INTRODUCTION

Global warming is affecting natural systems across the world and the biological response
is to changes in the timing of phenological events are among the most sensitive in plants. A
variety of factors have been proposed to drive the phenology, these include abiotic factors such
as rainfall, day length, irradiance, temperature and relative humidity (Wright and Van Schaik,
1994). Seasonal changes in abiotic and biotic factors can be expected to have consistent effects
on phenology of tropical forests (Wright, 1996). Tropical plants with their high level of species
diversity display phenological events such as leaf drop, leaf flushing, flowering and fruiting, etc.
in relation to time and space (Justiniano and Fredericksen, 2000; Singh and Singh, 1992). As
plants reach the various developmental stages of their annual life cycle and the timing of a plant
often provides information for estimating geographic climatic variation on a local scale (Kalb,
1962). Phenological data of plants can be used as a proxy for climate change if the seasonal
timing of a phenological event can be closely related to specific climatic conditions during plant
development.
Abiotic environmental conditions such as rain, change in temperature, presence/absence
of pollinators, competitors, and herbivores have been shown to play a significant role in timing
of various phenological events. Natural selection has also been considered to play some role in
determining the phenological patterns of plant species. Phenological studies are also important in
understanding species interrelations and their interaction with the environment. Considerable
amount of phenological data is available on different plant species from different parts of the
world including tropical savanna and semi deciduous forest of Venezuelan Ilanos (South
America), dry tropical forest in Ghana, NE Spain, Panama, Mexico, tropical rain forest in
Malaya, semiarid grassland in the Rocky mountains, USA and Tibetan plateau. A number of
studies on phenology of different plant species from different parts of India have also been
undertaken which include those from a subtropical humid forest in North-Eastern India, Kumaun
Himalayan forests, deciduous forest of Bandipur in peninsular India, Shervaroys in Southern
India, tropical moist forest of Western Ghats in Karnataka, Hathinala Forest in Uttar Pradesh,
alpine expanse of North-West Himalaya, Orissa coast, tropical montane forests in the Nilgiris,
Kolhapur region (Maharashtra) and Katerniaghat wildlife sanctuary situated in the Himalayan
Terai region in Uttar Pradesh, North Eastern India.
Plant phenology is particularly sensitive to climate and a key indicator of environmental
change (Badeck et al., 2004; Estrella et al., 2007; Penuelas et al., 2009 and Yang & Rudolf,
2010). Phenological changes to be more rigorously used as early warning systems of potential
climate impacts on species distributions (Menzel et al., 2006; Cleland et al., 2007 and Crimmins
et al., 2009).
Life forms
The lifeforms are classified on the basis of adaptation of their perennating organs to tide
over the unfavourable conditions. A life form of the plant is the sum of all life processes and
evolved directly in response to the environment (Cain, 1950). Humboldt (1886) for the first time
formulated the concept of the life- forms for which he considered the location of perennating
buds or organs.
The percentage of various lifeform classes put together is called as the biological
spectrum. Raunkiaer (1934) constructed a Normal Spectrum which could act as a null model
against which different lifeform spectra could be compared. Raunkiaers normal spectrum
indicates a phanerophytic community for the World and deviation from it determines the
phytoclimate of the habitats. The occurrence of similar biological spectra in different regions
indicates similar climatic conditions. Differences in the lifeform distribution between the normal
spectrum and a biological spectrum would point out which lifeform characterizes the
phytoclimate or the vegetation under study.
When working with a species list, every species has the same weightage in the biological
spectrum. This is called a floristic biological spectrum (Raunkiaer, 1934 Costa et al.,2007).
However when the number of individuals, instead of species, of each life form is counted each
class can be weighted by its density, giving rise to the vegetation biological spectrum, which
indicates phenomena relative to the vegetation rather than to the flora (Batalha and Martins,
2002). The biological spectra of different regions of India have been worked out by different
researchers (MeherHomji, 1964 Pandey and Parmar, 1993, Sharma and Dhakre, 1993 Reddy et
al., 1999, 2002 Rana et al., 2002 and Pattanaik et al., 2007). Thus the biological spectrum of
different regions may be worked out and used to compare the widely separated plant
communities in terms of their climatic adaptability.


Life form of vegetation is to a certain extent, an indicator of the climate and is also useful
in comparing geographically, widely distributed plant communities. Furthermore, it is
traditionally being used to describe world vegetation type at community level (Raunkiaer, 1934).
The life form and leaf size spectra are useful attributes which have been widely used in
vegetation description. The life form spectra are indicators of micro and macroclimate
(Shimwell, 1971).

Aims and Objectives:
Floristic survey and phenological studies play an important role in the economic
development and the data helps for students, scientists, researchers, herbalists, botanist and
voluntary organizations for easy identification of taxa encountered in an area. However, no such
information is available on plants of Kallamalai hills, Rasipuram Tk, Namakkal Dt, Tamil Nadu,
hence phenological and biological spectral studies of plants species of this region was
undertaken.

1. Floristic survey in the study area
2. Documentation of flowering and fruiting of plant species of Kallamalai hills and
3. To record Biological spectra of the Kallamalai flora.





















REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Phenology
Shukla et.al. (1982) were studied Phenology of trees in a sub-tropical humid forest in
North-Eastern India. They reported that Phenological observations were made on 122 tree
species in a subtropical humid seasonal forest in north-eastern India. The forest had a high
proportion of evergreen compared to deciduous species. Leaf-fall of most of the tree species
coincided with the dry season. Flushing started towards the end of the dry season for a majority
of the tree species, the degree and period of leaflessness varying with the species. A majority of
the species produced fleshy fruits during the wet season. Fruits, produced during the dry season,
were mostly dry.
Bhat (1992) studied Phenology of tree species of tropical moist forest of Uttara Kannada
district, Karnataka, India. Young leaves were produced in the pre-monsoon dry period with a
peak in February, followed by the expansion of leaves which was completed in March.
Abscission of leaves occurred in the post-monsoon winter period with a peak in December.
There were two peaks for flowering (December and March), while fruit ripening had a single
peak in May-June, preceding the monsoon rainfall. The duration of maturation of leaves was the
shortest, while that of full ripening of fruits was the longest. Mature flowers of evergreen species
lasted longer than those of deciduous species; in contrast the phenophase of ripe fruits of
deciduous species was longer than that of evergreen species.
Michael Fenner (1998) was studied the phenology of growth and reproduction in plants.
He reported that the study of phenological aspects of plants involves the observation, recording
and interpretation of the timing of their life history events. This review considers the phenology
of leafing, flowering and fruit production in a range of species and communities. The selective
forces (both abiotic and biotic) that influence the timing of these events are discussed.
Nina Bradley et.al. (1999) were studied Phenological changes reflect climate change in
Wisconsin. They reported that a phenological study of springtime events was made over a 61-
year period at one site in southern Wisconsin. The records over this long period show that
several phenological events have been increasing in earliness.

Rolf Borchert (1999) studied climatic periodicity, phenology and cambium activity in
tropical dry forest trees. He reported that the seasonal time course of vegetative phenology and
cambium growth is compared for tree species from Central America and Asia growing in tropical
climates with a long, severe dry season.
Frank Chmielewski et.al. (2001) were studied the response of tree phenology to climate
change across Europe. They repored that to investigate the impact of recent climatic changes on
the plant development in Europe, this study uses phenological data of the International
Phenological Gardens. For this study, the leafing dates of four tree species (Betula pubescens,
Prunus avium, Sorbus aucuparia and Ribes alpinum) were combined in an annual leaf unfolding
index to define the beginning of growing season.
Kikim et.al. (2001) studied Phenology of tree species in subtropical forests of Manipur in
North Eastern India. They reported that Phenological characteristics of 32 dominant tree species.
The leaf drop, leaf flushing, flower and fruit development in understorey and overstorey tree
species were studied during January 1993 to December 1994. The number of evergreen tree
species were greater than that of deciduous tree species in all the forest sites. Majority of the
species exhibited peak of leaf drop in cool dry period (January-February) and leaf flushing in the
beginning of warm dry period (March-April) and another in rainy season (August) of the year.
Ahas et.al. (2002) were studied the changes in European spring phenology. Results show
that spring phases have advanced four weeks in Western and Central Europe, and have been
delayed up to two weeks in Eastern Europe. Western European spring starts earlier because of
the intensive flow of warmer Atlantic air masses; the Eastern part of Europe has a different
phenological rhythm and trends, that can be explained by the influence of the Siberian high.
Arnold et.al. (2002) studied the influence of temperature and climate change on the
timing of pollen release in the Netherlands. The reported that the last decade it has become clear
that the timing of many phenological processes like the start of flowering and leaf unfolding in
spring have changed. The increase in temperature is believed to be the main cause. The results
indicate that there is a strong correlation between temperature and start of the pollen season.

Arthur selwyn et.al. (2004) were studied reproductive traits and phenology of plants in
tropical dry evergreen forest on the Coromandel coast of India. They reported that the qualitative
reproductive traits of 84 plant species belonging to 41 families were studied in tropical dry
evergreen forest on the Coromandel coast of India. The reproductive phenophase of trees and
lianas occurred mostly during the dry period from January to June, which receives rainfall of less
than 50 mm a month. However, shrubs showed a peak in flowering and fruiting in wet period.
Detailed phenological observations of 22 woody species revealed a seasonal and unimodal
pattern in flowering.
Arnold et.al. (2006). studied the rapid species responses to changes in climate require
stringent climate protection targets. They reported that the widespread ecological impacts of
climate change are visible in most ecosystems. Plants and animals respond immediately to the
ongoing changes. Responses significantly differ from species to species and from year to year.
Mishra et.al. (2006) were studied Phenology of species of moist deciduous forest sites of
Similipal biosphere reserve. They reported that the vegetative and reproductive phenology of 57
overstorey and 33 understorey species were studied in a tropical moist deciduous forest of
Similipal Biosphere Reserve (SBR) located in Orissa state in India. A prominent peak in leaf
drop, leaf flush and flowering of overstorey species occurred in March, April and April to May,
respectively. However the peak period of such phenological events in understorey species is slightly
different than over storey species. The peak fruiting period of both overstorey and understorey
species are same i.e. from May to June. The fruiting phenology follows closely the flowering
phenology.
Arnold Joannes Henricus van Vliet (2008) was observed climate-induced changes in
plant phenology in the Netherlands. He determined whether climate change in The Netherlands
has caused phenological changes since 1868. He analysed 171,661 plant phenological
observations of three hundred and twenty plant species, obtained by four networks of volunteers.
This study shows that, based on network data, changes in climate explain on average 62% of the
variation in timing of phenological events from year to year.
Arnold Joannes Henricus Van Vliet et. al. (2008) was studied the monitoring, analysing,
forecasting and communicating phenological changes. The main objectives are to assess the
climate-induced phenological changes in the Netherlands, to increase the knowledge and
understanding of the ecological and socio-economic impacts of these phenological changes, to
determine how society can adapt to these phenological changes and to determine the importance
of phenological networks in monitoring of, communicating on and adapting to the emerging
phenological changes.
Yasuyuki Aono et.al. (2008) were studied Phenological data series of cherry tree
flowering in Kyoto, Japan. Phenological data for 732 years was made available by combining
data from previous studies. The full-flowering date of cherry trees fluctuates in accordance with
temperature conditions during February and March. Full-flowering dates were closely related to
the March mean temperature by means of a temperature accumulation index, in which plant
growth is considered to be an exponential function of temperature.
Prabakaran and Manikandan (2010) were studied the Phenology of Sidhar kovil flora,
Salem District. They reported that the vegetation analysis of SiddharKovil flora Salem, Tamil
Nadu reveals 324 species of angiosperms belonging to 69 families. The phenophase flowering
commences during pre-monsoon period. The peak flowering is South West monsoon period and
trees show maximum flowering in pre- monsoon and shrubs and herbs in South West monsoon
period.
Tatsuya et.al. (2010) were studied the 250-year index of first flowering dates and its
response to temperature changes. They reported that widespread concerns about global
biodiversity loss have led to a growing demand for indices of biodiversity status. Furthermore,
this approach can be extended to incorporate data from other taxa and countries for evaluating
cross-taxa and cross-country phenological responses to climate change.
Caroline Polgar et.al. (2011) were studied Leaf-out phenology of temperate woody
plants: from trees to ecosystems. They reported that Leafing-out of woody plants begins the
growing season in temperate forests and is one of the most important drivers of ecosystem
processes. There is substantial variation in the timing of leaf-out, both within and among species,
but the leaf development of almost all temperate tree and shrub species is highly sensitive to
temperature.
Nanda et. al. (2011) were studied Phenology of leaf flushing, flower initiation and fruit
maturation in dry deciduous and Evergreen forests of Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka,
Southern India. They reported that community wide pattern in both vegetative and reproductive
phenophases among various tree species varying with altitude and rainfall of two forest types of
tropical forest.
Philip Hulme. (2011) studied contrasting impacts of climate-driven flowering phenology
on changes in alien and native plant species distributions. He reported that plant phenology is
particularly sensitive to climate and a key indicator of environmental change. Here he shows for
347 species that the extent to which FFD has responded to climate warming is linked to the
degree to which their relative distributions have changed over 30 yr across the British Isles.
Azariah Stephen et.al. (2012) were studied leaf classes, foliar phenology and life forms of
selected woody species from the tropical forests of central and southern Eastern Ghats, India.
They reported that a checklist of selected woody species of angiosperms is provided with the aim
of classifying their life forms, foliar phenology and leaf classes from the tropical forests of
central and southern Eastern Ghats, India. The list, gathered from 388 individual plants through
the study area, encompasses 156 species and 3 infraspecific taxa which belong to 116 genera and
50 families. Of the total 159 taxa, 83 are evergreen and 76 are deciduous. 135 taxa are trees, 13
are shrubs 10 are climbing shrubs and one hemiparasite.
Gurveen Kaur et.al. (2013) were studied Phenology of some phanerogams (Trees and
Shrubs) of NorthWestern Punjab, India. They reported that plants perform various vegetative and
reproductive functions throughout the year in order to persist in their habitats. This paper deals
with the study of phenological activities like bud formation, flowering time, fruiting time, and
seed formation for some leguminous plants of Amritsar, Punjab.

Biological Spetrum
Marco Antonio Batalha and Fernando Roberto Martins (2004) were studied the Floristic,
frequency, and vegetation life-form spectra of a cerrado site. The floristic spectrum considers the
lifeform of each species in the frequency spectrum each species is weighted by its frequency and
the vegetation spectrum does not consider the species at all, but only the individuals in each life
form class. In the floristic spectrum, the most represented life-forms were the phanerophytes and
the hemicryptophytes, as in other cerrado sites. It differed significantly from Raunkiaers normal
spectrum, due mainly to the under-representation of therophytes and over-representation of
phanerophytes.
Alemmeren Jamir et.al. (2006) was studied life form composition and stratification of
five protected patches of humid montane forest in Jaintia hills of Meghalaya, North East India. A
total of 546 vascular plants recorded from the five stands were distributed in five major life-
forms, exhibited dominance of phanerophytes (44-51%) in the community followed by
chamaephytes (11-17%), epiphytes (11-16%), lianas (7-16%), geophytes (4-12%) and
therophytes (2-9%). These forests are also similar to the humid tropical forests in stratification,
except the absence of emergent trees and shorter tree height in the canopy.
Manikandan and Prabakaran (2011) was studied biological spectra of Sidhar Kovil flora,
Salem district, Tamil Nadu. The study area Sidhar Kovil is located in Southern Eastern Ghats.
Vegetation analysis recorded 69 families, 217 genera with 324 species. The life forms analysis of
vegetation recorded Phanerophytes with 159 species (47.7%) followed by Therophytes with 108
species (33.3%), Hemi- cryptophytes with 36 species (11.1%),Chamaophytes 20 species (6%)
and Cryptophytes with 6 species(1.9%). Since the life forms Phanerophytes and Therophytes
dominate the study area, the site can be called as Phanerotherophyte. The phytoclimate of the
region clearly shows that slowly changing from tropical to desert condition.
Sudhakar Reddy et.al. (2011) was studied composition of Life forms and biological
spectrum along climatic gradient in Rajasthan, India. Analysis of life forms of the vegetation in
arid, semiarid and sub humid regions of Rajasthan, a North West state of India, was carried out.
The floristic and vegetation biological spectra of four study sites (Jaisalmer, Ajmer, Sariska and
Mt. Abu) were compared. The proportion of therophytes and phanerophytes are highly variable
across the sites indicate influence of climate. Biological spectrum of the four study sites has been
compared with Raunkiaers normal spectrum to know the phytoclimate of that region. Jaisalmer,
Ajmer and Sariska represents tropical arid climate, while Mt. Abu of tropical moist climate. The
disadvantage of floristic biological spectrum is underestimation of dominant vegetation
expression and identical value to the rare species.
Azad Jammu et.al. (2012) were studied Life form and leaf size spectra of vegetation in
Kotli Hills. They reported that the flora of District Kotli consists of 97 plant species belonging to
47 families. The biological spectrum showed that therophytes ( 27.83 %), was the dominant life
form of the area. It was followed by hemicryptophytes (20.61 %), nanophanerophytes (18.55 %),
Geophytes (12.64%) and megaphanerophytes (12.37%). Chamaephytes (2.06%) and lianas
(3.09%) were low in number. The leaf size spectra of plant communities consisted of
microphylls (25.77 %), mesophylls (8.24 %), leptophylls (35.05 %), nanophylls (28.86 %) and
megaphylls (3.60 %). The dominance of Therophytes and Leptophylls indicate that the area was
a subtropical type.
Beena Sharma et al. (2012) was studied Biological spectrum of the flora of Ajmer sand
dunes analysis of life forms of the vegetation of Ajmer (Rajasthan) was carried out. The
biological spectrum of Ajmer 7% phanerophytes, 10% nanophanerophytes, 16% chamaephytes
and 20% hemiscryptophytes, geophytes are 6% while therophytes forms the largest class of total
flora. Lianas are a poorly represented class with 2% of the total flora.
Muhammad Shoaib Amjad et.al. (2012) were studied life form and leaf spectra reported
from sub-tropical to Alpine and Subalpine Zone of Basu Hills, District Sakardu Gilget Pakistan.
They reported that the flora of Basu valley, District Sakardu consisted of 50 plant species
belonging to 22 families. The biological spectrum showed that Chameophytes (26.38%) was the
dominant life form of the area. It was followed by hemicryptophytes (19.83 %),
nanophanerophytes (19.17 %), megaphanerophytes (17.23%) and therophytes (12.06 %). Lianas
were absent. Leaf size spectra of plant communities consisted of microphylls (24%), leptophylls
(52 %), nanophylls (20 %) and megaphylls (4 %). The dominancy of Chameophytes, leptophylls
and microphylls indicate that the area varies from subtropical to alpine type.
Deepa et al. (2013) were studied the floristic survey and Biological Spectra of Boda
Hills, Southern Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu, India. They reported that the vegetation analysis of
Boda hill was enumerated 424 angiosperm species, 272 genera, under 77 families. The biological
spectrum of Boda hills reveals the high dominance of phanerophytes, therophytes occupies
second position of dominance in the study area. Chameophytes, hemicrytophytes and
cryptophytes was less dominance in the study area. Boda hills study area is called Phanerophytic.
Jayanthi and Rajendran (2013) were studied the life-forms of Madukkarai hills of
Southern Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, India. They reported that the phytodiversity of
Madukkarai hills of Southern Western Ghats. A total of 304 vascular species belonging to 208
genera distributed 76 families were recorded. Out of these, 300 species are Angiosperms and 4
species are of Pteridophytes.
Muzaffarabad Azad Jammu et.al. (2013) were studied life form and leaf size spectra
reported in moist temperate forest of Pir-Chinassi hills, district. They reported that the Study of
different life forms and leaf size spectrum from the sub tropical to Alpine regions of Pir-Chinasi
Hills were carried out based on the data collected from the field. The life form and leaf size
spectra of 26 different plant communities were studied qualitatively and quantitatively. These
communities were grouped in to five plant associations on the basis of detrended corresponding
analysis and cluster analysis. The data shows that hemicryphtophytes, therophytes and
nanophanerophytes were dominant during spring and monsoon seasons qualitatively.
Quantitatively hemicryphtophytes, nanophanerophytes and therophytes were dominant both in
spring and monsoon. Similarly, microphyllous species followed by nanophyllous species were
dominant in spring and monsoon in the investigated area. The present study recommended using
vegetation biological spectrum because of proper representation of life forms of a given area.
The disadvantage of floristic biological Spectrum is underestimation of dominant vegetation
expression and identical value to the rare species.
Nafeesa Zahid Malik et. al, (2013) were studied of different life forms and leaf size
spectrum from the subtropical to Alpine regions of Pir- Chinasi Hills. The life form and leaf size
spectra of 26 different plant communities were studied qualitatively and quantitatively. The data
shows that hemicryphtophytes, therophytes and nanophanerophytes were dominant during spring
and monsoon seasons qualitatively. Quantitatively hemicryphtophytes, nanophanerophytes and
therophytes were dominant both in spring and monsoon.