a monatomic gas is given
by:

nR C
2
3
V
=

evaluate C
V
:
( )
J/K 43.6 J/K 65 . 43
K mol
J
8.314 mol 3.500
2
3
V
= =
= C

Express C
P
for a monatomic gas:

nR C
2
5
P
=

evaluate C
P
:
( )
J/K 7 . 2 7
K mol
J
8.314 mol 3.500
2
5
P
=
= C

(c) At normal room temperature, if the
diatomic molecules rotate but do not
vibrate they have 5 degrees of
freedom. Hence:

nR C
2
5
V
=
and
nR R C C
2
7
V P
= + =

Chapter 18

1732

evaluate C
V
and C
P
:
( )
J/K 7 . 2 7
K mol
J
8.314 mol 3.500
2
5
V
=
= C

and
( )( )
J/K 102
K J/mol 8.314 mol 3.500
2
7
P
=
= C

65 [SSM] Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) at a pressure of 1.00 atm and a
temperature of 78.5C sublimates directly from a solid to a gaseous state without
going through a liquid phase. What is the change in the heat capacity at constant
pressure per mole of CO
2
when it undergoes sublimation? (Assume that the gas
molecules can rotate but do not vibrate.) Is the change in the heat capacity
positive or negative during sublimation? The CO
2
molecule is pictured in Figure
18-22.

Picture the Problem We can find the change in the heat capacity at constant
pressure as CO
2
undergoes sublimation from the energy per molecule of CO
2
in
the solid and gaseous states.

Express the change in the heat
capacity (at constant pressure) per
mole as the CO
2
undergoes
sublimation:

solid P, gas P, P
C C C = (1)
Express C
p,gas
in terms of the number
of degrees of freedom per molecule:
( ) Nk Nk f C
2
5
2
1
gas P,
= =
because each molecule has three
translational and two rotational degrees
of freedom in the gaseous state.

We know, from the Dulong-Petit
Law, that the molar specific heat of
most solids is 3R = 3Nk. This result
is essentially a per-atom result as it
was obtained for a monatomic solid
with six degrees of freedom. Use this
result and the fact CO
2
is triatomic to
express C
P,solid
:

Nk
Nk
C 9 atoms 3
atom
3
solid P,
= =

Substitute in equation (1) to obtain:
Nk Nk Nk C
2
13
2
18
2
5
P
= =

66 In this problem, 1.00 mol of a monatomic ideal gas is initially at 273 K
and 1.00 atm. (a) What is the initial internal energy of the gas? (b) Find the work
done by the gas when 500 J of heat are absorbed by the gas at constant pressure.

1733
What is the final internal energy of the gas? (c) Find the work done by the gas
when 500 J of heat are absorbed by the gas at constant volume. What is the final
internal energy of the gas?

Picture the Problem We can find the initial internal energy of the gas from
nRT U
2
3
i
= and the final internal energy from the change in internal energy
resulting from the addition of 500 J of heat. The work done during a constant-
volume process is zero and the work done during the constant-pressure process
can be found from the first law of thermodynamics.

(a) Express the initial internal
energy of the gas in terms of its
temperature:

nRT E
2
3
i int,
=

int,i
:

( ) ( ) kJ 3.40 kJ 405 . 3 K 273
K mol
J
8.314 mol 1.00
2
3
i int,
= =
= E

(b) Relate the final internal energy of
the gas to its initial internal energy:

T C E E E E + = + =
V i int, int i int, f int,

the gas resulting from the addition of
heat:

P
in
C
Q
T =
Substitute to obtain:

in
P
V
i int, f int,
Q
C
C
E E + =

evaluate E
int,f
:
( )
kJ 71 . 3 kJ 705 . 3
J 500 kJ 405 . 3
2
5
2
3
f int,
= =
+ =
nR
nR
E

gas and is related to the change in
internal energy and the heat added
to the gas through the first law of
thermodynamics:

( )
in i int, f int,
in i int, f int,
in int on gas by
Q E E
Q E E
Q E W W
+ + =
+ =
+ = =

Chapter 18

1734
evaluate W
by gas
:

kJ 19 . 0
J 500 kJ 40 . 3 kJ 71 . 3
gas by
=
+ + = W

(c) Relate the final internal energy
of the gas to its initial internal
energy:

int i int, f int,
E E E + =
thermodynamics to the constant-
volume process:

on in int
W Q E + =
or, because W
on
= 0,
J 500
in int
= = Q E

evaluate E
int,f
:
kJ 3.91 J 500 kJ .405 3
f int,
= + = E
and, because W
on
= 0 = W
by gas
,
0
gas by
= W

67 List all of the degrees of freedom possible for a water molecule and
estimate the heat capacity of water at a temperature very far above its boiling
point. (Ignore the fact the molecule might dissociate at high temperatures.) Think
carefully about all of the different ways in which a water molecule can vibrate.

Picture the Problem We can use ( ) Nk f C
2
1
water V,
= to express C
V,water
and then
count the number of degrees of freedom associated with a water molecule to
determine f.

Express C
V,water
in terms of the
number of degrees of freedom per
molecule:
( ) Nk f C
2
1
water V,
=
where f is the number of degrees of
freedom associated with a water
molecule.

There are 3 translational degrees of freedom and three rotational degrees of
freedom. In addition, each of the hydrogen atoms can vibrate against the oxygen
atom, resulting in an additional 4 degrees of freedom (2 per atom).

Substitute for f to obtain:
( ) nR Nk Nk C 5 5 10
2
1
water V,
= = =

Heat Capacities of Solids and the Dulong-Petit Law

68 The DulongPetit law was originally used to determine the molar mass
of a substance from its measured heat capacity. The specific heat of a certain solid
substance is measured to be 0.447 kJ/kgK. (a) Find the molar mass of the
substance. (b) What element has this specific heat value?

1735
Picture the Problem The Dulong-Petit law gives the molar specific heat of a
solid, c. The specific heat is defined as c = c/M where M is the molar mass.
Hence we can use this definition to find M and a periodic table to identify the
element.

(a) Apply the Dulong-Petit law:
R c' 3 =
M
R
c
3
=
c
R
M
3
=

evaluate M:

g/mol 7 . 55
K kg
kJ
0.447
K mol
J
24.9
=
= M

(b) Consulting the periodic table of elements we see that the element is most
likely iron .

Quasi-Static Adiabatic Expansion of a Gas

69 [SSM] A 0.500-mol sample of an ideal monatomic gas at 400 kPa
and 300 K, expands quasi-statically until the pressure decreases to 160 kPa. Find
the final temperature and volume of the gas, the work done by the gas, and the
heat absorbed by the gas if the expansion is (a) isothermal and (b) adiabatic.

Picture the Problem We can use the ideal-gas law to find the initial volume of
the gas. In Part (a) we can apply the ideal-gas law for a fixed amount of gas to
find the final volume and the expression for the work done in an isothermal
process. Application of the first law of thermodynamics will allow us to find the
heat absorbed by the gas during this process. In Part (b) we can use the
relationship between the pressures and volumes for a quasi-static adiabatic
process to find the final volume of the gas. We can apply the ideal-gas law to find
the final temperature and, as in (a), apply the first law of thermodynamics, this
time to find the work done by the gas.

Use the ideal-gas law to express the
initial volume of the gas:

i
i
i
P
nRT
V =

Substitute numerical values and evaluate V
i
:

( ) ( )
3 3
i
m 10 3.118
kPa 400
K 300
K mol
J
8.314 mol 0.500
= V

Chapter 18

1736
(a) Because the process is isothermal:

K 300
i f
= = T T

Use the ideal-gas law for a fixed
amount of gas with T constant to
express V
f
:

f f i
V P V P =
f
i
i f
P
P
V V =

evaluate V
f
:

( )
L 7.80
L 795 . 7
kPa 160
kPa 400
L 3.118
f
=
=
= V

Express the work done by the gas
during the isothermal expansion:

i
f
gas by
ln
V
V
nRT W =

evaluate W
by gas
:
( )
( )
kJ 14 . 1
L 3.118
L 7.795
ln K 300
K mol
J
8.314 mol 0.500
gas by
=
= W

Noting that the work done by the gas
during the process equals the
gas, apply the first law of
thermodynamics to find the heat
absorbed by the gas:

( )
kJ 1.14
kJ 1.14 0
on int in
=
= = W E Q

(b) Using = 5/3 and the relationship
between the pressures and volumes
for a quasi-static adiabatic process,
express V
f
:

f f i i
V P V P =
1
f
i
i f

=
P
P
V V

evaluate V
f
:
( )
L 5.40
L 403 . 5
kPa 160
kPa 400
L 118 . 3
5 3
f
=
=
= V

Apply the ideal-gas law to find the
final temperature of the gas: nR
V P
T
f f
f
=

1737
evaluate T
f
:
( )( )
( )
K 208
K mol
J
8.314 mol 0.500
m 10 5.403 kPa 160
3 3
f
=
=

T

For an adiabatic process:
0
in
= Q

to express the work done on the gas
during the adiabatic process:

T nR T C Q E W = = =
2
3
V in int on
0
evaluate W
on
:
( )( )
( )
J 74 5
K 300 K 208
K J/mol 8.314 mol 0.500
2
3
on
=

= W

Because the work done by the gas
equals the negative of the work done
on the gas:
( ) J 74 5 J 574
gas by
= = W

70 A 0.500-mol sample of an ideal diatomic gas at 400 kPa and 300 K
expands until the pressure decreases to 160 kPa. Find the final temperature and
volume of the gas, the work done by the gas, and the heat absorbed by the gas if
the expansion is (a) isothermal and (b) adiabatic.

Picture the Problem We can use the ideal-gas law to find the initial volume of
the gas. In Part (a) we can apply the ideal-gas law for a fixed amount of gas to
find the final volume and the expression for the work done in an isothermal
process. Application of the first law of thermodynamics will allow us to find the
heat absorbed by the gas during this process. In Part (b) we can use the
relationship between the pressures and volumes for a quasi-static adiabatic
process to find the final volume of the gas. We can apply the ideal-gas law to find
the final temperature and, as in (a), apply the first law of thermodynamics, this
time to find the work done by the gas.

Use the ideal-gas law to express the
initial volume of the gas:

i
i
i
P
nRT
V =

Chapter 18

1738
evaluate V
i
:
( ) ( )
L 3.118
kPa 400
K 300
K mol
J
8.314 mol 0.500
i
=
= V

(a) Because the process is isothermal:

K 300
i f
= = T T

Use the ideal-gas law for a fixed
amount of gas with T = constant to
express V
f
:

f f i i
V P V P =
f
i
i f
P
P
V V =

evaluate T
f
:
( )
L 7.80
L 795 . 7
kPa 160
kPa 400
L 3.118
f
=
=
= V

Express the work done by the gas
during the isothermal expansion:

i
f
gas by
ln
V
V
nRT W =

evaluate W
by gas
:
( )
( )
kJ 14 . 1
L 3.118
L 7.795
ln K 300
K mol
J
8.314 mol 0.500
gas by
=
= W

Noting that the work done by the
gas during the isothermal
expansion equals the negative of
the work done on the gas, apply
the first law of thermodynamics to
find the heat absorbed by the gas:

( )
kJ 1.14
kJ 1.14 0
on int in
=
= = W E Q

(b) Using = 1.4 and the
relationship between the pressures
and volumes for a quasi-static
adiabatic process, express V
f
:

f f i i
V P V P =
1
f
i
i f

=
P
P
V V


1739
evaluate V
f
:
( )
L 00 . 6
L 000 . 6
kPa 160
kPa 400
L 118 . 3
1.4 1
f
=
=
= V

Apply the ideal-gas law to express
the final temperature of the gas:

nR
V P
T
f f
f
=

evaluate T
f
:
( )( )
( )( )
K 231
K J/mol 8.314 mol 0.500
m 10 6.000 kPa 160
3 3
f
=

=

T

For an adiabatic process:
0
in
= Q

to express the work done on the gas
during the adiabatic expansion:

T nR T C Q E W = = =
2
5
V in int on
0
evaluate W
on
:
( )( )
( )
J 717
K 300 K 31 2
K J/mol 8.314 mol 0.500
2
5
on
=

= W

Noting that the work done by the gas
during the adiabatic expansion is the
negative of the work done on the gas,
we have:
( ) J 717 J 717
gas by
= = W

71 A 0.500-mol sample of helium gas expands adiabatically and quasi-
statically from an initial pressure of 5.00 atm and temperature of 500 K to a final
pressure of 1.00 atm. Find (a) the final temperature of the gas, (b) the final
volume of the gas, (c) the work done by the gas, and (d) the change in the internal
energy of the gas.

Chapter 18

1740
Picture the Problem We can eliminate the volumes from the equations relating
the temperatures and volumes and the pressures and volumes for a quasi-static
adiabatic process to obtain a relationship between the temperatures and pressures.
We can find the initial volume of the gas using the ideal-gas law and the final
volume using the pressure-volume relationship. In Parts (d) and (c) we can find
the change in the internal energy of the gas from the change in its temperature
and use the first law of thermodynamics to find the work done by the gas during
its expansion.

(a) Express the relationship between
temperatures and volumes for a
quasi-static adiabatic process:

1
f f
1
i i

=

V T V T
Express the relationship between
pressures and volumes for a quasi-
static adiabatic process:

f f i i
V P V P = (1)
Eliminate the volume between these
two equations to obtain:

1
1
i
f
i f
=
P
P
T T
evaluate T
f
:
( ) K 263
atm 5.00
atm 1.00
K 500
3 5
1
1
f
=
=

T

(b) Solve equation (1) for V
f
:
1
f
i
i f

=
P
P
V V

Apply the ideal-gas law to express
V
i
:

i
i
i
P
nRT
V =

evaluate V
i
:
( ) ( )
L 4.103
atm
kPa 101.325
5.00atm
K 500
K mol
J
8.314 mol 0.500
i
=
= V

Substitute for V
i
and evaluate V
f
:
( ) L 8 . 10
atm 1.00
atm 5.00
L 103 . 4
5
3
f
=
= V


1741
(c) The work done by the gas during
an adiabatic expansion is the
negative of the work done on the gas
during the expansion:

( )
( )
int
int
in int on gas by the
0

E
E
Q E W W
=
=
= =

Because T nR T C E = =
2
3
V int
: T nR W
2
3
gas by the
=

by the gas
:

( ) ( ) kJ 48 . 1 K 500 K 263
K mol
J
8.314 mol 500 . 0
2
3
gas by the
=
= W

(d) Apply the first law of
thermodynamics for an adiabatic
process to obtain:

( )
gas by the
gas by the on in int
0
W
W W Q E
=
+ = + =

Substitute W
by the gas
from (c):
( ) kJ 48 . 1 kJ 48 . 1
int
= = E

Cyclic Processes

72 A 1.00-mol sample of N
2
gas at 20.0C and 5.00 atm is allowed to
expand adiabatically and quasi-statically until its pressure equals 1.00 atm. It is
then heated at constant pressure until its temperature is again 20.0C. After it
reaches a temperature of 20.0C, it is heated at constant volume until its pressure
is again 5.00 atm. It is then compressed at constant pressure until it is back to its
original state. (a) Construct a PV diagram showing each process in the cycle.
(b) From your graph, determine the work done by the gas during the complete
cycle. (c) How much heat is absorbed (or released) by the gas during the complete
cycle?

Picture the Problem To construct the PV diagram well need to determine the
volume occupied by the gas at the beginning and ending points for each process.
Let these points be A, B, C, and D. We can apply the ideal-gas law to the starting
point (A) to find V
A
. To find the volume at point B, we can use the relationship
between pressure and volume for a quasi-static adiabatic process. We can use the
ideal-gas law to find the volume at point C and, because they are equal, the
volume at point D. We can apply the first law of thermodynamics to find the
amount of heat added to or subtracted from the gas during the complete cycle.

(a) Using the ideal-gas law, express
the volume of the gas at the starting
point A of the cycle:

A
A
A
P
nRT
V =

Chapter 18

1742
evaluate V
A
:
( ) ( )
L 4.808 m 10 4.808
atm
kPa 101.325
atm 5.00
K 293
K mol
J
8.314 mol 1.00
3 3
A
= =
V

Use the relationship between
pressure and volume for a quasi-
static adiabatic process to express
the volume of the gas at point B; the
end point of the adiabatic expansion:

1
B
A
A B

=
P
P
V V

evaluate V
B
:
( ) L 18 . 15
atm 1.00
atm 5.00
L 808 . 4
4 . 1
1
B
=
= V

amount of gas, express the volume
occupied by the gas at points C and D:

C
C
D C
P
nRT
V V = =

evaluate V
C
:
( ) ( )
L 0 . 24 m 10 04 . 24
atm
kPa 101.325
atm 1.00
K 293
K mol
J
8.314 mol 1.00
3 3
C
= =
V

The complete cycle is shown in the
diagram.
0 5
0
10 15 20 25
A
C
B
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
atm , P
L , V
D


1743

(b) Note that for the paths AB and BC, W
by gas
, the work done by the gas, is
positive. For the path DA, W
by gas
is negative, and greater in magnitude than
W
AC
. Therefore the total work done by the gas is negative. Find the area
enclosed by the cycle by noting that each rectangle of dotted lines equals 5 atmL
and counting the rectangles:

( ) ( )
kJ 6.6 kJ 586 . 6
L atm
J 101.325
L atm 65
rectangle
L atm
5.00 rectangles 13
gas by
= =

W

(c) The work done on the gas equals
the negative of the work done by the
thermodynamics to find the amount
of heat added to or subtracted from
the gas during the complete cycle:
( )
kJ 6.6
kJ 6.59 0
on int in
=
= = W E Q

because E
int
= 0 for the complete
cycle.

73 [SSM] A 1.00-mol sample of an ideal diatomic gas is allowed to
expand. This expansion is represented by the straight line from 1 to 2 in the PV
diagram (Figure 18-23). The gas is then compressed isothermally. This
compression is represented by the straight line from 2 to 1 in the PV diagram.
Calculate the work per cycle done by the gas.

Picture the Problem The total work done as the gas is taken through this cycle is
the area bounded by the two processes. Because the process from 12 is linear,
we can use the formula for the area of a trapezoid to find the work done during
this expansion. We can use ( )
i f process isothermal
ln V V nRT W = to find the work done
on the gas during the process 21. The net work done during this cycle is then
the sum of these two terms.

Express the net work done per cycle:

1 2 2 1
gas on the gas by the net

+ =
+ =
W W
W W W
(1)

Work is done by the gas during its
expansion from 1 to 2 and hence is
equal to the negative of the area of
the trapezoid defined by this path
and the vertical lines at V
1
= 11.5 L
and V
2
= 23 L. Use the formula for
the area of a trapezoid to express
W
12
:
( )
( )
atm L 3 . 17
atm 1.0 atm 2.0
L 11.5 L 23
2
1
trap 2 1
=
+
=
=
A W

Chapter 18

1744
Work is done on the gas during the
isothermal compression from V
2
to
V
1
and hence is equal to the area
under the curve representing this
process. Use the expression for the
work done during an isothermal
process to express W
21
:
i
f
1 2
ln
V
V
nRT W

Apply the ideal-gas law at point 1 to find the temperature along the isotherm
21:

( )( )
( )( )
K 280
K atm/mol L 10 206 . 8 mol 1.00
L 5 . 11 atm 0 . 2
2
=

= =

nR
PV
T

21
:

( )( )( ) atm L 9 . 15
L 23
L 5 . 11
ln K 280 K atm/mol L 10 206 . 8 mol 00 . 1
2
1 2
=
W

Substitute in equation (1) and
evaluate W
net
:
kJ 14 . 0
atm L
J 101.325
atm L 40 . 1
atm L 15.9 atm L 3 . 17
net
=

=
+ = W

74 A 2.00-mol sample of an ideal monatomic gas has an initial pressure
of 2.00 atm and an initial volume of 2.00 L. The gas is taken through the
following quasi-static cycle: It is expanded isothermally until it has a volume
of 4.00 L. It is next heated at constant volume until it has a pressure of 2.00 atm.
It is then cooled at constant pressure until it is back to its initial state. (a) Show
this cycle on a PV diagram. (b) Find the temperatures at the end of each part of
the cycle. (c) Calculate the heat absorbed and the work done by the gas during
each part of the cycle.

Picture the Problem Denote the initial and final points of each part of the cycle
by the numerals 1, 2 and 3. We can apply the ideal-gas law to find the
temperatures T
1
, T
2
, and T
3
. We can use the appropriate work and heat equations
to calculate the heat added and the work done by the gas for the isothermal
process (12), the constant-volume process (23), and the isobaric process
(31).


1745
(a) The cycle is shown in the PV
diagram to the right:

0
0
3
1
2
2.00
1.00
2.00 1.00 3.00 4.00
atm , P
L , V

(b) Use the ideal-gas law to find T
1
:
( )( )
( )
K 4 . 4 2 K 37 . 24
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 2.00
L 2.00 atm 2.00
2
1 1
1
= =
=
=
nR
V P
T

Because the process 12 is
isothermal:

K 4 . 4 2
2
= T
Use the ideal-gas law to find T
3
:
( )( )
( )
K 7 . 8 4 K 74 . 48
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 2.00
L 4.00 atm 2.00
2
3 3
3
= =
=
=
nR
V P
T

(c) Because the process 12 is
isothermal, Q
in,12
= W
by gas,12
:
= =

1
2
2 1 gas, by 2 1 in,
ln
V
V
nRT W Q

in,12
:

( ) ( ) J 281
L 2.00
L 4.00
ln K 24.37
K mol
J
8.314 mol 2.00
2 1 in,
=
Q

Because process 23 takes place at
constant volume:

0
3 2
=
W
Because process 23 takes place at
constant volume, W
on,23
= 0, and:
( )
2 3 2
3
V 3 int,2 3 in,2

T T nR
T C E Q
=
= =

Chapter 18

1746
in,23
:

( ) ( ) J 608 K 37 . 4 2 K 48.74
K mol
J
8.314 mol 2.00
2
3
3 in,2
=
Q

Because process 31 is isobaric: ) (
3 1 2
5
P 1 3
T T nR T C Q = =

31
:

( ) ( ) kJ 01 . 1 K 74 . 8 4 K 37 . 24
K mol
J
8.314 mol 2.00
2
5
1 3
=
Q

The work done by the gas from 3 to
1 equals the negative of the work
done on the gas:

( )
3 1 3 , 1 3 , 1 1 gas,3 by
V V P V P W = =

by gas,32
:

( )( ) ( )
J 405
L atm
J 101.325
L atm 4.00 L 4.00 L 2.00 atm 2.00
1 gas,3 by
=
= =
W

75 [SSM] At point D in Figure 18-24 the pressure and temperature of
2.00 mol of an ideal monatomic gas are 2.00 atm and 360 K, respectively. The
volume of the gas at point B on the PV diagram is three times that at point D and
its pressure is twice that at point C. Paths AB and CD represent isothermal
processes. The gas is carried through a complete cycle along the path DABCD.
Determine the total amount of work done by the gas and the heat absorbed by the
gas along each portion of the cycle.

Picture the Problem We can find the temperatures, pressures, and volumes at all
points for this ideal monatomic gas (3 degrees of freedom) using the ideal-gas law
and the work for each process by finding the areas under each curve. We can find
the heat exchanged for each process from the heat capacities and the initial and
final temperatures for each process.

Express the total work done by the
gas per cycle:

D C C B B A A D tot gas, by
+ + + = W W W W W

1747
1. Use the ideal-gas law to find the
volume of the gas at point D:

( ) ( )
( )
L 29.54
atm
kPa
101.325 atm 2.00
K 360
K mol
J
8.314 mol 2.00
D
D
D
=
=
=
P
nRT
V

2. Were given that the volume of
the gas at point B is three times
that at point D:

( )
L 62 . 88
L 54 . 29 3 3
D C B
=
= = = V V V

Use the ideal-gas law to find the pressure of the gas at point C:

( ) ( )
atm 6667 . 0
L 62 . 88
K 360
K mol
atm L
10 206 . 8 mol 2.00
2
C
C
C
=
= =

V
nRT
P

Were given that the pressure at
point B is twice that at point C:

( ) atm 333 . 1 atm 6667 . 0 2 2
C B
= = = P P

3. Because path DC represents an
isothermal process:

K 360
C D
= = T T
Use the ideal-gas law to find the
temperatures at points B and A:
( )( )
( )
K 719.8
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 2.00
L 88.62 atm 1.333
2
B B
B A
=
=
= =
nR
V P
T T

Because the temperature at point A is
twice that at D and the volumes are
the same, we can conclude that:

atm 00 . 4 2
D A
= = P P
Chapter 18

1748

The pressure, volume, and
temperature at points A, B, C, and D
are summarized in the table to the
right.

Point P V T
(atm) (L) (K)
A 4.00 29.5 720
B 1.33 88.6 720
C 0.667 88.6 360
D 2.00 29.5 360
4. For the path DA, 0
A D
=
W
and: ( )
D A 2
3
A D 2
3
A D int, A D
T T nR
T nR E Q
=
= =

DA
:

( ) ( ) kJ 979 . 8 K 360 K 720
K mol
J
8.314 mol 2.00
2
3
A D
=
Q

For the path AB:
= =

A
B
B A, B A B A
ln
V
V
nRT Q W

AB
:

( ) ( ) kJ 15 . 13
L 29.54
L 88.62
ln K 720
K mol
J
8.314 mol 2.00
B A
=
W
and, because process AB is isothermal, 0
B A int,
=

E

For the path BC, 0
C B
=
W , and:

( )
B C 2
3
V C B C B

T T nR
T C U Q
=
= =

BC
:

( )( )( ) kJ 979 . 8 K 720 K 360 K J/mol 8.314 mol 2.00
2
3
C B
= =
Q

For the path CD:
C
D
D C, D C
ln
V
V
nRT W


1749

CD
:

( ) ( ) kJ 576 . 6
L 62 . 8 8
L 54 . 9 2
ln K 60 3
K mol
J
8.314 mol 2.00
D C
=
W
Also, because process AB is isothermal, 0
B A int,
=

E , and
kJ 58 . 6
D C D C
= =

W Q

Q
in
, W
on
, and E
int
are summarized
for each of the processes in the table
to the right.

Process Q
in
W
on
E
int

(kJ) (kJ) (kJ)
DA
98 . 8
0 8.98
AB
2 . 13
13.2 0
BC
98 . 8
0 8.98
CD
58 . 6
6.58 0

Referring to the table, find the total work done by the gas per cycle:

kJ 6.6
kJ 6.58 0 kJ 13.2 0
=
+ + =
+ + + =

W W W W W

Remarks: Note that, as it should be, E
int
is zero for the complete cycle.

76 At point D in Figure 18-24 the pressure and temperature of 2.00 mol of
an ideal diatomic gas are 2.00 atm and 360 K, respectively. The volume of the
gas at point B on the PV diagram is three times that at point D and its pressure is
twice that at point C. Paths AB and CD represent isothermal processes. The gas is
carried through a complete cycle along the path DABCD. Determine the total
amount of work done by the gas and the heat absorbed by the gas along each
portion of the cycle.

Picture the Problem We can find the temperatures, pressures, and volumes at all
points for this ideal diatomic gas (5 degrees of freedom) using the ideal-gas law
and the work for each process by finding the areas under each curve. We can find
the heat exchanged for each process from the heat capacities and the initial and
final temperatures for each process.

Chapter 18

1750
Express the total work done by the
gas per cycle:

+ + + = W W W W W
1. Use the ideal-gas law to find the
volume of the gas at point D:

( ) ( )
( )
L 29.54
atm
kPa
101.325 atm 2.00
K 360
K mol
J
8.314 mol 2.00
D
D
D
=
=
=
P
nRT
V

2. Were given that the volume of
the gas at point B is three times that
at point D:
( )
L 62 . 88
L 54 . 29 3 3
D C B
=
= = = V V V

Use the ideal-gas law to find the pressure of the gas at point C:

( ) ( )
atm 6667 . 0
L 62 . 88
K 360
K mol
atm L
10 206 . 8 mol 2.00
2
C
C
C
=
= =

V
nRT
P

Were given that the pressure at point
B is twice that at point C:

( ) atm 333 . 1 atm 6667 . 0 2 2
C B
= = = P P

3. Because path DC represents an
isothermal process:

K 360
C D
= = T T
temperatures at points B and A:
( )( )
( )
K 719.8
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 2.00
L 88.62 atm 1.333
2
B B
B A
=
=
= =
nR
V P
T T

Because the temperature at point A is
twice that at D and the volumes are
the same, we can conclude that:

atm 00 . 4 2
D A
= = P P

1751

The pressure, volume, and temperature
at points A, B, C, and D are
summarized in the table to the right.

Point P V T
(atm) (L) (K)
A 4.00 29.5 720
B 1.33 88.6 720
C 0.667 88.6 360
D 2.00 29.5 360

4. For the path DA, 0
A D
=
W and:

( )
( ) ( )
kJ 97 . 14
K 360 K 720
K mol
J
8.314 mol 2.00

2
5
D A 2
5
A D 2
5
A D A D
=
=
= = =

T T nR T nR U Q

For the path AB:

( ) ( )
kJ 15 . 13
L 29.54
L 88.62
ln K 720
K mol
J
8.314 mol 2.00 ln
A
B
B A, B A B A
=

= =

V
V
nRT Q W

and, because process AB is isothermal, 0
B A int,
=

E

For the path BC, 0
C B
=
W and:

( )
( ) ( )
kJ 97 . 14
K 720 K 360
K mol
J
8.314 mol 2.00

2
5
B C 2
5
V C B C B
=
=
= = =

T T nR T C U Q

For the path CD:

( ) ( ) kJ 576 . 6
L 62 . 8 8
L 54 . 9 2
ln K 60 3
K mol
J
8.314 mol 2.00 ln
C
D
D C, D C
=
V
V
nRT W
Also, because process AB is isothermal, 0
B A int,
=

E and
kJ 576 . 6
D C D C
= =

W Q

Chapter 18

1752

Q
in
, W
on
, and E
int
are summarized for
each of the processes in the table to
the right.

Process Q
in
W
on
E
int

(kJ) (kJ) (kJ)
DA
0 . 15
0 15.0
AB
2 . 13
13.2 0
BC
0 . 15
0 15.0
CD
58 . 6
6.58 0

Referring to the table and noting that the work done by the gas equals the
negative of the work done on the gas, find the total work done by the gas per
cycle:

kJ 6.6 kJ 6.58 0 kJ 13.2 0
= + + = + + + =

W W W W W

Remarks: Note that E
int
for the complete cycle is zero and that the total
work done is the same for the diatomic gas of this problem and the
monatomic gas of problem 75.

77 A sample consisting of n moles of an ideal gas is initially at pressure
P
1
, volume V
1
, and temperature T
h
. It expands isothermally until its pressure and
volume are P
2
and V
2
. It then expands adiabatically until its temperature is T
c
and
its pressure and volume are P
3
and V
3
. It is then compressed isothermally until it
is at a pressure P
4
and a volume V
4
, which is related to its initial volume V
1

by
1 1
c 4 h 1

= TV T V . The gas is then compressed adiabatically until it is back in its
original state. (a) Assuming that each process is quasi-static, plot this cycle on a
PV diagram. (This cycle is known as the Carnot cycle for an ideal gas.) (b) Show
that the heat Q
h
absorbed during the isothermal expansion at T
h
is Q
h
= nRT
h

ln(V
2
/V
1
). (c) Show that the heat Q
c
released by the gas during the isothermal
compression at T
c
is Q
c
= nRT
c
ln (V
3
/V
4
). (d) Using the result that TV
1
is
constant for a quasi-static adiabatic expansion, show that V
2
/V
1
= V
3
/V
4
. (e) The
efficiency of a Carnot cycle is defined as the net work done by the gas, divided by
the heat absorbed Q
h
by the gas. Using the first law of thermodynamics, show that
the efficiency is 1 Q
c
/Q
h
. (f) Using your results from the previous parts of this
problem, show that Q
c
/Q
h
= T
c
/T
h
.


1753
Picture the Problem We can use the equations of state for adiabatic and
isothermal processes to express the work done on or by the system, the heat
entering or leaving the system, and the change in internal energy for each of the
four processes making up the Carnot cycle. We can use the first law of
thermodynamics and the definition of the efficiency of a Carnot cycle to show that
the efficiency is 1 Q
c
/ Q
h
.

(a) The cycle is shown on the PV
diagram to the right:
1
2
3
4
T
h
T
c
P
3
P
4
P
2
P
1
V
P
1
V
2
V
3
V
4
V

(b) Because the process 12 is
isothermal:

0
2 1 int,
=

E

to obtain:

= = =

1
2
h 2 1 2 1 h
ln
V
V
nRT W Q Q

(c) Because the process 34 is
isothermal:

0
4 3
=

U
thermodynamics to obtain:

= = =

4
3
c
3
4
c 4 3 4 3 c
ln
ln
V
V
nRT
V
V
nRT W Q Q

where the minus sign tells us that heat
is given off by the gas during this
process.

(d) Apply the equation for a
quasi-static adiabatic process at
points 4 and 1 to obtain:

1
1 h
1
4 c

=

V T V T
1
1
h
c
4
1

=

T
T
V
V
(1)
Chapter 18

1754
Apply the equation for a quasi-
static adiabatic process at points
2 and 3 to obtain:

1
3 c
1
2 h

=

V T V T
1
1
h
c
3
2

=

T
T
V
V
(2)
Equate equations (1) and (2) and
rearrange to obtain:

1
2
4
3
V
V
V
V
=
(e) Express the efficiency of the
Carnot cycle:

h
Q
W
=

( ) ( )
c h c h
in cycle int, on
0 Q Q Q Q
Q E W
= =
=

because E
int
is a state function and
0
cycle int,
= E .

Substitute to obtain:
h
c
h
c h
h
on
h
gas by the
1
Q
Q
Q
Q Q
Q
W
Q
W
=
= =

(f) In Part (b) we established that:
=
1
2
h h
ln
V
V
nRT Q

In Part (c) we established that the
heat leaving the system along the
path 34 is given by:

=
4
3
c c
ln
V
V
nRT Q

h
c
1
2
h
4
3
c
h
c
ln
ln
T
T
V
V
nRT
V
V
nRT
Q
Q
=
=
because
1
2
4
3
V
V
V
V
= .

Remarks: This last result establishes that the efficiency of a Carnot cycle is
also given by
h
c
C
T
T
= 1 .


1755
General Problems

78 During the process of quasi-statically compressing an ideal diatomic
gas to one-fifth of its initial volume, 180 kJ of work are done on the gas. (a) If
this compression is accomplished isothermally at room temperature (293 K), how
much heat is released by the gas? (b) How many moles of gas are in this sample?

Picture the Problem (a) We can use the first law of thermodynamics to relate the
heat removed from the gas to the work done on the gas. (b) We can find the
number of moles of the gas from the expression for the work done on or by a gas
during an isothermal process.

(a) Apply the first law of
thermodynamics to this process:

on on int in
W W E Q = =
because E
int
= 0 for an isothermal
process.

Substitute numerical values to
obtain:

kJ 180
in
= Q

Because Q
removed
= Q
in
:
kJ 180
removed
= Q

(b) The work done on the gas during
the isothermal process is given by:

=
i
f
ln
V
V
nRT W
=
i
f
ln
V
V
RT
W
n

evaluate n:
( )
mol 45.9
5
1
ln K 293
K mol
J
8.314
kJ 180
=
= n

79 [SSM] The PV diagram in Figure 18-25 represents 3.00 mol of an
ideal monatomic gas. The gas is initially at point A. The paths AD and BC
represent isothermal changes. If the system is brought to point C along the path
AEC, find (a) the initial and final temperatures of the gas, (b) the work done by
the gas, and (c) the heat absorbed by the gas.

Picture the Problem We can use the ideal-gas law to find the temperatures T
A

and T
C
. Because the process EDC is isobaric, we can find the area under this line
geometrically and then use the 1st law of thermodynamics to find Q
AEC
.

Chapter 18

1756
(a) Using the ideal-gas law, find the
temperature at point A:
( )( )
( )
K 65 K 65.2
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 3.00
L 4.01 atm 4.0
2
A A
A
= =
=
=
nR
V P
T

Using the ideal-gas law, find the
temperature at point C:
( )( )
( )
K 81 K 81.2
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 3.00
L 0 . 0 2 atm 1.0
2
C C
C
= =
=
=
nR
V P
T

(b) Express the work done by the gas
along the path AEC:

( )( )
kJ 1.6 kJ 1.62
atm L
J 101.325
atm L 15.99
L 4.01 L 20.0 atm 1.0
0
EC EC EC AE AEC
= =

=
=
+ = + = V P W W W

(c) Apply the first law of
thermodynamics to express Q
AEC
:

( )
A
T T nR W
T nR W
T C W E W Q
+ =
+ =
+ = + =
C 2
3
AEC
2
3
AEC
V AEC int AEC AEC

AEC
:

( )( )( ) kJ 2.2 K 65.2 K 81.2 K J/mol 8.314 mol 3.00 kJ 1.62
2
3
AEC
= + = Q

Remarks The difference between W
AEC
and Q
AEC
is the change in the internal
energy E
int,AEC
during this process.

80 The PV diagram in Figure 18-25 represents 3.00 mol of an ideal
monatomic gas. The gas is initially at point A. The paths AD and BC represent
isothermal changes. If the system is brought to point C along the path ABC, find
(a) the initial and final temperatures of the gas, (b) the work done by the gas, and
(c) the heat absorbed by the gas.

A

and T
C
. Because the process AB is isobaric, we can find the area under this line

1757
geometrically. We can use the expression for the work done during an isothermal
expansion to find the work done between B and C and the first law of
thermodynamics to find Q
ABC
.

( )( )
( )
K 65 K 65.2
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 3.00
L 4.01 atm 4.0
2
A A
A
= =
=
=
nR
V P
T

( )( )
( )
K 81 K 81.2
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 3.00
L 0 . 0 2 atm 1.0
2
C C
C
= =
=
=
nR
V P
T

(b) Express the work done by the gas
along the path ABC:

+ =
+ =
B
C
B AB AB
BC AB ABC
ln
V
V
nRT V P
W W W

Use the ideal-gas law to find the volume of the gas at point B:

( ) ( )
L 5.00
atm 4.0
K 81.2
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 3.00
2
B
B
B
=
= =

P
nRT
V

ABC
:

( )( ) ( )
( )
kJ 2 . 3 kJ 21 . 3
atm
J 101.325
atm L 1.7 3
L 5.00
L 20.0
ln K 81.2
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 3.00 L 4.01 L 5.00 atm 4.0
2
ABC
= = =
+ =

W

Chapter 18

1758

( )
A
T T nR W
T nR W
T C W E W Q
+ =
+ =
+ = + =
C 2
3
ABC
2
3
ABC
V ABC int ABC ABC

ABC
:

( ) ( ) kJ 8 . 3 K 65.2 K 81.2
K mol
J
8.314 mol 3.00 kJ 21 . 3
2
3
ABC
=
+ = Q

Remarks: The difference between W
ABC
and Q
ABC
is the change in the
internal energy E
int,ABC
during this process.

81 The PV diagram in Figure 18-25 represents 3.00 mol of an ideal
monatomic gas. The gas is initially at point A. The paths AD and BC represent
isothermal changes. If the system is brought to point C along the path ADC, find
(a) the initial and final temperatures of the gas, (b) the work done by the gas, and
(c) the heat absorbed by the gas.

A

and T
C
. Because the process DC is isobaric, we can find the area under this line
geometrically. We can use the expression for the work done during an isothermal
expansion to find the work done between A and D and the first law of
thermodynamics to find Q
ADC
.

( )( )
( )
K 65 K 65.2
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 3.00
L 4.01 atm 4.0
2
A A
A
= =
=
=
nR
V P
T

( )( )
( )
K 81
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 3.00
L 0 2 atm 1.0
2
C C
C
=
=
=
nR
V P
T


1759
(b) Express the work done by the
gas along the path ADC:
DC DC
A
D
A
DC AD ADC
ln V P
V
V
nRT
W W W
+
=
+ =

Use the ideal-gas law to find the volume of the gas at point D:

( ) ( )
L 051 . 6 1
atm 1.0
K 65.2
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 3.00
2
D
D
D
=
= =

P
nRT
V

ADC
:

( ) ( )
( )( )
kJ 7 . 2 kJ 65 . 2
atm L
J 101.325
atm L 2 . 26
L 1 . 6 1 L 0 . 0 2 atm 1.0
L 01 . 4
L 1 . 6 1
ln K 65.2
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 3.00
2
ADC
= =
=
+

=

W


( )
A
T T nR W
T nR W
T C W E W Q
+ =
+ =
+ = + =
C 2
3
ADC
2
3
ADC
V ADC int ADC ADC

ADC
:

( ) ( ) kJ 3 . 3 K 65.2 K 81.2
K mol
J
8.314 mol 3.00 kJ 65 . 2
2
3
ADC
=
+ = Q

82 Suppose that the paths AD and BC in Figure 18-25 represent adiabatic
processes. What are the work done by the gas and the heat absorbed by the gas in
following the path ABC?

A

and T
C
. Because the process AB is isobaric, we can find the area under this line
geometrically. We can find the work done during the adiabatic expansion between
B and C using
BC V BC
T C W = and the first law of thermodynamics to find Q
ABC
.

Chapter 18

1760
The work done by the gas along path
ABC is given by:

BC 2
3
AB AB
BC V AB AB
BC AB ABC
T nR V P
T C V P
W W W
=
=
+ =

because, with Q
in
= 0, W
BC
= E
int,BC
.

Use the ideal-gas law to find T
A
:
( )( )
( )
K 65.2
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 3.00
L 4.01 atm 4.0
2
A A
A
=
=
=
nR
V P
T

Use the ideal-gas law to express T
B
:
nR
V P
T
B B
B
=

Apply the pressure-volume
relationship for a quasi-static
adiabatic process to the gas at points
B and C to find the volume of the
gas at point B:

C C B B
V P V P =
and
( )
L 71 . 8
L 20.0
atm 4.0
atm 1.0
5
3 1
C
B
C
B
=

= V
P
P
V

evaluate T
B
:
( )( )
( )
K 142
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 3.00
L 8.71 atm 4.0
2
B
=
T

Use the ideal-gas law to express T
C
:
nR
V P
T
C C
C
=

evaluate T
C
:
( )( )
( )
K 81.2
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 3.00
L 0 . 0 2 atm 1.0
2
C
=
T


1761

ABC
:

( )( ) ( )
( )
kJ 2 . 4 kJ 18 . 4
atm
J 101.325
atm L 3 . 41
K 142 K 81.2
K mol
atm L
10 8.206 mol 3.00 L 4.01 L 71 . 8 atm 4.0
2
2
3
ABC
= = =

=

W

Apply the 1
st
law of thermodynamics
to obtain:

( )
A
T T nR W
T nR W
T C W E W Q
+ =
+ =
+ = + =
C 2
3
ABC
2
3
ABC
V ABC int ABC ABC

ABC
:

( ) ( ) kJ 8 . 4 K 65.2 K 81.2
K mol
J
8.314 mol 3.00 kJ 18 . 4
2
3
ABC
=
+ = Q

83 [SSM] As part of a laboratory experiment, you test the calorie
content of various foods. Assume that when you eat these foods, 100% of the
energy released by the foods is absorbed by your body. Suppose you burn a
2.50-g potato chip, and the resulting flame warms a small aluminum can of water.
After burning the potato chip, you measure its mass to be 2.20 g. The mass of the
can is 25.0 g, and the volume of water contained in the can is 15.0 ml. If the
temperature increase in the water is 12.5C, how many kilocalories (1 kcal = 1
dietary calorie) per 150-g serving of these potato chips would you estimate there
are? Assume the can of water captures 50.0 percent of the heat released during
the burning of the potato chip. Note: Although the joule is the SI unit of choice in
most thermodynamic situations, the food industry in the United States currently
expresses the energy released during metabolism in terms of the dietary calorie,
which is our kilocalorie.

Picture the Problem The ratio of the energy in a 150-g serving to the energy in
0.30 g of potato chip is the same as the ratio of the masses of the serving and the
amount of the chip burned while heating the aluminum can and the water in it.

Chapter 18

1762
The ratio of the energy in a 150-g
serving to the energy in 0.30 g of
potato chip is the same as the ratio of
the masses of the serving and the
amount of the chip burned while
heating the aluminum can and the
water in it:

500
g 0.30
g 150
g 0.30
serving g - 150
= =
Q
Q

or
g 0.30 serving g 150
500Q Q =
Letting f represent the fraction of the
heat captured by the can of water,
express the energy transferred to the
aluminum can and the water in it
during the burning of the potato
chip:
( ) T c m c m
T c m T c m
Q Q fQ

O H O H Al Al
O H O H Al Al
O H Al g 0.30
2 2
2 2
2
+ =
+ =
+ =

where T is the common temperature
change of the aluminum cup and the
water it contains.

Substituting for
g 0.30
Q yields and
solving for
serving g - 150
Q yields:
( )
f
T c m c m
Q
500
O H O H Al Al
serving g - 150
2 2
+
=

Substitute numerical values and evaluate
serving g - 150
Q :

( ) ( ) ( )
kcal 6 5 2 cal 10 256
J 4.184
cal 1
J 10 07 . 1
500 . 0
C 5 . 12
K kg
kJ
184 . 4 kg 0150 . 0
K kg
kJ
900 . 0 kg 0250 . 0 500
3 6
serving g - 150
= =
= Q

84 Diesel engines operate without spark plugs, unlike gasoline engines.
The cycle that diesel engines undergo involves adiabatically compressing the air
in a cylinder, and then fuel is injected. When the fuel is injected, if the air
temperature inside the cylinder is above the fuels flashpoint, the fuel-air mixture
will ignite. Most diesel engines have compression ratios in the range from 14:1 to
25:1. For this range of compression ratios (which are the ratio of maximum to
minimum volume), what is the range of maximum temperatures of the air in the
cylinder, assuming the air is taken into the cylinder at 35C? Most modern
gasoline engines typically have compression ratios on the order of 8:1. Explain
why you expect the diesel engine to require a better (more efficient) cooling
system than its gasoline counterpart.

Picture the Problem You can use the equation-of-state for an adiabatic process
to find the range of maximum temperatures of the air in the cylinder.


1763
For an adiabatic process from state i
to state f:

1
f f
1
i i

=

V T V T
where, for a diatomic gas, = 1.4.
Solving for T
f
yields:

1
f
i
i
1
f
1
i
i f
= =

V
V
T
V
V
T T

evaluate T
f
for an engine with a
compression ratio of 14:1:
( )
C 612 K 885
1
14
C 35 K 273
1 4 . 1
f
= =
+ =

T

evaluate T
f
for an engine with a
compression ratio of 25:1:
( )
C 43 8 K 1116
1
25
C 35 K 273
1 4 . 1
f
= =
+ =

T

The range of maximum temperatures of the air in the cylinder, assuming it is
taken into the cylinder at 35C, is . C 843 C 612

Gasoline engines, with much lower compression ratios, would clearly have lower
maximum operating temperatures and thus be subject to overall, average, lower
temperatures and not require as extensive cooling systems.

85 At very low temperatures, the specific heat of a metal is given by
c = aT + bT
3
. For copper, a = 0.0108 J/kgK
2
and b = 7.62 10
4
J/kgK
4
.
(a) What is the specific heat of copper at 4.00 K? (b) How much heat is required
to heat copper from 1.00 to 3.00 K?

Picture the Problem We can find c at T = 4.00 K by direct substitution. Because
c is a function of T, we can integrate dQ over the given temperature interval in
order to find the heat required to heat copper from 1.00 to 3.00 K.

(a) Substitute for a and b to obtain:

3
4
4
2
K kg
J
10 62 . 7
K kg
J
0.0108 T T c

=

Chapter 18

1764
Evaluate c at T = 4.00 K:

( ) ( ) ( )
K kg
J
10 20 . 9
K 00 . 4
K kg
J
10 62 . 7 K 00 . 4
K kg
J
0.0108 K 00 . 4
2
3
4
4
2
c

(b) The heat required to heat copper
from 1.00 to 3.00 K is given by:

( )
=
K 00 . 3
K 00 . 1
dT T c Q

Substituting for c(T) yields:

=

K 00 . 3
K 00 . 1
3
4
4
K 00 . 3
K 00 . 1
2
K kg
J
10 62 . 7
K kg
J
0108 . 0 dT T TdT Q

Evaluate this integral to obtain:

J/kg 0584 . 0
4 K kg
J
10 62 . 7
2 K kg
J
0108 . 0
K 3.00
K 00 . 1
4
4
4
K 3.00
K 00 . 1
2
2
=
=

T T
Q

86 How much work must be done on 30.0 g of carbon monoxide (CO) at
standard temperature and pressure to compress it to one-fifth of its initial volume
if the process is (a) isothermal, (b) adiabatic?

Picture the Problem (a) Let the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the initial and final
state respectively. Because the gas is initially at standard temperature and
pressure, we know that V
1
= 22.4 L/mol, P
1
= 1 atm, and T
1
= 273 K. We can use
( )
1 2
ln V V nRT W = to find the work done on the gas during an isothermal
compression. (b) We can use ( )
2 1 V on
T T nC W = to find the work done on the gas
during the adiabatic compression. Note that = 1.4 for diatomic gasses and see
Appendix C for the molar mass of CO.

(a) Express the work done on the gas
in compressing it isothermally:

=
1
2
on
ln
V
V
nRT W
Because the number of moles of
CO is the mass m of CO divided
by its molar mass:

=
1
2
on
ln
V
V
RT
M
m
W

1765

on
:

( ) kJ 3.91
5
1
ln K 273
K mol
J
8.314
g/mol 28.01
g 30.0
on
=
= W

(b) Express the work done on the gas
in compressing it adiabatically:

( ) ( )
2 1 V 2 1 V on
T T C
M
m
T T nC W = =

Using the equation for a quasi-static
adiabatic process, relate the initial
and final temperatures and volumes:

1
2 2
1
1 1

=

V T V T
1
2
1
1 2
=

V
V
T T
Substituting for T
2
and V
2
and
simplifying gives:
( ) ( )
1
1 V
1
1 5
1
1
1 1 V on
5 1

T C
M
m
V
V
T T C
M
m
W

Because R C 49 . 2
V
= for an ideal
diatomic gas (see Table 18-3):

( ) ( )
1
1 on
5 1 49 . 2

=

RT
M
m
W
on
:

( ) ( ) ( ) kJ 49 . 5 5 1 K 273
K mol
J
8.314
g/mol 28.01
g 30.0
49 . 2
1 4 . 1
on
=
=

W

87 How much work must be done on 30.0 g of carbon dioxide (CO
2
) at
standard temperature and pressure to compress it to one-fifth of its initial volume
if the process is (a) isothermal, (b) adiabatic?

1
= 22.4 L/mol, P
1
= 1 atm, and T
1
= 273 K. We can use
( )
1 2
2 1 V on
during the adiabatic compression. Note that = 1.3 for triatomic gasses and see
Appendix C for the molar mass of CO
2
.

Chapter 18

1766

=
1
2
on
ln
V
V
nRT W
Because the number of moles of CO
2

is the mass m of CO
2
divided by its
molar mass:

=
1
2
on
ln
V
V
RT
M
m
W
on
:

( ) kJ 49 . 2
5
1
ln K 273
K mol
J
8.314
g/mol 01 . 4 4
g 30.0
on
=
= W


( ) ( )
2 1 V 2 1 V on
T T C
M
m
T T nC W = =


1
2 2
1
1 1

=

V T V T
1
2
1
1 2
=

V
V
T T
Substituting for T
2
and V
2
and
simplifying gives:
( ) ( )
1
1 V
1
1 5
1
1
1 1 V on
5 1

T C
M
m
V
V
T T C
M
m
W

Because R C 39 . 3
V
= for CO
2
(see
Table 18-3):

( ) ( )
1
1 on
5 1 39 . 3

=

RT
M
m
W
on
:

( ) ( ) ( ) kJ .26 3 5 1 K 273
K mol
J
8.314
g/mol 44.01
g 30.0
39 . 3
1 3 . 1
on
=
=

W

88 How much work must be done on 30.0 g of argon (Ar) at standard
temperature and pressure to compress it to one-fifth of its initial volume if the
process is (a) isothermal, (b) adiabatic?

1
= 22.4 L/mol, P
1
= 1 atm, and T
1
= 273 K. We can use
( )
1 2

1767
2 1 V on
during the adiabatic compression. Note that = 1.67 for monatomic gasses and
see Appendix C for the molar mass of Ar.


=
1
2
on
ln
V
V
nRT W
Because the number of moles of Ar
is the mass m of Ar divided by its
molar mass:

=
1
2
on
ln
V
V
RT
M
m
W

on
:

( ) kJ 74 . 2
5
1
ln K 273
K mol
J
8.314
g/mol 948 . 39
g 30.0
on
=
= W


( ) ( )
2 1 V 2 1 V on
T T C
M
m
T T nC W = =


1
2 2
1
1 1

=

V T V T
1
2
1
1 2
=

V
V
T T
Substituting for T
2
and V
2
and
simplifying gives:
( ) ( )
1
1 V
1
1 5
1
1
1 1 V on
5 1

T C
M
m
V
V
T T C
M
m
W

Because R C 50 . 1
V
= for Ar (see
Table 18-3):

( ) ( )
1
1 on
5 1 50 . 1

=

RT
M
m
W
on
:

( ) ( ) ( ) kJ .92 4 5 1 K 273
K mol
J
8.314
g/mol 95 . 9 3
g 30.0
50 . 1
1 67 . 1
on
=
=

W

89 [SSM] A thermally insulated system consists of 1.00 mol of a
diatomic gas at 100 K and 2.00 mol of a solid at 200 K that are separated by a
rigid insulating wall. Find the equilibrium temperature of the system after the
Chapter 18

1768
insulating wall is removed, assuming that the gas obeys the ideal-gas law and that
the solid obeys the DulongPetit law.

Picture the Problem We can use conservation of energy to relate the equilibrium
temperature to the heat capacities of the gas and the solid. We can apply the
Dulong-Petit law to find the heat capacity of the solid at constant volume and use
the fact that the gas is diatomic to find its heat capacity at constant volume.

Apply conservation of energy to this
process:

0
solid gas
= + = Q Q Q
Use T C Q
V
= to substitute for Q
gas
and Q
solid
:

( ) ( ) 0 K 200 K 100
equil solid V, equil gas V,
= + T C T C

Solving for T
equil
yields:
( )( ) ( )( )
solid V, gas V,
solid V, gas V,
equil
K 200 K 100
C C
C C
T
+
+
=

Using the Dulong-Petit law,
determine the heat capacity of the
solid at constant volume:

R n C
solid solid V,
3 =
The heat capacity of the gas at
constant volume is given by:

R n C
gas 2
5
gas V,
=

Substitute for C
V,solid
and C
V,gas
and simplify to obtain:

( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
solid gas 2
5
solid gas 2
5
solid gas 2
5
solid gas 2
5
equil
3
3 K 200 K 100
3
3 K 200 K 100
n n
n n
R n R n
R n R n
T
+
+
=
+
+
=

Substitute numerical values for n
gas
and n
solid
and evaluate T
equil
:

( )( )( ) ( )( )( )
( ) ( )
K 171
mol 00 . 2 3 mol 00 . 1
mol 00 . 2 3 K 200 mol 00 . 1 K 100
2
5
2
5
equil
=
+
+
= T

90 When an ideal gas undergoes a temperature change at constant
volume, its internal energy change is given by the formula E
int
= C
v
T.
However, this formula correctly gives the change in internal energy whether the
volume remains constant or not. (a) Explain why this formula gives correct results
for an ideal gas even when the volume changes. (b) Using this formula, along
with the first law of thermodynamics, show that for an ideal gas C
p
= C
v
+ nR.

1769

Picture the Problem

(a) T C E =
V int
correctly gives the change in internal energy when the
temperature changes and the volume is not constant because E
int
is the same for
all gas processes that have the same T. For an ideal gas, the internal energy is
the sum of the kinetic energies of the gas molecules and this sum is proportional
to kT. Any two processes that change the thermal energy of the gas by E
int
will
cause the same temperature change T. Consequently, E
int
is independent of the
process that takes the gas from one state to another.

(b) Use the first law of
thermodynamics to relate the work
done on the gas, the heat entering the
gas, and the change in the internal
energy of the gas:

on in int
W Q E + =
Substituting for E
int
yields:
on in V
W Q T C + =

The work done on the gas during a
constant-pressure process is given
by:

( )
i f on
V V P V P W = =

Use the ideal gas law to substitute for
V
f
and V
i
and then simplify to obtain:

( )
T nR
T T nR
P
nRT
P
nRT
P W
=
=
=
i f
i f
on

Substituting for
on
W gives: T nR Q T C =
in V

Solve for Q
in

( )
T C
T nR C T nR T C Q
=
+ = + =
P
V V in

where nR C C + =
V P

91 An insulated cylinder is fitted with an insulated movable piston to
maintain constant pressure. The cylinder initially contains 100 g of ice at 10C.
Heat is transferred to the ice at a constant rate by a 100-W heater. Make a graph
showing the temperature of the ice/water/ steam as a function of time starting at t
i

when the temperature is 10C and ending at t
f
when the temperature is 110C.

Chapter 18

1770
Picture the Problem Knowing the rate at which energy is supplied, we can
obtain the data we need to plot this graph by finding the time required to warm the
ice to 0C, melt the ice, warm the water formed from the ice to 100C, vaporize
the water, and warm the water to 110C.

Find the time required to warm the ice to 0C:

( ) ( ) ( )
min 0.3 s 20.0
s
J
100
C 10 C 0
K kg
kJ
2.0 kg 0.100
ice
1
=

= =
P
T mc
t

Find the time required to melt the
ice:
( )
min 5.6 s 5 . 33 3
s
J
100
kg
kJ
333.5 kg 0.100
f
2
=
= =
P
mL
t

Find the time required to heat the
water to 100C:
( ) ( )
min 7.0 s 418
s
J
100
C 100
K kg
kJ
18 . 4 kg 0.100
w
3
=
=
=
P
T mc
t

Find the time required to vaporize the
water:
( )
min 6 . 37 s 2257
s
J
100
kg
kJ
257 2 kg 0.100
V
4
=
= =
P
mL
t

Find the time required to heat the
vapor to 110C:
( ) ( )
min 0.3 s 0 . 20
s
J
100
C 10
K kg
kJ
0 . 2 kg 0.100
steam
5
=
=
=
P
T mc
t


1771
A graph of T as a function of time follows:

50.5 12.9 5.9 0.3
min ,
110
100
0
10
C ,
8 . 50
T
t

92 (a) In this problem, 2.00 mol of a diatomic ideal gas expands
adiabatically and quasi-statically. The initial temperature of the gas is 300 K. The
work done by the gas during the expansion is 3.50 kJ. What is the final
temperature of the gas? (b) Compare your result to the result you would get if the
gas were monatomic.

Picture the Problem We know that, for an adiabatic process, Q
in
= 0. Hence the
work done by the expanding gas equals the change in its internal energy. Because
were given the work done by the gas during the expansion, we can express the
change in the temperature of the gas in terms of this work and C
V
.

(a) Express the final temperature of
the gas as a result of its expansion:

T T T + =
i f

Apply the equation for adiabatic
work and solve for T:
T C W =
V adiabatic

and
nR
W
C
W
T
2
5
adiabatic
V
adiabatic
= =

Substitute for T to obtain:
nR
W
T T
2
5
adiabatic
i f
=

Chapter 18

1772
evaluate T
f
for a diatomic gas:
( )
K 216
K mol
J
8.314 mol 2.00
kJ 3.50
K 300
2
5
f
=
= T

(b) Because a monatomic gas has
only 3 degrees of freedom:

nR C
2
3
V
=
and
nR
W
T T
2
3
adiabatic
i f
=

evaluate T
f
for a monatomic gas:
( )
K 160
K mol
J
8.314 mol 2.00
kJ 3.50
K 300
2
3
f
=
= T

93 A vertical insulated cylinder is divided into two parts by a movable
piston of mass m. The piston is initially held at rest. The top part is evacuated and
the bottom part is filled with 1.00 mol of diatomic ideal gas at temperature 300 K.
After the piston is released and the system comes to equilibrium, the volume
occupied by gas is halved. Find the final temperature of the gas.

Picture the Problem Let the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the initial and final states
in this adiabatic expansion. We can use an equation describing a quasi-static
adiabatic process to express the final temperature as a function of the initial
temperature and the initial and final volumes.

and final volumes and temperatures:

1
1 1
1
2 2

=

V T V T
Solve for T
2
( )
1
1
1
1 2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1 2
2

=
=

T
V
V
T
V
V
T T

Substitute the numerical value for T
1

and evaluate T
2
:
( )( ) K 396 2 K 300
1 4 . 1
2
= =

T


1773
94 According to the Einstein model of a crystalline solid, the internal
energy per mole is given by
E
A E
/
3
1
=
T T
N kT
U
e
where T
E
is a characteristic temperature
called the Einstein temperature, and T is the temperature of the solid in kelvins.
Use this expression to show that a crystalline solids molar heat capacity at
constant volume is given by
( )
2
2
V
1
3
E
E
=
T T
T T
E
e
e
T
T
R c' .

Picture the Problem The molar heat capacity at constant volume is related to the
internal energy per mole according to
dT
dU
n
c'
v
1
= . We can differentiate U with
respect to temperature and use nR = Nk or R = N
A
k to establish the result given in
the problem statement.

From the Einstein model of a
crystalline solid, the internal energy
per mole is given by:

1
3
E
E A
=
T T
e
kT N
U

Relate the molar heat capacity at
constant volume to the internal
energy per mol:

dT
dU
n
c'
1
V
=
Use
dT
dU
n
c'
1
V
= to express
V
c' :

( )
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2 2
E
2
E E
E A
V
1
3
1
1
3
1
1
1
3
1
1
3
1
3 1
E
E
E
E
E
E
E E
=
T T
T T
E E T T
T T
T T
T T
T T T T
e
e
T
T
R
T
T
e
e
RT
e
dT
d
e
RT
e dT
d
RT
e
kT N
dT
d
n
c'

95 [SSM] (a) Use the results of Problem 94 to show that in the limit
that T >> T
E
, the Einstein model gives the same expression for specific heat that
the DulongPetit law does. (b) For diamond, T
E
is approximately 1060 K.
Integrate numerically dE
int
=
v
c dT to find the increase in the internal energy if
1.00 mol of diamond is heated from 300 to 600 K.

Chapter 18

1774
Picture the Problem (a) We can rewrite our expression for
'
c
V
by dividing its
numerator and denominator by
T T
e
E
and then using the power series for e
x
to
show that, for T > T
E
, R c
'
3
V
. In Part (b), we can use the result of Problem 94 to
obtain values for
'
c
V
every 100 K between 300 K and 600 K and use this data to
find U numerically.

(a) From Problem 94 we have:
( )
2
2
E
V
1
3
E
E
=
T T
T T
e
e
T
T
R c'

Divide the numerator and denominator
by
T T
e
E
to obtain:
T T T T
T T
T T T T
e e T
T
R
e
e e T
T
R c'
E E
E
E E
2
1
3
1 2
1
3
2
E
2
2
E
V
=
+
=

Express the exponential terms in their power series to obtain:

E
2
E
2
E E
2
E E
for
...
2
1
1 2 ...
2
1
1 2
E E
T T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
e e
T T T T
>>
+ + +
+ + = +

Substitute for
T T T T
e e
E E
2

+ to
obtain:

R
T
T
T
T
R c' 3
1
3
2
E
2
E
V
=

(b) Use the result of Problem 94 to verify the following table:

T (K) 300 400 500 600
c
V
(J/molK) 9.65 14.33 17.38 19.35


1775
The following graph of specific heat as a function of temperature was plotted
using a spreadsheet program:
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
21
300 350 400 450 500 550 600
T (K)
C
V

(
J
/
m
o
l
-
K
)

Integrate numerically, using the formula for the area of a trapezoid, to obtain:

( )( )( )
( )( )( )
( )( )( )
kJ 62 . 4
K mol
J
35 . 19 38 . 17 K 100 mol 00 . 1
K mol
J
38 . 17 33 . 14 K 100 mol 00 . 1
K mol
J
33 . 14 65 . 9 K 100 mol 00 . 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
=

+ +

+ +

+ = U

96 Use the results of the Einstein model in Problem 94 to determine the
molar internal energy of diamond (T
E
= 1060 K) at 300 K and 600 K, and thereby
the increase in internal energy as diamond is heated from 300 K to 600 K.
Compare your result to that of Problem 95.

Picture the Problem We can simplify our calculations by relating Avogadros
number N
A
, Boltzmanns constant k, the number of moles n, and the number of
molecules N in the gas and solving for N
A
k. We can then calculate U
300 K
, U
600 K
,
and their difference.

Chapter 18

1776
Express the increase in internal
energy per mole resulting from the
heating of diamond:

K 300 K 600
U U U = (1)
Express the relationship between
Avogadros number N
A
,
Boltzmanns constant k, the number
of moles n, and the number of
molecules N in the gas:

Nk nR = k N k
n
N
R
A
= =
Substitute in the given equation
to obtain:

1
3
E
E
=
T T
e
RT
U
Determine U
300 K
:
( )
J 795 J 4 . 795
1
K 1060
K mol
J
314 . 8 3
K 300 K 1060
K 300
= =

=
e
U

Determine U
600 K
:
( )
kJ 45 . 5 kJ 4498 . 5
1
K 1060
K mol
J
314 . 8 3
K 600 K 1060
K 600
= =

=
e
U

Substituting in equation (1) yields:
kJ 4.65 J 795.4 kJ 5.4498
K 300 K 600
= =
= U U U

This result agrees with the result of Problem 95 to within 1%.

97 During an isothermal expansion, an ideal gas at an initial pressure P
0

expands until its volume is twice its initial volume V
0
. (a) Find its pressure after
the expansion. (b) The gas is then compressed adiabatically and quasi-statically
until its volume is V
0
and its pressure is 1.32P
0
. Is the gas monatomic, diatomic,
or polyatomic? (c) How does the translational kinetic energy of the gas change in
each stage of this process?

Picture the Problem The isothermal expansion followed by an adiabatic
compression is shown on the PV diagram. The path 12 is isothermal and the
path 23 is adiabatic. We can apply the ideal-gas law for a fixed amount of gas
and an isothermal process to find the pressure at point 2 and the pressure-volume
relationship for a quasi-static adiabatic process to determine.

1777

(a) Relate the initial and final
pressures and volumes for the
isothermal expansion and solve for
and evaluate the final pressure:
2 2 1 1
V P V P =
and
0 2
1
1
1
0
2
1
1 2
2
P
V
V
P
V
V
P P = = =

(b) Relate the initial and final
pressures and volumes for the
adiabatic compression:

3 3 2 2
V P V P =
or
( )

0 0 0 0 2
1
32 . 1 2 V P V P =
which simplifies to 64 . 2 2 =

Take the natural logarithm of both
sides of this equation and solve for
and evaluate :
64 . 2 ln 2 ln = 40 . 1
2 ln
64 . 2 ln
= =
and the gas is diatomic .

(c) During the isothermal process, T is constant and the translational kinetic
energy is unchanged. During the adiabatic process, the translational kinetic energy
increases by a factor of 1.32.

98 If a hole is punctured in a tire, the gas inside will gradually leak out.
Assume the following: the area of the hole is A; the tire volume is V; and the time,
, it takes for most of the air to leak out of the tire can be expressed in terms of the
ratio A/V, the temperature T, the Boltzmann constant k, and the initial mass m of
the gas inside the tire. (a) Based on these assumptions, use dimensional analysis
to find an estimate for . (b) Use the result of Part (a) to estimate the time it takes
for a car tire with a nail hole punched in it to go flat.

Picture the Problem In (a) well assume that = f (A/V, T, k, m) with the factors
dependent on constants a, b, c, and d that well find using dimensional analysis. In
(b) well use our result from (a) and assume that the diameter of the puncture is
about 2 mm, that the tire volume is 0.1 m
3
, and that the air temperature is 20C.

Chapter 18

1778
(a) Express = f (A/V, T, k, m):
( ) ( ) ( )
d c b
a
m k T
V
A
= (1)

Rewrite this equation in terms of the
dimensions of the physical quantities
to obtain:

( ) ( ) ( )
d
c
b a
M
K T
ML
K L T
2
2
1
=

where K represents the dimension of
temperature.

Simplify this dimensional equation to
obtain:

d c c c b a
M T K L M K L T
-2c 2 1
=
or
2c 2 1
T M K L T
+
=
d c c b a c

Equate exponents to obtain:
1 2 : T = c ,
0 2 : L = a c ,
0 : K = c b ,
and
0 : M = + d c

Solve these equations simultaneously
to obtain:

1 = a ,
2
1
= b ,
2
1
= c , and
2
1
= d

Substituting in equation (1) yields:
( ) ( ) ( )
kT
m
A
V
m k T
V
A
=
2
1
2
1
2
1
1

(b) Substitute numerical values and evaluate :

( )
( )( )
( )( )
min 9 s 569
K 293 J/K 381 . 1
m 1 . 0 kg/m 293 . 1
m 10 2
4
m 1 . 0
3 3
2
3
3
=

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1685

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