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Surge and Stall in Compressors

By:
Ahmed Mohamed Ibrahim - Section 2

Under supervision of:
Dr. Rafea Abdel-Maqsood

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Table of Contents
Introduction to Compressors ........................................................................................... 3
Classification of Compressors .......................................................................................... 3
Centrifugal Compressors .............................................................................................. 3
Axial Compressors ......................................................................................................... 3
Reciprocating Compressors .......................................................................................... 4
Compressor Surge................................................................................................................ 5
Surging Process ................................................................................................................ 5

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Introduction to Compressors
A Gas Compressor, commonly known as Compressors, is a mechanical device (more
specifically a work-absorbing turbo machine) that increases a gas pressure by decreasing
its volume. While being similar to pumps, the main difference is that gases are
compressible while liquids are generally incompressible. Hence, the main function of a
pump is to pressurize and transport liquids, while compressor pressurize and decrease
the gas volume.
Classification of Compressors
Compressors are most commonly classified into 2 main groups namely: Dynamic or
Rotodynamic and Positive Displacement compressors.
Centrifugal Compressors
The idealized compressive dynamic turbo-machine achieves a pressure rise by adding
kinetic energy/velocity to a continuous flow of fluid through the rotor or impeller. This
kinetic energy is then converted to an increase in potential energy/static pressure by
slowing the flow through a diffuser. The pressure rise in impeller is in most cases almost
equal to the rise in the diffuser section.
Axial Compressors
An axial compressor is a machine that can continuously pressurize gases. It is a rotating,
airfoil-based compressor in which the gas or working fluid principally flows parallel to
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the axis of rotation. This differs from other rotating compressors such as centrifugal
compressors, axi-centrifugal compressors and mixed-flow compressors where the fluid
flow will include a "radial component through the compressor. The energy level of the
fluid increases as it flows through the compressor due to the action of the rotor blades
which exert a torque on the fluid. The stationary blades slow the fluid, converting the
circumferential component of flow into pressure. Compressors are typically driven by an
electric motor or a steam or a gas turbine.
Reciprocating Compressors
A reciprocating compressor or piston compressor is a positive-displacement compressor
that uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to deliver gases at high pressure.
The intake gas enters the suction manifold, then flows into the compression cylinder
where it gets compressed by a piston driven in a reciprocating motion via a crankshaft,
and is then discharged. Applications include oil refineries, gas pipelines, chemical plants,
natural gas processing plants and refrigeration plants. One specialty application is the
blowing of plastic bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
Axial flow compressors produce a continuous flow of compressed gas, and have the
benefits of high efficiency and large mass flow rate, particularly in relation to their size
and cross-section. They do, however, require several rows of airfoils to achieve a large
pressure rise, making them complex and expensive relative to other designs (e.g.
centrifugal compressors).

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Compressor Surge
Surging is the complete breakdown of steady flow in the compressor which occurs at
low flow rate. Surging takes place when compressor is operated off the design point and
it affects the whole machine and this is aerodynamically and mechanically undesirable.
It can damage the rotor bearings, rotor seals, compressor driver and affect the whole
cycle operation. It results in high temperature, high vibration and leads to flow reversal.
Surge is defined as the operating point at which centrifugal compressor peak head
capability and minimum flow limits are reached. The working principle of a centrifugal
compressor is increasing the kinetic energy of the fluid with a rotating impeller. The
fluid is then slowed down in a volume called the plenum, where the kinetic energy is
converted into potential energy in form of a pressure rise.
Surging Process
Assuming the compressor operates at point A ( p_A, a ) on the characteristic curve (let
at constant speed N_4 ) as
shown in Figure 5. Now if the
flow rate is reduced to b by
closing a control valve on the
delivery pipe, the static pressure
upstream of the valve is
increased. This increased
pressure ( p_B ) is then matched
by the increased delivery
pressure (at B) which is
developed by the compressor.
Now further reducing the flow
(to c and s ), the increased
pressures in the delivery pipe
are again matched by the
compressor delivery pressures at C and S on the characteristic curve.
On the characteristic curve at the flow rates below s provides lower pressure as seen
in the fig. at D and E. But now the pipe pressures due to further reduction of flow by
valve (let at point D) will be higher than the pressure at D and E. This unbalance
between the pipe pressure and the compressor delivery pressure only exist for a very
Figure 1
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short time. This is because there is higher pressure in the pipe than the air pressure
produced by the compressor and due to this reversing of the flow takes place and it
leads to a complete break-down of the normal steady flow from the compressor to the
pipe.
When the plenum pressure behind the compressor is higher than the compressor outlet
pressure, the fluid tends to reverse or even flow back in the compressor. As a
consequence, the plenum pressure will decrease, inlet pressure will increase and the
flow reverses again. This phenomenon, called surge, repeats and occurs in cycles with
frequencies varying from 1 to 2 Hz. So, the compressor loses the ability to maintain the
peak head when surge occurs and the entire system becomes unstable. A collection of
surge points during varying compressor speed or varying inlet gas angle is fitted as surge
line. In normal conditions, the compressor operates in the right side of the surge line.
However, during startup/emergency shutdown, the operating point will move towards
the surge line because flow is reduced. If conditions are such that the operating point
approaches the surge line, flow recirculation occurs in the impeller and diffuser (Figure
1). The flow separation will eventually cause a decrease in the discharge pressure, and
flow from suction to discharge will resume. Surging can cause the compressor to
overheat to the point at which the maximum allowable temperature of the unit is
exceeded. Also, surging can cause damage to the thrust bearing due to the rotor shifting
back and forth from the active to the inactive side. This is defined as the surge cycle of
the compressor.
Countering Surge
Anti-Surge Control Systems
These systems detect when a process compression stage is approaching to surge and
subsequently take action to reverse the movement of the operating point towards the
surge line (SL). This decreases the plenum pressure and increases the flow through the
compressor, resulting in stable working conditions. It is normally achieved by opening a
control valve in a recycle line (Anti-Surge Control Valve or ASCV), returning the
discharge gas to the inlet of the compressor via a suction cooler. The resulting increase
in compressor inlet volume flow moves the operating point away from surge.
Due to inaccuracies in measurements and response times of transmitters and valves,
Anti-surge control achieves a surge control line (SCL) parallel to the surge limit line. The
control line is offset to the right of the surge line by a margin; typically equal to 3- 10%
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of inlet volume flow at
surge (Figure 2).
However, a lower
margin is also
desirable because
higher efficiency could
be obtained by closing
the recycle valve.

Figure 2
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Compressor Stall
Stalling is the separation of flow from the compressor
blade surface as shown in the Figure. At low flow rates
the incidence angle or angle of attack increases and
due to this there occurs the flow separation on the
suction side of the blades which is known as positive
stalling. If the flow separation occurs on the pressure
side of the blade then its known as negative stalling
and this occurs due to negative incidence angle. But generally positive stalling is taken
into consideration.
In the compressor at high pressure stages if there occurs a deviation from design point
(at which compressor is designed to operate) the angle of attack exceeds its stalling
value and stall cells (which are the regions where fluid starts to whirl at a particular
location and dont moves forward) to form at hub and tip of the blade. The size of these
cells increases with decreasing flow rate. If the flow rate is further reduced these cells
grow larger and it affects the whole blade height and this causes significant drop in the
delivery pressure and at very low flow rate, flow reversal takes place which is known as
surge. It also results in drop in stage efficiency of the compressor and its delivery
pressure. There are two types of compressor stalling:
Rotating stall
Rotating stall is a local disruption of airflow within the compressor which continues to
provide compressed air but with reduced effectiveness. Rotating stall arises when a
small proportion of airfoils experience airfoil stall disrupting the local airflow without
destabilising the compressor. The stalled airfoils create pockets of relatively stagnant air
(referred to as stall cells) which, rather than moving in the flow direction, rotate around
the circumference of the compressor. The stall cells rotate with the rotor blades but at
50%-70% of their speed, affecting subsequent airfoils around the rotor as each
encounters the stall cell. Propagation of the instability around the flow path annulus is
driven by stall cell blockage causing an incidence spike on the adjacent blade. The
adjacent blade stalls as a result of the incidence spike, thus causing stall cell "rotation"
around the rotor. Stable local stalls can also occur which are axi-symmetric, covering the
complete circumference of the compressor disc but only a portion of its radius, with the
remainder of the face of the compressor continuing to pass normal flow.
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A rotational stall may be momentary, resulting from an external disturbance, or may be
steady as the compressor finds a working equilibrium between stalled and unstalled
areas. Local stalls substantially reduce the efficiency of the compressor and increase the
structural loads on the airfoils encountering stall cells in the region affected. In many
cases however, the compressor airfoils are critically loaded without capacity to absorb
the disturbance to normal airflow such that the original stall cells affect neighboring
regions and the stalled region rapidly grows to become a complete compressor stall.
Axi-symmetric stall or compressor surge
The surge phenomenon is described above.
Causes
A compressor will only pump air in a stable manner up to a certain pressure ratio.
Beyond this value the flow will break down and become unstable. This occurs at what is
known as the surge line on a compressor map. The complete engine is designed to keep
the compressor operating a small distance below the surge pressure ratio on what is
known as the operating line on a compressor map. The distance between the 2 lines is
known as the surge margin on a compressor map. Various things can occur during the
operation of the engine to lower the surge pressure ratio or raise the operating pressure
ratio. When the 2 coincide there is no longer any surge margin and a compressor stage
can stall or the complete compressor can surge as explained in preceding sections.
Factors which erode compressor surge margin
The following, if severe enough, can cause stalling or surging.
Ingestion of foreign objects which results in damage, as well as sand and dirt
erosion, can lower the surge line.
Dirt build-up in the compressor and wear that increases compressor tip
clearances or seal leakages all tend to raise the operating line.
Complete loss of surge margin with violent surging can occur with a bird strike.
Taxiing on the ground, taking off, low level flying (military) and approaching to
land all take places where bird strikes are a hazard. When a bird is ingested by a
compressor the resultant blockage and airfoil damage causes compressor
surging. Examples of debris on a runway or aircraft carrier flight deck that can
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cause damage are pieces of tire rubber, litter and nuts and bolts. A specific
example is a metal piece dropped from another plane.
[
Runways and aircraft
carrier flight decks are cleaned frequently in an attempt to preclude ingestion of
foreign objects.
Aircraft operation outside its design envelope, e.g. extreme flight maneuvers
resulting in airflow separations within the engine intake, flight in icing conditions
where ice can build up in the intake or compressor, flight at excessive altitudes.
Engine operation outside its flight manual procedures, e.g. on early jet engines
abrupt throttle movements (slam acceleration) when pilot's notes specified slow
throttle movements. The excessive over-fuelling raised the operating line until it
met the surge line. (Fuel control capability extended to automatically limit the
over-fuelling to prevent surging).
Turbulent or hot airflow into the engine intake, e.g. use of reverse thrust at low
forward speed, resulting in re-ingestion of hot turbulent air or, for military
aircraft, ingestion of hot exhaust gases from missile firing.
Hot gases from gun firing which may produce inlet distortion
Effects of Stalling in Jet Engines
Compressor axially-symmetric stalls, or compressor surges, are immediately identifiable
because they produce one or more extremely loud bangs from the engine. Reports of
jets of flame emanating from the engine are common during this type of compressor
stall. These stalls may be accompanied by an increased exhaust gas temperature, an
increase in rotor speed due to the large reduction in work done by the stalled
compressor and in the case of multi-engine aircraft yawing in the direction of the
affected engine due to the loss of thrust. Severe stresses occur within the engine and
aircraft, particularly from the intense aerodynamic buffeting within the compressor.
Most commonly, stall is countered by decreasing thrust in the stalled engine, although
most modern engines have advanced control units that can avoid many causes of stall.