Syllabus for DP Chemistry

Topic 11: Measurement and data processing

11.11 Describe and give example of random uncertainties and systematic errors.
11.12 Distinguish between precision and accuracy.
11.13 Describe how the effects of random uncertainties may be reduced.
11.14 State random uncertainty as an uncertainty range (!.
11.1" State the results of calculations to the appropriate number of significant figures.
11.3.1 S#etch graphs to represent dependences and interpret graph behaviour.
11.3.2 $onstruct graphs from experimental data.
11.3.3 Draw best%fit lines through data points on a graph.
11.3.4 Determine best%fit lines through data points on a graph.
Topic 1: Quantitative chemistry
1.1 &he mole concept and 'vogadro(s constant
) 'pply the mole concept to substances.
) Determine the number of particles and the amount of substances in moles.
1.2 *ormulas
) Define the terms relative atomic mass ('
r
!

and relative molecular mass (+
r
!.
) $alculate the mass of one mole of a species from its formula.
) Solve problems involving the relationship between the amount of substance in moles, mass and molar
mass.
) Distinguish between the terms empirical formula and molecular formula.
) Determine the empirical formula from the percentage composition or from other experimental data.
) Determine the molecular formula when given both the empirical formula and experimental data.
1.3 $hemical e-uations
) Deduce chemical e-uations when all reactants and products are given.
) .dentify the mole ratio of any two species in a chemical e-uation.
) 'pply the state symbols (s!, (l!, (g! and (a-!.
1. Mass and gaseous volume relationships in chemical reactions
) $alculate theoretical yields from chemical e-uations.
) Determine the limiting reactant and reactant in excess when -uantities of reacting substances are
given.
) Solve problems involving theoretical, experimental and percentage yield.
) 'pply 'vogadro(s law to calculate reacting volumes of gases.
) 'pply the concept of molar volume at standard temperature and pressure in calculations.
) Solve problems involving the relationship between temperature, pressure and volume for a fixed
mass of an ideal gas.
) Solve problems using the ideal gas e-uation,
/0 1 n2&.
) 'nalyse graphs relating to the ideal gas e-uation.
1.! Solutions
) Distinguish between the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration (gdm
%3
and moldm
%3
!.
) Solve problems involving concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution.
Topic ": #tomic structure
".1 The atom
) State the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom.
) State the relative masses and relative charges of protons, neutrons and electrons.
) Define the terms mass number ('!, atomic number (3! and isotopes of an element.
) Deduce the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic number.
) $alculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and ions from the mass number,
atomic number and charge.
) $ompare the properties of the isotopes of an element.
) Discuss the uses of radioisotopes.
"." The mass spectrometer
) Describe and explain the operation of a mass spectrometer.
) Describe how the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative atomic mass using the
12
$
scale.
) $alculate non%integer relative atomic masses and abundance of isotopes from given data.
".$ %lectron arrangement
) Describe the electromagnetic spectrum.
) Distinguish between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum.
) 4xplain how the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to electron energy levels.
Deduce the electron arrangement for atoms and ions up to 3 1 25.
Topic 1": #tomic structure &'()
1".1 %lectron configuration
) 4xplain how evidence from first ioni6ation energies across periods accounts for the existence of main
energy levels and sub% levels in atoms.
) 4xplain how successive ioni6ation energy data is related to the electron configuration of an atom.
) State the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals in a single energy level.
) State the maximum number of orbitals in a given energy level.
) Draw the shape of an s orbital and the
shapes of the p
x
, p
y
and p
6
orbitals.
'pply the 'ufbau principle, 7und(s rule and the /auli exclusion principle to write electron
configurations for atoms and ions up to 3 1 "4
Topic $: Periodicity
$.1 The periodic table
) Describe the arrangement of elements in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number.
) Distinguish between the terms group and period.
) 'pply the relationship between the electron arrangement of elements and their position in the
periodic table up to 3 125.
) 'pply the relationship between the number of electrons in the highest occupied energy level for an
element and its position in the periodic table.
$." Physical properties
) Define the terms first ioni6ation energy and electronegativity.
) Describe and explain the trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, first ioni6ation energies, electronegativities
and melting points for the al#ali metals (8i %9 $s! and the halogens (* %9 .!.
) Describe and explain the trends in atomic radii, ionic radii, first ioni6ation energies and
electronegativities for elements across period 3.
) $ompare the relative electronegatvity values of two or more elements based on their positions in the
periodic table.
$.$ Chemical properties
) Discuss the similarities and differences in the chemical properties of elements in the same group.
) Discuss the changes in nature, from ionic to covalent and from basic to acidic, of the oxides across
period 3.
Topic 1$: Periodicity &'()
1$.1 Trends across period $
) 4xplain the physical states (under standard conditions! and electrical conductivity (in the molten state!
of the chlorides and oxides of the elements in period 3 in terms of their bonding and structure.
) Describe the reactions of chlorine and the chlorides with water.
1$." *irst+ro, d+bloc- elements
) 8ist the characteristic properties of transition elements.
) 4xplain why Sc and 3n are not considered to be transition elements.
) 4xplain the existence of variable oxidation number in ions of transition elements.
) Define the term ligand.
) Describe and explain the formation of complexes of d%bloc# elements.
) 4xplain why some complexes of d%bloc# elements are coloured.
) State examples of the catalytic action of transition elements and their compounds.
) :utline the economic significance of catalysts in the $ontact and 7aber processes.
Topic : .onding
.1 /onic bonding
) Describe the ionic bond as the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged
ions.
) Describe how ions can be formed as a result of electron transfer.
) Deduce which ions will be formed when elements in groups 1, 2 and 3 lose electrons.
) Deduce which ions will be formed when elements in groups ", ; and 9 gain electrons.
) State that transition elements can form more than one ion.
) /redict whether a compound of two elements would be ionic from the position of the elements in the
periodic table or from their electronegativity values.
) State the formula of common polyatomic ions formed by non%metals in periods 2 and
3.
) Describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds.
." Covalent bonding
) Describe the covalent bond as the electrostatic attraction between a pair of electrons and positively
charge nuclei.
) Describe how the covalent bond is formed as a result of electron sharing.
) Deduce the 8ewis (electron dot! structures of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs on each
atom.
) State and explain the relationship between the number of bonds, bond length and bond
strength.
) /redict whether a compound of two elements would be covalent from the position of the elements in
the periodic table or from their electronegativity values.
) /redict the relative polarity of bonds from electronegativity values.
) /redict the shape and bond angles for species with four, three and two negative charge centres on the
central atom using the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (0S4/2!.
) /redict whether or not a molecule is polar from its molecular shape and bond polarities.
) Describe and compare the structure and bonding in the three allotropes of carbon
(diamond,
graphite and $
;5
fullerene!.
) Describe the structure of and bonding in silicon and silicon dioxide.
.$ /ntermolecular forces
) Describe the types of intermolecular forces (attractions between molecules that have temporary
dipoles, permanent dipoles or hydrogen bonding! and explain how they arise from the structural
features of molecules.
) Describe and explain how intermolecular forces affect the boiling points of substances.
. Metallic bonding
) Describe the metallic bond as the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions and
delocali6ed electrons ) 4xplain the electrical conductivity and malleability of metals.
.! Physical properties
) $ompare and explain the properties of substances resulting from different types of bonding.
Topic 1: .onding &'()
1.1 Shapes of molecules and ions
) /redict the shape and bond angles for species with five and six negative charge centres using the
0S4/2 theory.
1." 'ybridi0ation
) Describe sigma and pi bonds.
) 4xplain hybridi6ation in terms of the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new orbitals for bonding.
) .dentify and explain the relationships between 8ewis structures, molecular shapes and types of
hybridi6ation (sp, sp
2
and sp
3
!.
1.$ Delocali0ation of electrons
) Describe the delocali6ation of pi electrons and explain how this can account for the structures of some
species.
Topic !: %nergetics
!.1 %1othermic and endothermic reactions
) Define the terms exothermic reaction, endothermic reaction and standard enthalpy change of
reaction (<7
=
!.
) State that combustion and neutrali6ation are exothermic processes.
) 'pply the relationship between temperature change, enthalpy change and the classification of a
reaction as endothermic or exothermic.
) Deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram, the relative stabilities of reactants and products, and the
sign of the enthalpy change for the reaction.
!." Calculation of enthalpy changes
) $alculate the heat energy change when the temperature of a pure substance is changed.
) Design suitable experimental procedures for measuring the heat energy changes of reactions.
) $alculate the enthalpy change for a reaction using experimental data on temperature changes,
-uantities of reactants and mass of water.
) 4valuate the results of experiments to determine enthalpy changes.
!.$ 'ess2s la,
) Determine the enthalpy change of a reaction that is the sum of two or three reactions with #nown
enthalpy changes. !. .ond enthalpies
) Define the term average bond enthalpy.
) 4xplain, in terms of average bond enthalpies, why some reactions are exothermic and others are
endothermic.
Topic 1!: %nergetics &'()
1!.1 Standard enthalpy changes of reaction
) Define and apply the terms standard state, standard enthalpy change of formation
(<7
=
! and standard
enthalpy change of
f
combustion (<7
c
=
!.
) Determine the enthalpy change of a reaction using standard enthalpy changes of formation and
combustion.
1!." .orn+'aber cycle
) Define and apply the terms lattice enthalpy and electron affinity.
) 4xplain how the relative si6es and the charges of ions affect the lattice enthalpies of different ionic
compounds.
) $onstruct a >orn%7aber cycle for group 1 and 2 oxides and chlorides, and use it to calculate an
enthalpy change.
) Discuss the difference between theoretical and experimental lattice enthalpy values of ionic compounds in
terms of their covalent character.
1!.$ %ntropy
) State and explain the factors that increase the entropy in a system.
) /redict whether the entropy change (<S! for a given reaction or process is positive or negative.
) $alculate the standard entropy change for a reaction (<S
=
! using standard entropy
values (S
=
!.
1!. Spontaneity
) /redict whether a reaction or process will be spontaneous by using the sign <?
=
.
) $alculate <?
=
for a reaction using the e-uation <?
=
1 <7
=
% &<S
=
and by using values of the
standard free energy change
of formation, <?
=
.
f
) /redict the effect of a change in temperature on the spontaneity of a reaction using standard entropy and
enthalpy changes and the e-uation <?
=
1 <7
=
% &<S
=
.
Topic 3: 4inetics
3.1 5ates of reaction
) Define the term rate of reaction.
) Describe suitable experimental procedures for measuring rates of reactions.
) 'nalyse data from rate experiments.
3." Collision theory
) Describe the #inetic theory in terms of the movement of particles whose average energy is
proportional to temperature in #elvins.
) Define the term activation energy, 4
a
.
) Describe the collision theory.
) /redict and explain, using the collision theory, the -ualitative effects of particle si6e, temperature,
concentration and pressure on the rate of a reaction.
) S#etch and explain -ualitatively the +axwell%>olt6mann energy distribution curve for a fixed amount of
gas at different temperatures and its conse-uences for changes in reaction rate.
) Describe the effect of a catalyst on a chemical reaction.
) S#etch and explain +axwell%>olt6mann curves for reactions with and without catalysts.
Topic 13: 4inetics &'()
13.1 5ate e1pression
) Distinguish between the terms rate constant, overall order of reaction and order of reaction with
respect to a particular reactant.
) Deduce the rate expression for a reaction from experimental data.
) Solve problems involving the rate expression.
) S#etch, identify and analyse graphical representations for 6ero%, first% and second% order reactions.
13." 5eaction mechanism
) 4xplain that reactions can occur by more than one step and that the slowest step determines the rate
of reaction (rate% determining step!.
) Describe the relationship between reaction mechanism, order of reaction and rate% determining step.
13.$ #ctivation energy
) Describe -ualitatively the relationship between the rate constant (#! and temperature (&!.
) Determine activation energy (4
a
! values
from the 'rrhenius e-uation by a graphical method.
Topic 6: %7uilibrium
6.1 Dynamic e7uilibrium
) :utline the characteristics of chemical and physical systems in a state of e-uilibrium.
6." The position of e7uilibrium
) Deduce the e-uilibrium constant
expression (@
c
! from the e-uation for a
homogeneous reaction.
) Deduce the extent of a reaction from the magnitude of the e-uilibrium constant.
) 'pply 8e $hatelier(s principle to predict the -ualitative effects of changes of temperature,
pressure and concentration on the position of e-uilibrium and on the value of the e-uilibrium
constant.
) State and explain the effect of a catalyst on an e-uilibrium reaction.
) 'pply the concepts of #inetics and e-uilibrium to industrial processes.
Topic 16: %7uilibrium &'()
16.1 (i7uid+vapor e7uilibrium
) Describe the e-uilibrium established between a li-uid and its own vapour and how it is affected by
temperature changes.
) S#etch graphs showing the relationship between vapour pressure and temperature and explain them in
terms of the #inetic theory.
) State and explain the relationship between enthalpy of vapori6ation, boiling point and intermolecular
forces.
16." The e7uilibrium la,
Solve homogeneous e-uilibrium problems using
the expression for @
c
.
Topic 8: #cids 9 bases
8.1 Theories of acids 9 bases
) Define acids and bases according to the
>ronsted%8owry and 8ewis theories.
) Deduce whether or not a species could act as >ronsted%8owry andAor a 8ewis acid or base.
) Deduce the formula of the conBugate acid (or base! or any >ronsted%8owry base (or acid!.
8." Properties of acids 9 bases
) :utline the characteristic properties of acids and bases in a-ueous solution.
8.$ Strong and ,ea- acids 9 bases
) Distinguish between strong and wea# acids and bases in terms of the extent of dissociation, reaction
with water and electrical conductivity.
) State whether a given acid or base is strong or wea#.
) Distinguish between strong and wea# acids and bases, and determine the relative strengths of acids
and bases, using experimental data.
8. The p' scale
) Distinguish between a-ueous solutions that are acidic, neutral or al#aline using the p7 scale.
) .dentify which of two or more a-ueous solutions is more acidic or al#aline using p7 values.
) State that each change of one p7 unit represents a 15%fold change in the hydrogen ion
concentration C7
D
(a-!E.
) Deduce changes in C7
D
(a-!E when the p7 of a solution changes by more than one p7 unit.
Topic 18: #cids 9 bases &'()
18.1 Calculations involving acids 9
bases
) State the expression for the ionic product
constant of water (@
w
!.
) Deduce C7
D
(a-!E and C:7
%
(a-!E for water at
different temperatures given @
w
values.
) Solve problems involving C7
D
(a-!E, C:7
%
(a-!E, p7 and p:7.
) State the e-uation for the reaction of any wea# acid or wea# base with water, and
hence deduce the
expressions for @
a
and @
b
.
) Solve problems involving solutions of wea# acids and bases using the expressionsF
@
a
G @
b
1 @
w
p@
a
D p@
b
1 p@
w
p7 D p:7 1p@
w
.
) .dentify the relative strengths of acids
and bases using values of @
a
, @
b
, p@
a
and p@
b
.
18." .uffer solutions
) Describe the composition of a buffer solution and explain its action.
) Solve problems involving the composition and p7 of a specified buffer system.
18.$ Salt hydrolysis
) Deduce whether salts form acidic, al#aline or neutral a-ueous solutions.
18. #cid+base titration
) S#etch the general shapes of graphs of p7 against volume for titrations involving strong and wea#
acids and bases, and explain their important features.
18.! /ndicators
) Describe -ualitatively the action of an acid% base indicator.
) State and explain how the p7 range of an
acid%base indicator relates to its p@
a
value.
) .dentify an appropriate indicator for a titration, given the e-uivalence point of the titration and the p7
range of the indicator.
Topic :: ;1idation 9 reduction
:.1 /ntroduction to o1idation 9 reduction
) Define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron loss and gain.
) Deduce the oxidation number of an element in a compound.
) State the names of compounds using oxidations numbers.
) Deduce whether an element undergoes oxidation or reduction in reactions using oxidation numbers.
:." 5edo1 e7uations
) Deduce simple oxidation and reduction
half%e-uations given the species involved in a redox reaction.
) Deduce redox e-uations using half% e-uations.
) Define the terms oxidi6ing agent and reducing agent.
) .dentify the oxidi6ing and reducing agents in redox e-uations.
:.$ 5eactivity
) Deduce a reactivity series based on the chemical behaviour of a group of oxidi6ing and reducing agents.
) Deduce the feasibility of a redox reaction from a given reactivity series.
:. <oltaic cells
) 4xplain how a redox reaction is used to produce electricity in a voltaic cell.
) State that oxidation occurs at the negative electrode (anode! and reduction occurs at the positive
electrode (cathode!.
:.! %lectrolytic cells
) Describe, using a diagram, the essential components of an electrolytic cell.
State that oxidation occurs at the positive electrode (anode! and reduction occurs at the negative
electrode (cathode!.
) Describe how current is conducted in an electrolytic cell.
) Deduce the products of the electrolysis of a molten salt
Topic 1:: ;1idation 9 reduction &'()
1:.1 Standard electrode potentials
) Describe the standard hydrogen electrode.
) Define the term standard electrode potential (4
=
!.
) $alculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials.
) /redict whether a reaction will be spontaneous using standard electrode potential values.
1:." %lectrolysis
) /redict and explain the products of electrolysis of a-ueous solutions.
) Determine the relative amounts of the products formed during electrolysis.
Describe the use of electrolysis in electroplating.
Topic 1=: ;rganic chemistry
1=.1 /ntroduction
) Describe the features of a homologous series.
) /redict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series.
) Distinguish between empirical, molecular and structural formulas.
) Describe structural isomers as compounds with the same molecular formula but with different
arrangement of atoms.
) Deduce structural formulas for the isomers
of the non%cyclic al#anes up to $
;
.
) 'pply .H/'$ rules for naming the isomers
of the non%cyclic al#anes up to $
;
.
) Deduce structural formulas for the isomers
of the straight%chain al#enes up to $
;
.
) 'pply .H/'$ rules for naming the isomers
of the straight%chain al#enes up to $
;
.
) Deduce structural formulas for compounds containing up to six carbon atoms with one of the following
functional groupsF alcohol, aldehyde, #etone, carboxylic acid and halide.
) 'pply .H/'$ rules for naming compounds containing up to six carbon atoms with one of the following
functional groupsF alcohol, aldehyde, #etone, carboxylic acid and halide.
) .dentify the following functional groups when present in structural formulasF amino, ben6ene ring
and esters.
) .dentify primary, secondary and tertiary carbon atoms in alcohols and halogenoal#anes.
) Discuss the volatility and solubility in water of compounds containing the mentioned functional
groups.
1=." #l-anes
) 4xplain the low reactivity of al#anes in terms of bond enthalpies and bond polarity.
) Describe, using e-uations, the complete and incomplete combustion of al#anes.
) Describe, using e-uations, the reactions of methane and ethane with chlorine and bromine.
) 4xplain the reactions of methane and ethane with chlorine and bromine in terms of a free%radical
mechanism.
1=.$ #l-enes
) Describe, using e-uations, the reactions of al#enes with hydrogen and halogens.
) Describe, using e-uations, the reactions of symmetrical al#enes with hydrogen halides and water.
) Distinguish between al#anes and al#enes using bromine water.
) :utline the polymeri6ation of al#enes.
) :utline the economic importance of the reactions of al#enes.
1=. #lcohols
) Describe, using e-uations, the complete combustion of alcohols.
) Describe, using e-uations, the oxidation reactions of alcohols.
) Determine the products formed by the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols.
1=.! 'alogenoal-anes
) Describe, using e-uations, the substitution reactions of halogenoal#anes with sodium hydroxide.
) 4xplain the substitution reactions of halogenoal#anes with sodium hydroxide in
terms of S
I
1 and S
I
2
mechanisms.
1=.3 5eaction path,ays
) Deduce reaction pathways given the starting materials and the product.
Topic "=: ;rganic chemistry &'()
"=.1 /ntroduction
) Deduce structural formulas for compounds containing up to six carbon atoms with one of the following
functional groupsF amine, amide, ester and nitrile.
) 'pply .H/'$ rules for naming compounds containing up to six carbon atoms with one of the following
functional groupsF amine, amide, ester and nitrile.
"=." >ucleophilic substitution reactions
) 4xplain why the hydroxide ion is a better nucleophile than water. ) Describe and explain how the
rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoal#anes by the hydroxide ions depends on whether the
halogenoal#ane is primary, secondary or tertiary.
) Describe, using e-uations, the substitution reactions of halogenoal#ens with ammonia and potassium
cyanide.
) 4xplain the reactions of primary halogenoal#anes with ammonia and
potassium cyanide in terms
of the S
I
2
mechanism.
) Describe, using e-uations, the reduction of nitriles using hydrogen and a nic#el catalyst.
"=.$ %limination reactions
) Describe, using e-uations, the elimination of 7>r from bromoal#anes.
) Describe and explain the mechanism for the elimination of 7>r from bromoal#anes.
"=. Condensation reactions
) Describe, using e-uations, the reactions of alcohols with carboxylic acids to form esters, and state the
uses of esters.
) Describe, using e-uations, the reactions of amines with carboxylic acids.
) Deduce the structures of the polymers formed in the reactions of alcohols with carboxylic acids.
) Deduce the structures of the polymers formed in the reactions of amines with carboxylic acids.
) :utline the economic importance of condensation reactions.
) Describe and explain how the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoal#anes by the hydroxide ion
depends on the identity of the halogen.
"=.! 5eaction path,ays
) Deduce reaction pathways given the starting materials and the product.
"=.3 Stereoisomerism
) Describe stereoisomers as compounds with the same structural formula but with different
arrangements of atoms in space.
) Describe and explain geometrical isomerism in non%cyclic al#enes.
) Describe and explain geometrical isomerism
in $
3
and $
4
cycloal#anes.
) 4xplain the difference in the physical and chemical properties of geometrical isomers.
) Describe and explain optical isomerism in simple organic molecules.
) :utline the use of a polarimeter in distinguishing between optical isomers.
) $ompare the physical and chemical properties of enantiomers.