Some Correlates of Risky Sexual Behavior

among Secondary School Adolescents

in Ogun State, Nigeria
D. A. ADEYEMO
Department of Guidance and Counseling, Faculty of Education,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
T. M. WILLIAMS
Department of Chemical and Environmental Science, Faculty of Science,
Babcock University, Ilisan-Remo, Nigeria
The purpose of the study is to examine factors associated with risky
sexual behaviors among secondary school adolescents in Ogun State,
Nigeria. Two hundred and fifty adolescents randomly selected from
three schools participated in the study. The ages of the participants
ranged from 13 to 18 years. Both the independent and dependent
variables were measured with standardized instruments. The results
showed that the independent variables jointly and relatively had
significant influence on risky sexual behaviors among the sampled
adolescents. Implications for the study include the need to encourage
and create homeschool partnerships for enhancing the overall
development and well-being of the students and the employment of
qualified and trained guidance counselors in secondary schools in
the country. Peer tutoring should also be encouraged to train and
help adolescents learn howthey can influence one another positively,
and school counselors should organize workshops=seminars where
parents are exposed to parenting skills and practices.
KEYWORDS parental warmth, peer influence, religiosity, risky
sexual behavior, self-esteem
Adolescence is a time of sexual experimentation which can result in
devastating heath consequences. One explanation is the desire by the ado-
lescent to develop an adult identity (Meisher & Burnette, 1990; Musick, 1993).
Address correspondence to D. A. Adeyemo, Department of Guidance and Counseling,
Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. E-mail: drdaadeyemo@yahoo.co.uk
Child & Youth Services, 31:5369, 2009
Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0145-935X print=1545-2298 online
DOI: 10.1080/01459350903505587
53
Sexual expression by the adolescent also creates an avenue for challenging
or confronting parents and or guardians whom they perceive as being a
stumbling block toward attaining the needed autonomy (Musick, 1993).
Sexual activity is also seen as a platform for navigating future roles, career,
marriage, and family life.
Sexual development is a normal part of adolescence as it involves not
only the physical changes characteristic of this period but also the formation
of ones individuality, perspectives, attitudes, expression of intimacy, and the
defining experiences within a sexual and romantic framework. The actual
sexual experience is comprised of a range of sexual expression with varying
degrees of closeness ranging from non-coital activities such as kissing and
oral sex to first intercourse (OSullivan & Brooks-Gunn, 2005).
While risk-taking is a common feature of adolescence, it has been
critically noticed that risky sexual behavior is one of the major problems
identified with young adults and this is traceable to developmental character-
istics of adolescents (Lerner, 2002). The negative health outcomes of
adolescent sexual behavior are multifarious and may include unexpected
pregnancy, subsequent abortion, contraction of sexually transmitted infec-
tions, and Human Immunodeficiency Virus=Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (HIV=AIDS). Blum (2002) highlighted other negative outcomes,
such as human papilloma virus and precancerous changes of the cervix
and predisposition to infections of the genital tract.
The enormity of the consequences associated with risky sexual behavior
was well exemplified in the work of Adegoke (2003) where he noted that
in Nigeria over 80% of the estimated 23 million HIV infections are attributed
to sexual transmission resulting from heterosexual intercourse. Of the
22.5 million HIV-infected persons living in Sub-Saharan Africa, over 80% of
them contracted the infection mainly through unprotected heterosexual
intercourse. It was alarming to note that over 50% of these infections occur
among adolescents and young adults between the ages of 15 to 24 years,
the group to which the significant number of the participants in these study
belong.
Adding a psychological dimension to the issue, Barber and Erickson
(2001) express the view that psychological maladjustment in adolescence
could be attributed to early and unprotected sexual behavior. The present
study investigated the possible etiological factors that predispose adolescents
to such a risky adventure.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Parental Warmth
Several studies have found the family to be a critical influence on
adolescents sexual socialization, including sexual values, attitudes and
54 D. A. Adeyemo and T. M. Williams
behaviors, sex roles, and contraceptive use (Adegoke, 2003; Perrino,
Gonzalez-Soldevilla, Pantin, & Szapocnik, 2000). Another study found that
strong parent-child relationships are directly associated with delayed sexual
debut, countering the influence of peers on the odds of pregnancy experi-
ence (Moore, 1998). Positive parent-child relationships are characterized by
high parental acceptance of adolescents and low conflict between the
parties. A similar observation was made by Taris and Semin (1997) when they
found that in low-conflict situations, both children and parents strive to
understand one another and to maintain a good relationship. It is therefore
less likely for children from this type of background to consent to high-risk
sexual behavior.
Several studies have implicated the family as a critical factor in adoles-
cents sexual socialization including sexual values, attitudes and behavior,
sex roles and contraceptive use (Fisher & Feldman, 1998; Miller & Fox,
1987). Family and parents influence other social contexts that affect adolescent
development of risky sexual behaviors (Moore, 1998; Nelson & Keith, 1990;
Perrino et al., 2000). Considering the confounding nature of the findings
emanating from these prior studies, a further clarification is warranted.
Peer Influence
Adolescence is marked by the establishment of close, intimate relationships
with same and opposite sex peers. It is during this developmental period that
teens start relying more on friends for advice and companionship as they
slowly individuate from parents. Almost all teens would cite their friendships
with peers as one of the priorities in their lives. Before discussing the
influence of peers on individuals behaviors, it should be noted that the
directionality of peer influence is unclear. Podhisita, Xenos, and Varangrat
(2001) pointed out that it is not clear whether adolescents are mimicking
the actual or imagined behavior of their peers, or whether once they initiate
sexual activity, they tend to associate with others whom they perceive to also
be sexually active. This ambiguity requires further investigation.
Religiosity
Religiosity is a protective factor for a number of adolescent health-related
outcomes, including sexual behavior (Nonnemaker, McNeely, & Blum,
2003). Most literature seems to indicate that (high) religiosity decreases the
likelihood of sexual risk behaviors. Steinman and Zimmerman (2004)
showed that religious activity limits the development of certain types of risky
behaviors among African American youths, even after controlling for recipro-
cal effects. McCree, Wingood, DiClemente, Davies, and Harrington (2002)
conducted a study in the United States of America in which they investigated
the relationship between religiosity and risky sexual behavior in African
Risky Sexual Behavior Among Nigerian Teens 55
American adolescent females. The findings revealed that greater religious
involvement is a protective factor. Those females who had higher religiosity
scores were more likely to have higher self-efficacy in communicating with
both new and steady partners about sex, refusing an unsafe sexual encoun-
ter, and communicating with their partners about sexually transmitted
diseases and infections, as well as pregnancy prevention. Further findings
indicated that these female adolescents were more likely to initiate sex at a
later age and possessed more favorable attitudes toward condom use.
Nigerians are highly religious people. The country is a confluence of
three religions, Christianity, Islam, and traditional religion. One would be
curious to know if such a high level of religious activism affects the sexual
behaviors of participants.
Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is a complex psychological concept, difficult to define and
challenging to assess and research (Pals, 1999; Rosenberg, 1979). Crudely,
self-esteem relates to the value or worth people place on themselves; these
ideas of value arise from two sources. First, people make comparisons
between what they would like to achieve and what they actually do achieve.
Second, social interactions and the feedback received from significant others
impact on how worthy people think they are. Therefore, self-esteem is con-
structed both individually and socially. Self-esteem has also been defined as
the judgment one makes regarding his or her overall self-worth (Papalia,
Olds, & Feldman, 2004). It is associated with ones perceived level of compe-
tency in successfully carrying out the necessary behaviors and cognitions to
produce a successful outcome (that is, self-efficacy). The link between
self-esteem and sexual behavior is also well studied. Perlman (1974), using
Rosenbergs scale, found that high self-esteem subjects reported more coital
partners than did low self-esteem subjects. This work was supportive of the
notion that the relationship between self-esteem and sexual behavior is
dependent on the cultural context.
Hollar and Snizek (1996) found that both males and females with high
self-esteem were more likely to engage in what they termed risky form of
conventional sexual behavior. This observation concurs with Cole and
Slocumb (1995) who established that those with high self-esteem were more
likely to engage in risky sexual behavior. Generally, though, the relationship
between self-esteem and risky sexual behavior is mixed. Of particular
interest is the finding that both high and low self-esteem are related to risky
sexual behavior (Rosenthal, Moore, & Flynn, 1991; Seal, Minichiello, &
Omodei, 1997). In another study (Kovacs, Krol, & Voti, 1994), it was found
that low self-esteem was linked with the development and maintenance of
risky sexual behavior. What is evident, however, is that self-esteem could
be an important factor in risky sexual behavior among adolescents.
56 D. A. Adeyemo and T. M. Williams
Academic Achievement Motivation
Many theories of underachievement are based on the assumption that
students who are not motivated will not perform well. Adolescents
self-expectancy for success and the subjective value they place on an
academic task have also been proposed as two factors that most directly
predict academic performance and choice (Wigfield & Tonks, 2002).
Teens in the lowest quartile of academic achievement, including those
with disabilities, are three times as likely to become parents and leave
school prematurely. Theories of the underlying processes of achievement
motivation range from a cognitive focus on individual personality traits
and reaction to task difficulty (Pintrich, 1989) to more socially based
views on the influence that parenting has on the development of achieve-
ment motivation. Underachievement and low academic aspirations clearly
play a part in teens sexual behaviors. Majority of research found empiri-
cal support for a connection between sexual activity and underachieve-
ment (Blum & Mmari, 2005) and between sexual activity and low
academic aspirations (Blum & Mmari, 2005; Chang, Bendel, Koopman,
McGarvey, & Canterbury, 2003; Costa, Jessor, Donovan, & Fortenberry,
1995; East, 1998).
Media
The media (including music, television, and most recently, the internet)
are an important part of the adolescents community. Adolescents spend
an estimated 6 to 8 hours per day exposed to some form of media
(Roberts, 2000), and youth are increasingly attending to more than one
form of media at a time (for example, conversing on a cell phone with
one friend while instant messaging several others on the computer).
Although media will continue to be a growing influence on the develop-
ment of adolescents, the ultimate effects will depend upon the extent to
which positive possibilities can be harnessed and negative influences
minimized.
The media is a strong cultural influence on children and many parents
and researchers worry about the messages that children receive from various
media sources. An interesting study conducted by Robillard (2000) sought to
determine whether exposure to rap music videos at baseline could predict
the occurrence of health risk behaviors and sexually transmitted diseases
among African American adolescent females over a 12-month follow-up
period. He found that, compared to adolescents with less exposure to rap
videos, those with greater exposure were two times more likely to have
had multiple sexual partners and more than 1.5 times more likely to have
acquired a new sexually transmitted disease over the 12-month follow-up
period.
Risky Sexual Behavior Among Nigerian Teens 57
As garnered from the literature, media has therapeutic and harmful
effects on adolescents. Parental guidance would therefore be required to
harness the positive influence of media on adolescent behavior.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Previous studies had examined the influence of one or more of the variables
being considered in the present endeavor. The objective of this study was
to examine the joint influences of (a) parental warmth, (b) peer influence,
(c) self-esteem, (d) media, and (e) religiosity. The study also investigated
the separate influence of each of the independent variables on risky sexual
behavior of adolescents.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Two questions were considered in the study:
1. What is the pattern of the relationship among the independent variables
(parental warmth, peer influence, religiosity, media, self-esteem and
academic achievement motivation) and risky sexual behavior?
2. What is the contribution of the independent variables (parental warmth,
peer influence, religiosity, media, self-esteem and academic achievement
motivation) to risky sexual behavior?
METHOD
Research Design
A descriptive survey design in which parental warmth, peer influence, religi-
osity, media, self-esteem and academic achievement motivation served as the
independent variables and risky-sexual behavior as criterion measure was used.
Population and Sample
The study was carried out in Ogun state, Nigeria. The state has three
Senatorial districts. A school each was randomly drawn from each of the
senatorial districts. The population of the study was 1000 senior secondary
school one students and of Yoruba extraction in Nigeria. Senior secondary
school one is the equivalent of 10th grade in the United States. Two hundred
and fifty adolescents were randomly drawn from the total population. The
participants were 100 males and 150 females. Their ages ranged from 13 to
18 years with a mean age of 14.7 years and standard deviation of 1.5 years.
58 D. A. Adeyemo and T. M. Williams
Instruments
PARENTAL WARMTH
The Perceptions of Parents Scale (POPS) developed by Robbins (1994) was
employed to assess parental warmth. It has 21 mother-specific items and
21 father-specific items. It has a response format from very untrue to very
true. Examples of items of the scale are: (1) My mother seems to know how
I feel about things, and (2) My father accepts me and likes me the way I
am. Current perceptions of their parents as autonomous, supportive and
involved are measured. It has a Cronbach alpha of between .75 and .85.
The instrument was revalidated to suit the circumstances of the participants
in this study. Using a test-retest method, the instrument was found to have a
reliability index of 0.79.
RELIGIOSITY
The Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire (SCSORFQ),
developed and validated by Plante and Boccaccini (1997), was used to
measure religiosity. The SCSORFQ consists of 10 statements in which the
responses vary from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4). Typical items
on the scale include: (1) My religious faith is extremely important to me and
(2) My faith impacts many of my decisions. The range of possible scores is
10 to 40 and the higher the score the higher the religious faith. The SCSORFQ
has been utilized with numerous populations, including high school
students, undergraduate students, and recovering substance abusers. The
SCSORFQ has a Cronbachs alpha value ranging between .94 to .97, as well
as split-half reliability of 0.96. For the current study, we recorded a reliability
value of 0.78 through a test-retest method.
SELF-ESTEEM
The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) (1979) is a measure of an individuals
global self-worth. Participants responded to 10 items on a four-point scale
from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Some of the items provide posi-
tive assessments of self-issues (for example, I feel I have a number of good
qualities), whereas others are measures of self-derogation (for example, I feel
useless at times). Final scores range from 10 to 40. Lower scores represent
lower levels of self-esteem.
The RSE was used due to evidence of high reliability and validity. The
Morris Rosenberg Foundation (2006) reports a test-retest reliability coefficient
ranging from .82 to .88. For many users, the RSE has been shown to have face
validity, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and extensive reliability of
internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Cronbachs alpha values from
.77 to .88 have been reported for this scale. To ascertain the psychometric
Risky Sexual Behavior Among Nigerian Teens 59
relevance of the scale to a Nigerian audience, it was subjected to test-retest
reliability analysis using the population different from the one in the study.
A reliability index of .89 was recorded .
PEER INFLUENCE
Peer influence was assessed with an eight item questionnaire constructed by
the researchers. It has a Cronbachs alpha value of .76. It has a response
format ranging from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). Examples
of typical items on the scale read are Im good at making friends, and (2) when
with my friends, we talk a lot about the opposite sex. It has a theoretical value
ranging from 8 to 40. It has a Cronbachs alpha value of .76.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
The Academic Need Achievement Scale developed by Bakare (1976) was
utilized as a measure of academic achievement motivation. The scale consists
of 36 items designed to measure all the components of achievement motiv-
ation. It is measured on a five point scale of very true to very untrue. Exam-
ples of the items of the scale are: (1) Even when I feel that my lessons are
difficult, I enjoying trying to do them, (2) I turn away from tasks which
my classmates regard as requiring great effort and intelligence, and (3) I like
to be seen in the company of those who do well in class. The scale has a
Cronbachs alpha index of .80. The author of the instrument is Nigerian
and the scale has been used in several studies conducted in Nigeria.
MEDIA
Adolescents involvement with the media is measured with a 13 item
questionnaire developed by the researchers. The structured instrument was
subjected to a reliability test by administering the instrument to 50 students
who were not involved in the study. The Cronbach alpha value for the media
scale is .67. It is measured on a Likert scales ranging from 5 (strongly agree) to
1 (strongly disagree). Measures on this scale include (1) Watching television
makes me think about sex too much, (2) Pornography on the pages of news-
papers, television and the internet excites me a great deal, and (3) Magazines
help girls understand that it is okay to say no to a guy.
RISKY SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
This instrument was adapted from the Youth Risky Behavior Questionnaire
(YRBQ). The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) was
developed in 1988 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) to monitor health risk behaviors that contribute to the leading causes
60 D. A. Adeyemo and T. M. Williams
of mortality, morbidity, and social problems among youth and adults in the
United States. The YRBSS monitors six categories of behaviors: (a) those that
contribute to unintentional injuries and violence; (b) tobacco use; (c) alcohol
and other drug use; (d) sexual behaviors that contribute to unintended preg-
nancy and sexually transmitted disease, including human immunodeficiency
virus infection; (e) dietary behaviors; and (f) physical activity. Sexual beha-
viors that contribute to unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted
diseases, including HIV infection, comprised the portion of the scale used.
The participants were expected to choose from the options all that apply
to their sexual behavior. The Cronbachs alpha value obtained was .81.
Examples of items on the scale include: (1) How many different people have
you had sexual intercourse with in the last 12 months? and (2) What kind of
contraceptive(s) did you use the first time?
Bearing in mind that Nigeria subscribes to British English, both the
instruction and items were reworded accordingly. A reliability analysis was
carried out using the split-half method. With this approach, a reliability value
of .85 was obtained.
Procedure
The instruments were administered to the participants on the days approved
by the school authorities for the exercise. The investigators were assisted by
the school guidance counselor and individuals assigned by the school
authority. In each of the selected schools, instruments were administered
and collected on the same day of administration. All 250 questionnaires
administered were collected back from the schools used for the survey. Thus,
there was a 100% response rate.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics and the Pearson Product Moment Correlation were used
to determine the relationship among the variables. Multiple regression
analysis was used to determine the combined and relative effects of the
independent variables on the dependent variable.
RESULTS
Research Question 1
What is the pattern of the relationship among the independent variables
(parental warmth, peer influence, religiosity, media, self-esteem and academ-
ic achievement motivation) and risky sexual behavior?
Table 1 shows the correlation coefficients between all the independent
variables (parental warmth, peer influence, religiosity, media, self esteem
Risky Sexual Behavior Among Nigerian Teens 61
T
A
B
L
E
1
D
e
s
c
r
i
p
t
i
v
e
S
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
s
a
n
d
C
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
a
m
o
n
g
V
a
r
i
a
b
l
e
s
V
a
r
i
a
b
l
e
s
M
e
a
n
S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
d
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n
R
i
s
k
y
s
e
x
u
a
l
b
e
h
a
v
i
o
r
P
a
r
e
n
t
a
l
w
a
r
m
t
h
P
e
e
r
i
n
f
l
u
e
n
c
e
R
e
l
i
g
i
o
s
i
t
y
M
e
d
i
a
S
e
l
f
e
s
t
e
e
m
A
c
a
d
e
m
i
c
a
c
h
i
e
v
e
m
e
n
t
m
o
t
i
v
a
t
i
o
n
R
i
s
k
y
S
e
x
u
a
l
B
e
h
a
v
i
o
r
2
0
.
3
1
6
.
7
8
1
.
0
0
0

.
3
9
3

.
3
1
6

.
1
1
3
.
1
3
7

.
2
1
2

.
0
5
1
P
a
r
e
n
t
a
l
w
a
r
m
t
h
1
4
4
.
3
9
2
5
.
1
5

.
3
9
3
1
.
0
0
0

.
0
5
7
.
1
3
4

.
1
0
0
.
0
8
8
.
3
5
5

P
e
e
r
I
n
f
l
u
e
n
c
e
1
9
.
1
2
4
.
9
9
.
3
1
6

.
0
5
7
1
.
0
0
0

.
1
5
7

.
2
3
7

.
0
7
0

.
0
3
4
R
e
l
i
g
i
o
u
s
i
t
y
3
3
.
4
6
4
.
9
6

.
1
1
3
.
1
3
4

.
1
5
7

1
.
0
0
0

.
2
3
9

.
2
2
1

.
2
1
0

M
e
d
i
a
5
.
6
0
2
b
.
6
2
.
1
3
7

.
1
0
0
.
2
3
7

.
2
3
9

1
.
0
0
0

.
1
0
5

.
2
2
4

S
e
l
f
E
s
t
e
e
m
2
8
.
5
1
4
.
0
7

.
2
1
2

.
0
8
8

.
0
7
0
.
2
2
1

.
1
0
5
1
.
0
0
0
.
0
3
1
A
c
a
d
e
m
i
c
a
c
h
i
e
v
e
m
e
n
t
m
o
t
i
v
a
t
i
o
n
1
3
5
.
3
9
2
0
.
6
6

.
0
5
1
.
3
5
5

.
0
3
4
.
2
1
0

.
2
2
4

.
0
3
1
1
.
0
0
0

s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t
a
t
.
0
5
l
e
v
e
l
.
62
and academic achievement motivation) and dependent variable (risky sexual
behaviors). Parental warmth correlated significantly but negatively with risky
sexual behavior (r .393; p <.005). This shows that as parental warmth
increases, risky sexual behavior decreases. There were also significant
positive relationships between peer influence and risky sexual behavior
(r .316; p <.05) on the one hand and media and risky sexual behavior
(r .137; p <.05) on the other. This demonstrates that as peer and media
influences increase, risky sexual behavior also increases. Self-esteem was
also found to have a significant but negative relationship with risky sexual
behavior (r .212; p <.05) This implies that higher self-esteem scores
translate to decrease in risky sexual behavior.
Research Question 2
What is the joint effect of the independent variables (parental warmth, peer
influence, religiosity, media, self-esteem and academic achievement
motivation) on risky sexual behavior?
Table 2 shows that the joint effect of the six independent variables (par-
ental warmth, peer influence, religiosity, media, self-esteem and academic
achievement motivation) when put together as a composite construct yielded
a coefficient of multiple regression (R) of .785 and a multiple correlation
square (R
2
) of .616. This shows that 61.6%of the total variance in risky sexual
behaviors of the participants is accounted for by the combination of the six
independent variables. The analysis of variance of the data produced an
TABLE 2 Summary of Regression Analysis Between the Independent Variables and Risky
Sexual Behavior (R.785; R.785; R
2
.616; Adj R
2
.605; Standard Error Estimate 6.7327)
Source of variation Df
Sum of
squares
Mean
square F-ratio p
Regression 6 1340.472 223.412 6.040 <0.05
Residual 243 8988.896 36.991
Total 249 10329.368
Unstandardised
coefficient
Standardized
coefficients t
B SEB Beta (b) Significance
Constant 33.26 6.310 5.363 0.000

Parental warmth 0.111 0.017 0.078 6.338 0.001

Peer Influence 0.052 0.005 0.080 9.769 0.000

Religiosity 0.038 0.088 0.081 0.429 0.668

Media 1.113 0.174 0.100 6.407 0.001

Self-Esteem 0.298 0.104 0.052 2.859 0.044

Academic Achievement
motivation
0.007 0.021 0.017 0.316 0.752

p <0.05.
Risky Sexual Behavior Among Nigerian Teens 63
F-ratio value significant at .05 level, F(6.243) 6.04; p <.05. The findings thus
confirm that parental warmth, peer influence, religiosity, media, self-esteem
and academic achievement motivation have an influence on risky sexual
behaviors of adolescents.
Table 2 further shows the relative influence of the independent
variables on risky sexual behavior. The variables contribution in terms of
their magnitude is presented as follows: peer influence, b .080, t 9.769,
p <.05; media, b .100, t 6.407, p <.05; parental warmth, b .078,
t 6.338, p <.05); and self-esteem, b .052, t 2.859, p <.05.
DISCUSSION
The result of the correlation analysis shows that parental warmth, peer
influence, media, and self-esteem correlate significantly with risky sexual
behavior, while religiosity and academic achievement motivation did not
have a significant correlation with risky sexual behavior.
The result of the regression analysis indicates that parental warmth, peer
influence, religiosity, media, self-esteem and academic achievement motiv-
ation have significant influence on risky sexual behaviors of the participants.
On the extent to which each of the independent variables influenced risky
sexual behaviors of the adolescents, the value of the t-ratio as shown on
Table 2 is presented in order of magnitude.
Peer influence was found to be the strongest contributor to the criterion
variable. This is supported by Jessor and Jessor (1975) who concluded that
association with peers encourages the transition from virginity to non-virginity,
particularly among females. This is further corroborated by Black, Ricardo, and
Stanton (1997) who reported that African American youth who discovered that
their peers engaged in high-risk behaviors also ended up engaging in risky sex-
ual behavior. This is perhaps why Hutchinson and Cooney (1998) said that ado-
lescents who discuss more about sex with their peers or who have peers who
have initiated sex are likely to be influenced into having sex by such friends.
The possible explanation for this could be that adolescent friendships influence
many aspects of their lives. When an adolescent discovers that their peers are
involved in risky sexual behaviors such as initiating sexual intercourse, he or
she is also more likely to engage in risky sexual behavior. It is also known that
adolescents feel more comfortable talking to their friends at this stage of devel-
opment about issues bothering them rather than talking to their parents.
Media influence was also found to be significant contributor to risky sex-
ual behavior. This is consistent with a survey by Rideout (2001) who found
that 95% of 15- to 17-year-olds have been online, with most in this age group
(83%) having access to the Internet from home. He also stated that nearly a
third have access to the Internet from a computer in their bedroom where par-
ents are much less able to monitor its use. This is also in line with Crisanto
64 D. A. Adeyemo and T. M. Williams
(2006) who found that females who spent more time in chat rooms were more
likely to provide their addresses and phone numbers online. The reason for
this could be that media in general is mostly devoid of showing the realities,
risks and consequences of engaging in sexual behavior. Most often than not,
females are portrayed by the media as sex objects and object of entertainment.
Perhaps, this is one of the reasons women take the greater part in advertise-
ment of products in the media. The Internet is the most recent addition to
media. Many adolescents spend much of their time in chat rooms with friends,
visiting pornographic sites and start intimate relationships online.
Parental warmth was another significant contributor to risky sexual beha-
vior. This is well proven by Kirby (2002) who noted a relationship between
greater attachment to family, later initiation of sex, and less frequent inter-
course. Dornbusch, Erickson, Laird, and Wong (1987) found out that positive
family ties and solid structure are consistently and positively correlated with
later first intercourse. Meschke, Bartholomae, and Zentall (2000) found that
all family micro-system variables significantly correlated with age at first inter-
course. They concluded that parental attachment, parental communication,
parental monitoring, parental values, and parental sex values were all
positively and significantly correlated with age at first intercourse.
It is believed that a child who experiences positive family ties and solid
structure are likely to delay first intercourse. It could further be said that a
feeling of parental warmth, love and care from parents could also delay
sexual intercourse and other forms of risky sexual behaviors. Parents who
do not show enough care and warmth to their children are likely to have
adolescent with risky behaviors since the adolescents may not be able to
reach out too freely to their parents.
Self-esteem also contributed significantly to risky sexual behavior. This
could be in line with two schools of thought, with one school suggesting that
there is a relationship between low self-esteem and engaging in high-risk
sexual behaviors (that is, if one has low self-esteem, she is more likely to
engage in high-risk sexual behaviors like unprotected intercourse; Hollar &
Snizek, 1996), while another school suggests that there is a relationship
between high self-esteem and high-risk sexual behaviors. It could also be
that some adolescents engage in risky sexual behaviors because of high
self-esteem making them feel that they are not prone to dangers and that
high self-esteem may also encourage fun seeking attitudes in adolescents
thereby exposing them to risky sexual behaviors. On the other hand, a feel-
ing of low self-esteem may lead to an inferiority complex on the part of the
concerned adolescent, leading to a feeling of low self perception and thereby
increase risky sexual behaviors in order to cover up for these deficiencies.
Religiosity has insignificant negative correlation with risky sexual
behaviors and also did not have significantly influence on the criterion
measure. The result thus demonstrated the buffering effect of religiosity on
risky-sexual behavior. As evident from the previous studies (Nonnemaker
Risky Sexual Behavior Among Nigerian Teens 65
et al., 2002; Steimnan &Zimmerman, 2004) religiosity or religious involvement
is a protective factor for a number of adolescent health-related outcomes
which do not exclude sexual behavior.
Academic achievement motivation like religiosity did not correlate signifi-
cantly and positively with risky sexual behavior. High academic achievement
motivation is incongruous with risky sexual behavior while the reverse is the
case with students with low academic achievement motivation. This, of course
is the general picture in the existing literature (e.g., Blum & Mmari, 2005; East,
1998). It is possible that the participants in the current study have high level of
academic aspiration and hence the lack of significant relationship and effect of
academic achievement motivation with and on risky sexual behavior.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
It is important to mention the implication of the present study for educational
and counseling applications. First, peer tutoring should be encouraged to
train and help adolescents learn how they can influence one another
positively. Government should include in their educational policies the
employment of qualified and trained guidance counselors in secondary
schools in the country. This is because most adolescents are faced with chal-
lenges that may require the attention of qualified personnel. There is the need
to encourage and create homeschool partnerships for enhancing the overall
development and well-being of the students. Government should encourage
individuals operating cyber cafes to block pornographic sites and sex-
suggesting sites online while encouraging parents to create more time to dis-
cuss with their children as well as monitor what their children watch or read
from time to time. School counselors should organize workshops=seminars
where parents are exposed to parenting skills and practices.
Based on the finding of the study, religious participation is desirable in
the school. However, it should be done in such a way that does not infringe
on the fundamental human right of the students. Furthermore, academic
excellence should be the watchword and goal of the school. Stressing the
importance of education will enhance academic achievement motivation of
students and further divert their attention from risky sexual behavior. In
addition, school counselors should design academic achievement motivation
enhancement programs for students.
REFERENCES
Adegoke, A. A. (2003). Adolescents in Africa. Ibadan, Nigeria: Hadassah Publishing.
Bakare, C. G. M. (1976). The Academic Need Achievement Scale and Manual.
Unpublished monograph, Department of Guidance and Counseling, University
of Ibadan, Nigeria.
66 D. A. Adeyemo and T. M. Williams
Barber, B. K., & Erickson, L. D. (2001). Adolescent social initiative: Antecedents in the
ecology of social connections. Journal of Adolescent Research, 16(4), 326354.
Black, M. M., Ricardo, I. B., & Stanton, B. (1997). Social and psychological factors
associated with AIDS risk behaviors among low-income, urban, African-
American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 7, 173195.
Blum, R. W. (2002). Mothers influence on teen sex: Connections that promote
postponing sexual intercourse. Minneapolis, MN: Center for Adolescent Health
and Development, University of Minnesota.
Blum, R. W., & Mmari, K. N. (2005). Risk and protective factors affecting adolescent
reproductive health in developing countries. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health
Organization.
Chang, V. Y., Bendel, T. L., Koopman, C., McGarvey, E. L., & Canterbury, R. J. (2003).
Delinquents safe sex attitudes: Relationships with demographics, resilience
factors, and substance use. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30(2), 210229.
Cole, F. L., & Slocumb, F. M. (1995). Factors influencing sexual behaviors in hetero-
sexual late adolescents and young adults collegiate males image. Journal of
Nursing Scholarship, 27, 217222.
Costa, F. M., Jessor, R., Donovan, J. E., & Fortenberry, J. D. (1995). Early initiation of
sexual intercourse: The influence of psychosocial unconventionality. Journal of
Research on Adolescence, 5, 93121.
Crisanto, A. (2006). Female adolescents and sexual behaviors on the Internet. Disser-
tation Abstracts International, 66(11-B), 6332.
Dornbusch, S., Ritter, P., Liederman, P., Roberts, D., & Fraleigh, M. (1987). The
relation of parenting style to adolescent school performance. Child Develop-
ment, 58, 12441257.
East, P. L. (1998). Racial and ethnic differences in girls sexual, marital and birth
expectations. Journal of Marriage and Family, 60, 150162.
Fisher, L., & Feldman, S. S. (1998). Familial antecedents of young adults health risk
behavior: A longitudinal study. Journal of Family Psychology, 12, 6680.
Hollar, D. S., & Snizek, W. F. (1996). The influence of knowledge of HIV=AIDS and
self-esteem on the sexual practices of college students. Social Behavior and
Personality, 24, 7586.
Hutchinson, M. K., & Cooney, T. M. (1998). Patterns of parentteen sexual risk com-
munication: Implications for intervention. Family Relations: Interdisciplinary
Journal of Applied Family Studies, 47, 185194.
Jessor, S. L., & Jessor, R. (1975). Transition from virginity to non-virginity among
youth: A social-psychological study over time. Developmental Psychology, 11,
473484.
Kirby, D. (2002). Antecedents of adolescent initiation of sex, contraceptive use, and
pregnancy. American Journal of Health Behavior, 26(6), 473485.
Kovas, M., Krol, R. S. M., & Voti, I. (1994). Early on-set of psychopathology and the
risk for teenage pregnancy among clinically referred girls. Journal of American
Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33(1), 106113.
Lerner, R. M. (2002). Adolescence. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
McCree, D. H., Wingood, G. M., DiClemente, R., Davies, S., & Harrington, K. F.
(2002). Religiosity and risky sexual behavior in African-American adolescent
females. Journal of Adolescent Health, 33(1), 28.
Risky Sexual Behavior Among Nigerian Teens 67
Meisher, T., & Burnett, K. F. (1990). Attitude, knowledge and sexual behavior of
high-risk adolescents: Implication for counseling. Journal of Counseling and
Development, 68(3), 293298.
Meschke, L. L., Bartholomae, S., & Zentall, S. R. (2000). Adolescent sexuality and
parentadolescent processes: Promoting healthy teen choices. Family Relations,
49, 143154.
Miller, B., & Fox, G. (1987). Theories of adolescent heterosexual behavior. Journal of
Adolescent Research, 2(3), 269287.
Moore, M. R. (1998). Family and community correlates of sexual debut and
pregnancy among African-American female adolescents in high poverty
neighbourhood. Dissertation Abstract International Section A: Humanities
and Social Sciences, 59(5-A), 1791.
Musick, J. S. (1993). Young, poor and pregnant. New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press.
Nelson, C., & Keith, J. (1990). Comparisons of female and male early adolescents sex
role attitude and behavior development. Adolescence, 25(97), 183205.
Nonnemaker, J. M., McNeely, C. A., & Blum, R. W. (2003). Public and private
domains of religiosity and adolescent health risk behaviors: Evidence from
the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Social Science and
Medicine, 57(11), 20492054.
OSullivan, L. F., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2005). The timing of changes in girls sexual
cognitions and behaviors in early adolescences: A prospective, cohort study.
Journal of Adolescent Health, 37(3), 211219.
Pals, J. L. (1999). Identity consolidation in early adulthood: Relations with ego
resiliency, the context of marriage, and personality change. Journal of Person-
ality, 67(2), 295329.
Papalia, D., Olds, S., & Feldman, R. (2004). Human development (3rd ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Perrino, T., Gonzalez-Soldevilla, A., Pantin, G., & Szapocnik, J. (2000). Working with
families in the era of HIV=AIDS. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Pintrich, P. R. (1989). The dynamic interplay of student motivation and cognition in
the college classroom. In C. Ames & M. Maehr (Eds.), Advances in motivation
and achievement: Vol. 6. Motivation enhancing environments (117160).
Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Plante, T. G., & Boccaccini, M. (1997). The Santa Clara strength of religious faith
questionnaire. Pastoral Psychology, 45, 375387.
Podhista, C., Xenos, P. A., & Varangrat, A. (2001). The risk of premarital sex among
Thai youth: Individual and familial influences. East-West Centre Working
Papers. Population Series No 1085, October 2001.
Rideout, V. (2001). Generation Rx.com: How young people use the Internet for health
information. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation.
Robbins, R. J. (1994). An assessment of perceptions of parental autonomy support
and control: Child and parent correlates. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Department of Psychology, University of Rochester.
Roberts, D. (2000). Media and youth: Access, exposure, and privatization. Journal of
Adolescent Health, 27(supplement), 814.
68 D. A. Adeyemo and T. M. Williams
Robillard, A. G. (2000). Examining the relationship between music videos and sexual
risk behavior in African American adolescent females (Abstract). Dissertation
Abstracts International, 61-12(B), 6425.
Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books.
Rosenthal, D., Moore, S., & Flynn, I. (1991). Adolescent self-efficacy, self-esteem,
and sexual risk-taking. The Journal of Community and Applied Social
Psychology, 1, 7778.
Seal, A., Minichiello, V., & Omodei, M. (1997). Young women and sexual risk-taking
behavior: Revisiting the influences of sexual self-efficacy and sexual
self-esteem. International Journal of STI=AIDS, 8(3), 165172.
Steinman, K. J., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2004). Religious activity and risk behavior
among African-American adolescents: Concurrent and developmental effects.
American Journal of Psychology, 33(3=4), 151161.
Taris, T. W., & Semin, G. R. (1997). Parentchild interaction during adolescence, and
the adolescents sexual experience: Control, closeness, and conflict. Journal of
Youth & Adolescence, 26(4), 373398.
Wigfield, A., & Tonks, S. (2002). Adolescents expectancies for success and
achievement task values during the middle and high school years. In F. Pajares
& T. Urdan (Eds.), Academic motivation of adolescents (pp. 5382). Greenwich,
CT: Information Age Publishing.
Risky Sexual Behavior Among Nigerian Teens 69
Copyright of Child & Youth Services is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied
or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission.
However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.