1

Muslim'Contribution'to'Pharmacy'
Zakaria Virk, Canada
This article will focus on Medieval Muslim scholars physicians, botanists,
chemists and translators, who contributed profusely in the development of
pharmaceutical knowledge and the art of drug making.
nterest in the development of pharmacy in slamic lands was led by poisons,
their antidotes and means of detecting the poisons. Therefore much of the
groundwork for early pharmacy was laid down by to!icologists. nitially
knowledge of medicinal substances was based upon the "## plants or plant
products described by $reek physician %ioscorides &'#C(), covering a thousand
remedies in his treatise De materia medica. *rabic translations of this $reek
book formed the basis for much of the future advances made by Muslims in
pharmacology and pharmacy. +ubse,uently numerous *rabic and -ersian
treatises were written on medicaments. The knowledge Muslim pharmacists
inherited from +yria, -ersia, ndia and the .ar (ast formed the basis for future
innovations. Muslim pharmacists remained unsurpassed in this field until the /0
th

century.
slamic pharmacy &Saydanah), the art of preparing and dispensing drugs,
separate from the profession of medicine was recogni1ed in the 2
th
century.
+andalwood was used in pharmaceutical preparations and it soon became
associated with the profession. -harmacies were called in *rabic as-Saydanah
and pharmacists were called as-saydanani or as3saydalani. n ndia sandalwood
was used more than any other aromatic woods. n +anskrit sandalwood was
called chandan or jandan. n *rabic a person who sells amber is called anbari,
therefore the person who traded in sandalwood was called sandalani. The title of
saydalani is given to a ,ualified pharmacist. +upposedly the first person to be
given the title of al-Saydalani was the 4aghdad resident, *bu 5uraysh al3
+aydalani. slamic pharmacy involved herbalists, collectors and sellers of
medicinal herbs and spices, manufacturers, sellers of syrups, cosmetics,
aromatic waters, and pharmacist authors.
%rug stores were first established in 4aghdad in 067, where drugs were prepared
and sold. The drug stores and the work carried on in them, was inspected by
Mohtasibs &inspectors). Market nspectors were responsible for checking the
cleanliness of the containers, preparation of drugs and their dispensing. %uring
the reign of Caliph Mamun al38ashid &d.299) licensing system was introduced.
By: D&U Photostate
2
The druggists and the physicians had to pass an e!amination in order to obtain a
license to practice. :icensed pharmacists were called Sayadala. Sinan ibn Sabit
&d.'79), director of 4aghdad hospital, was the first administrator of licensing
department and founder of public health system.
slamic pharmacy introduced ;### new substances including anise, cinnamon,
cloves, senna, camphor, sandalwood, musk, myrrh, cassia, tamarind, nutmeg,
cloves, aconite, ambergris, and mercury. They introduced hemp as an
anaesthetic. They were first to develop syrups and <uleps, new pills, eli!irs,
confections, tinctures, and inhalants. Muslim pharmacists made scientific
investigations of the composition, dosages, uses, and therapeutic effects of
drugs.
Pharmacy during Umayya Period
The first figure associated with the development of slamic pharmacy was
grandson of Caliph =adhrat Muawiyyah, Prince Khalid bin Yazid &d.0#7). >halid
was more interested in alchemy than to be a future ruler. =e asked alchemist of
*le!andria Marianos to teach him alchemy. n order to trans3mutate metals into
gold, he collected various herbs, did some e!periments but gained nothing.
?nder his direction, translations of $reek te!ts into *rabic were made for the first
time in the slamic world. Translators were given stipends, and soon several
(gyptian and $reek books of medicine, chemistry and astrology were translated
into *rabic. =e was the first one to establish a library in the slamic world.
During Abbasid Period
Jabir ibn Hayyan &d. 2/6 >ufa) was a renowned chemist and alchemist. =e is
considered to be the father of modern chemistry. n chemistry he emphasi1ed
systematic e!perimentation, and freed chemistry from superstition. =e is credited
with the invention of over ;; types of basic laboratory e,uipment, such as the
alembic and retort. =e invented many commonplace chemical substances such
as the hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and processes such as sublimation,
calcinations, crystalli1ation, evaporation, dissolution.
By: D&U Photostate
3
Ali Bin Sahl Rabban al-Tabari &d.20#) served as a government officer and
physician under the rule of Caliph al3Mu@tasim &299327;). *l3Tabari wrote a
famous book Firdaus al-Hikma &-aradise of Aisdom) which was completed in
26#. n addition to discussing diseases and their remedies, he included several
chapters on materia medica. =e urged that therapeutic value of each drug be
reconciled with the particular disease. .or storing the drugs he recommended
glass or ceramic vessels for li,uid drugs, small <ars for eye li,uid salves, B lead
containers for fatty substances.The first medical formulary &Aqrabadhin) was
written in *rabic by Sabur bin Sahl &d.2"'). The book included recipes for
compounding the drugs, remedies for ailments, their pharmacological actions,
dosage and the methods of administrations. t was written as a guidebook for
pharmacists. Medical encyclopaedias always had one chapter on materia
medica, B another on recipes for compound remedies. %rugs were classified into
simple &mufradat) and compound &murakkabat). Compound drugs were
considered more likely to be effective, the more complicated and rare ingredients
they contained, the more e!pensive they were likely to be.
Cakoob bn sha, Al-Kindi &d.209) made important contributions in medicine,
pharmacy and optics. Df the ;"6 works he penned, more than 9# dealt with pure
medicine. =e developed a mathematical scale to determine in advance, based
on the phases of the Moon the most critical days of an illness. =e invented a
branch of medicine called posology, which dealt with the dosages of the drugs.
%osages for the drugs were a guessing game in the ancient world. =e created
easy3to3use table that pharmacists could refer to when filling out prescriptions. 4y
documenting amounts with a mathematical formula that anyone could follow, al3
>indi revolutioni1ed medicine. %rugs could now be formulated according to set
amounts with the result that all patients would receive standardi1ed dosages. =is
book on posology, Risala fe marifat quwa al-adwiya al-murakkaba was
translated into :atin as De Medicinarum om!ositarum "radibus #n$esti%andis
&ibellus &The investigation of the strength of compound medicine). n his
Aqrabadain &Medical .ormulary), he describes many pharmaceutical
preparations, including simple drugs virtually derived from natural botanical
sources as well as animal and mineral sources.
Muhammad bn Zakaria al-Razi &d.';6) introduced into pharmacy the use of mild
purgatives, cupping for cases of apople!y &sudden effusion of blood into an
organ) and cold water for fevers. n 4aghdad, he was made director of Mu,tadari
hospital, where he acted as a chemist to mi! drugs for patients. =e was the first
to identify many diseases such as asthma, smallpo!, chicken 3po! and treated
them successfully. =e was the first physician who used alcohol as antiseptic. =e
invented many tools such as the mortar and pestle that are used by pharmacists.
=is books 'arabadain (abir &The $reat 4ook of >rabadain) , and 'arabadain
By: D&U Photostate
4
Sa%hir &The :ittle 4ook of >rabadin) were important in pharmacology in that they
introduced 2;' novel drugs. =e promoted the medical uses of chemical
compounds. 8a1i was the first to write a book on home remedies, )ibb al-
Fuqara* n its 9" chapters, he described diets and drugs that can be found in the
kitchens, pharmacies, and military camps. 4ooks on this theme continued to
appear until the ;#
th
century. n his famous (itab al-Mansuri he devoted 7
chapters to diets and drugs, to!icology, antidotes, B compound remedies. n his
By: D&U Photostate
5
collection of Mujarrabat, i.e. medicine tested in actual cases, 8a1i described "6#
cases of men, women and children. Thus the number of "6# can be e!trapolated
into a rather large medical practice. * manuscript of (itab al-)ajarib is preserved
at Topkapisarayi, *hmad , /'06, stanbul.
Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Maqdai performed pharmaceutical e!periments
and wrote several books as guides to materia medica. *bu al35asim al3Zahrawi
&'9"3/#/9) pioneered the preparation of drugs by sublimation and distillation. =is
(itab al-)asrif &:atinE :iber servitoris) provides the reader with recipes and
e!plains how to prepare the Fsimples@ from which were compounded the comple!
drugs then generally used.
Prince !" Phyician #bn Sena &d./#72) wrote a book Adwiya al-'albiyya
&Cardiac %rugs) which contains 0"# drugs. =e prepared medications for many
kings and +ultans of his time. =e devoted a whole volume to simple drugs in his
masterpiece (itab al-'anoon fil )ibb. =is most enduring work in pharmacy was
laying down the following rules for testing the effectiveness of a new drug or
medication. /. The drug must be free from any e!treneous accidental ,uality. &;)
t must be used on a simple, not composite disease. &9) The drug must be tested
with two contrary types of disease, because sometimes a drug cures one disease
by its essential ,ualities and another by its accidental ones. &7) The ,uality of the
drug must correspond to the strength of the disease. .or e!ample, there are
some drugs whose heat is less than the coldness of certain diseases, so that
they would have no effect on them. &6) The time of action must be observed, so
that essence and action are not confused. &") the e!perimentation must be done
with the human body, for testing a drug on a lion or a horse might not prove
anything about its effect on man.
bn +ena@s contemporary, Al-Biruni &'093/#6#) wrote one of the most valuable
slamic works on pharmacology entitled (itab al-Saydalah fee al-)ibb &)he +ook
of Dru%s), where he gave detailed knowledge of the properties of drugs and
outlined the role of pharmacy and the functions and duties of a pharmacist. The
first part of the book contains authentic definitions of the apothecary art as well
as pharmacology, therapeutics and related fields of the healing arts, le!icology
and le!icography, to!icology, omissions and substitutions of drugs, and their
synonyms. The second part is devoted to materia medica in which 4iruni
e!plains over 0## simple drugs of the three natural kingdoms scrupulously
arranged in alphabetical order. 5uite a few of these simples were never
mentioned before by the $reco38oman authors prior to the *rabian period. Many
of these, *l 4iruni must have observed during his /9 travels in the ndian
subcontinent. * pharmacist, he said, is a professional who collects the best and
By: D&U Photostate
6
By: D&U Photostate
7
the finest of the simples and drugs and uses the best of methods for preparing
his compounds.G
=e promoted the academic training of pharmacy students together with day to
day practical e!perience with drugs. =e e!pected these trainees to become
familiar with the shapes, physical properties, and numerous kinds of drugs. Thus
they would be able to differentiate one from the other. =e argued that a
pharmacist should be able to substitute one drug for another. The knowledge of
how drugs work &pharmacology) is more important than the skill of preparing
them. Ahen substituting one drug for another, reactions of each drug should be
considered. Cure can be sought through a draft, ointment, anointing oils or by
fumigation. n seeking a substitute, therefore all these and other applications
should be kept in mind.
Yahya ibn Jazla &d.//##) composed )aqwim al-Abdan fi )adbir al-#nsan, which
consisted of 77 tables. 96; diseases were arranged like the stars in the ,ijes
&astronomical tables), =e was the first one to use tabular form of summary. bn
Ha1la also wrote another .work, Al-Minhaj fi Al-Adwiah Al-Murakkabah,
&Methodology of Compound %rugs), which was translated by Hambolinus and
was known in :atin translation as the ibis et medicines sim!licibus.
The first pharmacological book by a Muslim was compiled by Abu Manur
Mu$a""aq who lived in =erat in the /#th century, present day *fghanistan. =e
was apparently the first to think of compiling a treatise on materia medica in
-ersianI he traveled e!tensively in -ersia and ndia to gather the necessary
information. *round '00 he wrote, the (itab al-abniyia -an Haqa-iq al-adwiya,
&The foundations of the true properties of 8emedies) which is the oldest prose
work in modern -ersian. t deals with 626 remedies &of which 7"" are derived
from plants, 06 from minerals, 77 from animals), classified into four groups
according to their action. The original manuscript of this book is preserved in a
library in Vienna. *bu Mansur made a distinction between sodium carbonate and
potassium carbonate, and seems to have had some knowledge about arsenious
o!ide, cupric o!ide, silicic acid, and antimony. =e knew the to!ological effects of
copper and lead compounds, the depilatory virtue of ,uicklime, the composition
of plaster of -aris and its surgical use. =e also describes the distillation of sea3
water for drinking.
Pharmacy in Islamic Spain & Maghrib
Saeed ibn Abd Rabbihi &d.'"#) was a pharmacist3physician of Cordoba. =is
(itab al-Dukkan &The -harmacy +hop) consisted of /0 chapters on compound
By: D&U Photostate
8
drugs and recipes. Ahmad #bn al-Jazzar &d.'27) practiced medicine in
5ayrawan, Tunisia. n his apothecary shop in the city of Manastir, he kept syrups,
electuaries and other reparations. =is shop assistant 8ashi, helped in
By: D&U Photostate
9
dispensing the medications. =e was well known in slamic +pain during the rule
of Caliph al3=akam &'"/3'0"). 4y running a successful business he ac,uired
much wealth and fame. =is medical compendium ,aad al-Musafir comprised of
seven treatises, and divided into two parts. =is book (itab al-#timad al3adwiya al-
Mufrida was on the pharmacological effects of tried and useful simple drugs. t
was translated into :atin, =ebrew and $reek and e!erted a profound influence
on medical education in (urope. =owever this book was refuted by (gyptian ibn
al3=aitham in his book (itab al .#qtisad wal #jad fee (hata ibn al-/a00ar fil
#timaad1* =is book al-+u%hiya on compound drugs was written as a
complimentary to al-#timad. )ibb al-Fuqara wal Masakin was intended for poor
people who could not afford a doctor and imported drugs. *nyone could cure
common diseases by buying readily available herbs.
Abul %aim al-Zahra$i &'9"3/#/9) was considered the greatest medieval
surgeon and one of the fathers of modern surgery. n volume ;0 of his 9# volume
magnum opus (itab al-)asreef, he provided the readers with recipes for
preparing sim!les from which were compounded the comple! drugs then
generally used. =e pioneered the preparation of drugs by sublimation and
distillation.
Abu Salt &maiyah Andalui &d. //97) was a resourceful physician, astronomer,
mathematician, and an elo,uent poet. =is brief compendium on materia medica
al-Adwiyah al-Mufradah was in use in hospital pharmacies in (gypt. The sim!les
were listed according to their therapeutic action on various body organs. The
book was translated into :atin by *rnold of Villanova in second half of the /9
th

century. =is works have received good attention especially from $erman
speaking scholarship. Abdul Malik #bn Zuhr& d.//"/) wrote (itab al-A%h0iya
describing various types of foods and drugs and their effects on a person@s
health. n his (itab al-#qtisad he gave a summary of diseases, therapeutics and
hygiene, written especially for the benefit of the layman. =is pharmacopoeia was
the first *rabic book to be printed with a movable type in /7'/. =e developed
drug therapy and medicinal drugs for the treatment of specific diseases.
%azi #bn Ruhd &//;"3//'2) completed in //"; his seven volume medical
encyclopedia (itab al-(ulliyat fil )ibb in which he devoted two volumes to materia
medica and general therapeutics.
#bn Baytar &d./;72) described some /7## drugs derived from various plants
including some ;## new plants in his book J(itab al-/amey fil Adwiya al-
MufradaG. t was based on 9## actual plants discovered by him along the length
of Mediterranean coast between +yria and +pain. This was one of the greatest
botanical compilations dealing with medicinal plants in *rabic. The book refers to
By: D&U Photostate
10
By: D&U Photostate
11
works of some /6# previous *rabic authors, and also ,uotes ;# $reek scientists.
*ccording to Ma! Meyerhof, Jit is a work of e!traordinary erudition and
observationG. *ll the drugs were listed in alphabetical order. The book surpassed
that of %ioscorides and remained in use until the /'
th
century. =is second book
on the sub<ect (itab al-Mu%hni fil Adwiya al-Mufrada was published around /;"#
where drugs were listed therapeutically. t consists of ;# chapters, dealing with
ailments of the head, eye, ear, and general antidotes. bn al34aytar discovered
the earliest known herbal treatment for cancerE Hindiba, a herbal drug which he
identified as having anticancer properties and which could also treat other tumors
and neo3plastic disorders. *fter recogni1ing its usefulness in treating neo3plastic
disorders, Hindiba was patented in /''0 by Kil +ari, =an1ade %ogan, and Hohn
>. +nyder
*ndulasian physician Abu Ja'a"ar al-(ha"iqi &/9
th
century) was a pioneer in
medical botany, pharmacy and materia medica. n his encyclopedic te!t Dn
+imples, he gave more than 96# colored renderings of plants and animals
arranged alphabetically. Ha)i Zain al-Attar &/9;') wrote a small treatise Miftah
al-(ha0ain in /9"" which contained pharmacological information in three parts.
The first part is on simple drugs, second on their rectification and the third on
compound drugs.
* book on pharmaceutical formulae, Aqrabadain (abir was written by Sabur ibn
Sahl* was so good that it was imitated by many during the Middle *ges. The
original in *rabic was lost, but the :atin translation was used as a model for
future -harmacopeias.
#haq ibn #mran was an ra,i physician who moved to Tunisia to serve the prince
of *ghlabid dynasty, Ziyadatu *llah. =e was famous for his discourses on
melancholy, a treatise on pulse and one on materia medica. #bn Sulayman al-
#raili was his elo,uent student who served the -rince after his master@s death.
The manuscripts for sha,@s book on diet and drug therapy entitled, Aqwil fee
)abai al-A%h0iyya wal 2adwiya are preserved in libraries of stanbul, Madrid,
Munich and -aris.
Said al-Tamimi was born in Herusalem. =is grandfather taught him all aspects of
theory and practice of medicine. * Coptic monk Zakariyya bin +awwab honed his
skills in the use of therapeutics and the preparation and compounding of drugs.
=e also e!celled in preparing the great theriac and composed a book on the topic
entitled Fee Sanat )iryaq al-Farooq wa 3at Ashjarih* =e described therapeutic
properties of plants mentioning the time of harvest, methods of collecting,
compounding and final theriac preparation. =is al-Murshid was e!cellent source
By: D&U Photostate
12
for descriptions of natural products and their uses. -art / of the book was
By: D&U Photostate
13
devoted to aromatic medicinal plants, flowers, wines, and waters as well as a
formulary for preparing syrups, eli!irs and ointments. %iscussing the theraupetic
uses of %ead +ea waters, he says Jits waters cur many diseases of man and
beast.
Pharmacy in India
+ultan *lauddin >hil<i &/;'"3/9/") had several eminent =akims in his royal
courts. This royal patronage was a ma<or factor in the development of ?nani
practice in ndia, but also of $reco3slamic &?nani) medical literature with the aid
of ndian *yur3vedic physicians.
%uring the reign of Moghul kings of ndia several 5arabadains were compiled like
5arabadain +hifae@ee, 5arabadain Zakai, 5arabadain 5adri and (la<3ul3*mra1.
n these pharmacopoeias ,uantities of drugs in a given prescription were
specified, and methods of preparation. The court physicians supervised the
preparations of royal medicine, which were sealed to ensure safety. =akeem *li
$ilani was the chief physician of (mperor *kbar and used to accompany him in
his travels. =akim $ilani used to carry his pharmacy with him in these travels. =e
invented a kind of sweet wine for getting rid of traveling fatigue. %uring the reign
of (mperor Hehangir, tr3i3Hehangiri was discovered by 5ueen Koor Hehan.
=akim *in3ul3Mulk +hira1i composed for his royal patron emperor +hah Hahan
Alfa0-al-Adwiyya &vocabulary of drugs). t was printed in /0'9 in Calcutta, and
rendered into (nglish by $ladwin. =akim *kbar *r1ani, was a court physician of
(mperor *urang1eb. =e wrote )ibbe Akbari, and Mi0an al-)ibb.
%uring the 4ritish rule, (astern medicine in ndia declined. =owever the famous
house of =akim +harif >han of %ehli made a concerted effort to re<uvenate the
decaying art of ?nani medicine. =akim *<mal >han founded the =industani
%awakhana and the Tibbiya College in %ehli. *t the Tibbiya College, %r +alimu3
Zaman +iddi,ui carried on chemical investigation of certain potent drugs and
Ajmailain was produced. *t :ucknow, the Talim al3Tibb college was established
under the auspices of =akim *bdul *1i1.
=akim >abir al3%in was a distinguished author who wrote four books on (astern
system of medicineE Masaela %auran3ey3>hoon, +harah 5anoon +haikh, Tashrih
>abir, lm al3*dwiyya and 4urhan.
Muhammad =usayn al3*,ili al3*lavi, a practitioner and grandson of a well3known
ndian practitioner wrote in /09; Makh0an al-adwiyah dar-i bayan-i adwiya* )he
illuminated -ersian manuscript, now at the Kational :ibrary of Medicine, ?+* is
By: D&U Photostate
14
in alphabetical order.
*t :ahore =akim $hulam Kabi and =akim $hulam Heelani promoted (astern
medicine by writing books such asE )arikh al-#ttiba, and Makh0an al-Adwiyya.
*fter the demise of =akim *<mal >han, =akim abdul Ma<id &d./';;) started a
By: D&U Photostate
15
pharmacy in /'#" which blossomed into =amdard Aa,f :aboratories. =amdard
now is a leading pharmaceutical house in ndia and -akistan.
=akim +yed Zillur 8ahman &b./'7#+ is well known for his contribution to ?nani
Medicine in ndia. =e founded in *ligarh bn +ina *cademy of Medieval Medicine
and +ciences in ;###. =e has served as -rofessor and Chairman, %epartment of
lmul *dvia &-harmacology) at the *<mal >han Tibbiya College, *ligarh Muslim
?niversity, *ligarh, for over 7# years before retiring as %ean .aculty of ?nani
Medicine. =e has authored 76 books and several papers on different aspects of
$reco3slamic medicine. The library named in his honor holds one of the most
precious and valuable collection of ;#,### printed books, 6## manuscripts, some
rare books, microfilms, compact discs.
Pharmacy in Pakistan
The ?nani medical system is still flourishing in ran and the ndian sub3continent,
it is especially strong in -akistan. The ?nani system is sometimes called =ikmat
or ?nani3Tibb. ts medical practitioners are called =akims. n >arachi =amdard is
a household name and employs thousands of doctors, scientists, pharmacists,
and chemists. The +ociety for the -romotion of (astern Medicine has compiled a
comprehensive pharmacopeia of (astern medicine in ?rdu and (nglish. t sets
out standard procedures for the preparation of drugs, powders, calcinated
medicine i.e. >ushtas, syrups and sherbets.
?nder the leadership of =akim Mohammed +aid &d./''2), =amdard %awakhana
e!panded its missionI in addition to becoming a mega .oundation, it established
an academy that became a ma<or ?niversity &which includes a department of
(astern Medicine as well as other medical sciences), and a trust to house
scholars and students. The pharmaceuticals branches in %elhi and >arachi have
become the worldLs largest producers of ?nani products. There are nearly 9#
other ma<or herbal companies in -akistan that follow =amdardLs lead. t has
published 9## medical books.
"
B!tanical ,ame -!mm!n ,ame
Terminalia species 4eleric myrobalans
(mblica spp. Myrobalans
-tychotis a<owan *<owan
Cassia angustifolia +enna
By: D&U Photostate
16
.oeniculum vulgare .ennel
Cinnamomum 1eylanicum Cinnamon
+esamum indicum +esame seed
By: D&U Photostate
17
-iper nigrum 4lack pepper
Coriandum sativum Coriander
$lycyrrhi1a glabra :icorice root
Mentha spp. -eppermint
Viola odorataViolet
8osa damascena 8ed rose
KoteE
Materia medica are books that deal with known curative substances, their origin,
identification, B classifications as natural products from plant, animal and
mineral.
=ow these substances are collected, prepared, and administered in the
treatment of disease is described in these books. &1akaria.virkMontario.ca)
Re"erence.
=akim Mohammad +aidE -harmacy and Medicine Thru the *ges, >arachi, /'2#.
=akim Mohammad +aidE Medieval Muslim Thinkers, %ehli, /''/
httpENNwww.ishim.netNishim<N7N#;.pdf 3 contributions of 8a1i in the history of
-harmacy. httpENNwww.cancerlyn!.comN.8DKTsection.-%. %ioscorides
MateriaMedica online
=akim Mohammad +aidE $reco3*rab concepts on Cardio3vascular disease, /'29
>arachi Mahmoud +adek, *rabic materia medica of %ioscorides, 5uebec, /'29
.ran1 8osenthal, +cience and Medicine in slam, Vermont, ?+*, /''#
=oward Turner, +cience in Medieval slam, llustrated ntroduction, *ustin, ?+*,
/''6 httpENNwww.ibnsinaacademy.orgN bn +ena *cademy, ndia
Tony *bboud, *l3>indi3 father of *rab philosophy, Kew Cork, ;##" +.>.
=amarneh, =ealth +ciences in slam, %ec. /'27
%r. *.C. al3=assan, +cience B Technology in slam, part , ?K(+CD, -aris, ;##/
By: D&U Photostate
18
By: D&U Photostate