Electrical Study Guide

Copyright 2012 Michelin North America, Inc. All rights reserved.
. The Michelin Man is a registered trademark of Michelin North America, Inc.

Michelin North America, Inc.
Electrical
Theory/
Technology
PLC Concepts
Basic
Electronics
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Copyright 2012 Michelin North America, Inc. All rights reserved. The Michelin Man is a registered trademark of Michelin North America, Inc.

PURPOSE OF THIS GUIDE

This Study Guide is designed to provide the electrical troubleshooter with a
review of, and the mechanical troubleshooter with an introduction of, basic
electrical skills needed for him/her to safely and more efficiently carry out their
duties in the plant environment. After successful completion, the troubleshooter
can improve their understanding of DC, AC, three phase circuits, Relays,
Contactors, PLC, Electronics, and other related technology.

MATH
To review the mathematics related to electrical theory and the application of that theory to
electrical equipment.
APPLIED ELECTRICAL THEORY
To improve the understanding and application of electrical theory related to the principles of
operation of manufacturing equipment.
1. Draw and solve for circuit parameters such as resistance, voltage,
current, and power in:
- D.C. series circuits
- D.C. parallel circuits
- D.C. complex series/parallel circuits
2. Understand the properties of magnetism and how they relate to
electromagnetic concepts as applied to contactors, relays, generators, motors,
and transformers
3. Explain the generation of an A.C. sinewave using the associated terms
4. Draw and solve for circuit parameters such as resistance, inductance,
inductive reactance, capacitance, capacitive reactance, impedance,
voltage, current, and power in:
- A.C. series resistive circuits
- A.C. series inductive circuits
- A.C. series capacitive circuits
- A.C. series combination RLC circuits
5. Draw transformers, explain the operating principle, and solve problems using
voltage, current, and turns relationships
6. Understand three phase concepts:
- Advantages and disadvantages
- Waveform generation
- Calculations for Wye and Delta circuits
7. Understand three phase motor concepts:
- Squirrel Cage motors
- Wound Motors
- American motor connections
- European motor connections

ELECTRICAL SCHEMATICS
To improve the understanding of the different types of electrical drawings and the use of
electrical drawings associated with trouble-shooting procedures.
1. Recognize the standard electrical schematic symbols
2. Relate symbols to the actual device
3. Use symbols and basic drawing techniques to draw valid circuits
from word descriptions
4. Use electrical schematics to determine operating cycles for machines
5. Use electrical schematics to analyze conventional machine faults
such as open circuits, ground faults, and short circuits
TROUBLE-SHOOTING PROCEDURES
To improve the understanding of safe, simple, and logical trouble-shooting procedures on
conventional relay controlled machines.
1. Have become familiar with and practiced appropriate safety
procedures during trouble-shooting
2. Be able to locate and repair open circuit faults using a safe, efficient
procedure
3. Be able to locate and repair ground faults and short circuits using a
safe, efficient procedure
EQUIPMENT TECHNOLOGY
To improve the understanding of the operating principle of industrial input and output
devices, protection devices, ac motors, dc motors, motor brakes and other associated
electrical control devices.
1. Understand and be able to explain the operating principles of
conventional electrical components such as push buttons, limit
switches, fuses, overcurrent relays, electro-magnetic relays, and
contactors
2. Become familiar with the proper use and care of multimeters,
amprobes and megohm-meters
Math

BASIC MATH RULES
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
A. To add two numbers of the same sign, add their absolute values and attach the common sign.
B. To add two numbers of opposite signs, subtract the smaller absolute value from the larger
absolute value and attach the sign of the larger.
C. To subtract signed numbers, change the sign of the number to be subtracted (subtrahend) and
add as in (A) or (B) above.
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION
A. To multiply two signed numbers, multiply their absolute values and attach a positive if they
have like signs, a negative if they have unlike signs.
B. To divide two signed numbers, use rule (A) above, dividing instead of multiplying.
Examples:
A. Addition
1. -9 + (-5) = -14
2. -9 + 5 = -4
3. 3.65 + (-1.27) = 2.38
B. Multiplication
1. (-9) (-5) = 45
2. (-9) 5 = -45
3. 2.80 (-1.25) = -3.5
C. Division
1. (-24) 3 = -8
2. (-9) (-3/2) = 6
3. 1.6 (-0.4) = -4

COMMON FRACTIONS
BASIC CONCEPTS
FRACTIONS AND MEASUREMENT
The need for greater precision in measurement led to the concept of fractions. For example, "the thickness is
3
/
4
in." is a more precise statement than "the thickness is between 0 and 1 in." In the first measurement, the space
between the inch marks on the scale was likely subdivided into quarters; on the second scale, there were no
subdivisions. In the metric system, the subdivisions are multiples of 10 and all measurements are expressed as
decimal fractions. In the British system, the subdivisions are not multiples of 10 and the measurements are
usually recorded as common fractions. The universal use of the metric system would greatly simplify the
making and recording of measurements. However, common fractions would still be necessary for algebraic
operations.
TERMS
Fraction: Numbers of the form 3/4, 1/2, 6/5 are called fractions. The line separating the two integers indicates
division.
Numerator: (or dividend) is the integer above the fraction line.
Denominator: (or divisor) is the integer below the fraction line. The denominator in a measurement may show
the number of subdivisions in a unit.
Common fraction: a fraction whose denominator is numbers other than 10, 100, 1000, etc. Other names for it
are: simple fraction and vulgar fraction.
Examples:
1
125
,
2
7
,
15
32
Decimal fraction: a fraction whose denominator has some power of 10.
Mixed number: is a combination of an integer and a fraction.
Example:
The mixed number 3
2
5
indicates the addition of 3 +
2
5

Improper Fraction: Not in lowest terms
Example:
2
9


BASIC PRINCIPLE
A fundamental principle used in work with fractions is: If both the numerator and denominator of a fraction
are multiplied or divided by the same non-zero number, the value of the fraction is unchanged. Another way of
expressing this rule is: If a fraction is multiplied by 1, the value of the fraction remains unchanged.
Example:

2
3
=
2 2
3 2
=
4
6

2
3
=
2 5
3 5
=
10
15

2
3
=
2 6
3 6
=
12
18
-
-
-
-
-
-
The numerator and denominator of the fraction 2/3 were multiplied by 2, 5, and 6 respectively. The fractions
2/3, 4/6, 10/15, 12/18 are equal and are said to be in equivalent forms. It can be seen that in the above example
the change of a fraction to an equivalent for implies that the fraction was multiplied by 1. Thus the multipliers
2/2, 5/5, 6/6 of the fraction 2/3 in this case are each equal to 1.
REDUCTION TO LOWEST TERMS
The basic principle given on the previous page allows us to simplify fractions by dividing out any factors which
the numerator and denominator of a fraction may have in common. When this has been done, the fraction is in
reduced form, or reduced to its lowest terms. This is a simpler and more convenient form for fractional answers.
The process of reduction is also called cancellation.
Example:
Since
18
30
=
2 3 3
2 3 5
, the numerator and demoninator

can be divided by the common factors 2 and 3.

The resulting fraction is
3
5
, which is the reduced

form of the fraction
18
30
.
- -
- -

Factoring
The process of factoring is very useful in operations involving fractions. If an integer greater than 1 is not
divisible by any positive integer except itself and 1, the number is said to be prime. Thus, 2, 3, 5, 7, etc., are
prime numbers, the number 2 being the only even prime number.
If a number is expressed as the product of certain of its divisors, these divisors are known as factors of the
representation. The prime factors of small numbers are easily found by inspection. Thus, the prime factors of
30 are 2, 3, 5. The following example illustrates a system which can be used to find the prime factors of a large
number.
Example: Find the prime factors of 1386.
Try to divide 1386 by each of the small prime numbers, beginning with 2. Thus, 1386 / 2 = 693. Since 693 is
not divisible by 2, try 3 as a divisor: 693 3 = 231. Try 3 again: 231 3 = 77. Try 3 again; it is not a divisor of
77, and neither is 5. However, 7 is a divisor, for 77 7 = 11. The factorization is complete since 11 is a prime
number. Thus, 1386 = 2 3 3 7 11. The results of the successive divisions might be kept in a compact table
shown below.
Dividends 1386 693 231 77 11
Factors 2 3 3 7 11
The following divisibility rules simplify factoring:
Rule 1. A number is divisible by 2 if its last digit is even.
Example: The numbers 64, 132, 390 are each exactly divisible by 2.
Rule 2. A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
Example: Consider the numbers 270, 321, 498. The sums 9, 6, 21 of the digits are divisible
by 3.
Rule 3. A number is divisible by 5 if its last digit is 5 or zero.
Example: The numbers 75, 135, 980 are each divisible by 5.
Rule 4. A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
Example: The numbers 432, 1386, and 4977 are exactly divisible by 9 since the sums of their
digits are 9, 18, 27, and these are divisible by 9.

OPERATIONS WITH FRACTIONS
ADDITION OF FRACTIONS
To add fractions, which have a common denominator, add their numerators and keep the same common
denominator.
Example: Determine the sum of:
1
4
+
5
4
+
3
4
.

Adding the numerators, 1 + 5 + 3 = 9 .

Keeping the same common denominator 4,

the desired result is
9
4
or 2
1
4
.
To add fractions with unlike denominators, determine the least common denominator. Express each fraction in
equivalent form with the LCD. Then perform the addition.
Example: Determine the sum of:
1
2
+
3
4
+
2
8
. The LCD is 8.

The sum with the fractions in equivalent form is
4
8
+
6
8
+
2
8
.

Adding the numerators and keeping the same LCD,

the result is
12
8
or
3
2
or 1
1
2
.

To add mixed numbers calculate the sum of the integers separately from the sum of the fractions. Then add the
two sums.
E x a m p l e : A d d t h e m i x e d n u m b e r s 7
1
6
a n d 2
3
4
.

F i r s t w e a d d t h e i n t e g e r s : 7 + 2 = 9 .

A d d i n g t h e f r a c t i o n s , w e g e t
1
6
+
3
4
=
2
1 2
+
9
1 2
=
1 1
1 2
.

C o m b i n i n g t h e t w o s u m s , t h e a n s w e r w e o b t a i n i s 9
1 1
1 2
.
SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS
As with addition, before two fractions can be subtracted they must have a common denominator.
Example: Subtract
2
3
from
3
4
. The LCD is 12 .

The subtraction with the fractions in equivalent

form gives:
3 3
4 3
-
2 4
3 4
=
9
12
-
8
12
=
1
12
E x a m p l e: P e r f o r m t h e o p e r a t i o n 7
1
5
- 4
5
1 0
.

T h e L C D o f t h e f r a c t i o n s i s 1 0 .

T h e d e s i r e d d i f f e r e n c e c a n b e e x p r e s s e d a s 7
2
1 0
- 4
5
1 0
.

B u t
5
1 0
i s l a r g e r t h a n
2
1 0
. T h e r e f o r e , b o r r o w i n g 1 o r
1 0
1 0

f r o m 7 a n d a d d i n g i t t o
2
1 0
, a n d p e r f o r m i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n ,

w e o b t a i n : 6
1 2
1 0
- 4
5
1 0
= 2
7
1 0
.

MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS
To multiply two or more fractions, multiply their numerators to obtain the numerator of the product. Multiply
the denominators to obtain the denominator of the product.
Example: Multiply
3
7
x
2
5
.

The desired product is
3 x 2
7 x 5
=
6
35
.
The calculations are greatly simplified, and the product put in its lowest terms, by cancellation of common
factors.
Example: Determine the product
2
5
x
10
3
x
6
7
.

Express all the numerators and denominators in factored form,

cancel the common factors, and carry out the multification

of the remaining factors . The result is:

2
5
x
2 5
3
x
2 3
7
=
8
7
= 1
1
7
.

Note: The x is used to show the numbers being cancelled.

Every integer can be written as a fraction with 1 as a denominator, since an integer divided by 1 is equal to the
integer. Thus, to multiply an integer by a fraction, multiply the numerator of the fraction by the integer and
retain the denominator of the given fraction.
Example: Determine
3
5
x 6 .

Applying the rule,
3
5
x
6
1
=
3 x 6
5 x 1
=
18
5
= 3
3
5
.

To multiply mixed numbers, convert them first into fractions and then apply the rule for multiplication of
fractions.
Example: Multiply 1
3
4
by 3
1
7
.

Converting 1
3
4
and 3
1
7
to common fractions,

we get 1
3
4
=
4
4
+
3
4
=
7
4
and 3
1
7
=
21
7
+
1
7
=
22
7
.

Now in fractional form
7
4
x
22
7

Express in factored form
7
2 2
x
2 11
7
. Cancel out 7 and 2.

The result is
11
2
or 5
1
2
.
DIVISION OF FRACTIONS
To divide one fraction by another, invert the divisor and multiply the fractions.
Example invert the divisor to
Now multiply
Notice nothing cancelled and the result is
:
3
5
4
7
4
7
7
4
3
5
7
4
3 7
5 2 2
21
20
21
20

=

=
To divide mixed numbers, convert them first to fractions as before and apply the rule for division.
DIVISION BY ZERO
It is important to emphasize the following reminder: Division by 0 is impossible. Therefore, a fraction cannot
have 0 as a denominator.

RECIPROCALS
The reciprocal of a number is 1 divided by the number. It follows from the definition that the product of a
number and its reciprocal is 1. The reciprocal of zero is not defined.
Example: The reciprocal of 25 is
1
25
or 0.04.

Conversely, the reciprocal, of 0.04 is
1
0.04
or 25.
CONVERSION OF COMMON FRACTIONS INTO DECIMAL FRACTIONS
To convert a common fraction into a decimal equivalent form, divide the numerator by the denominator.
Example: Convert
7
16
into a decimal fraction.

Since 16 is larger than 7, there will be no digits except 0 to the

left of the decimal point in the quotient. Then performing the

division, 0 is adjoined to 7 to give 70, which is larger than 16.

Proceeding as with integers, the decimal equivalent of
7
16
is 0.4375.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. Solve:
9
64
-
1
16
=
2. Solve:
12
7
8
4
2
3
=
3. Solve:
1
3
4
+ 5
1
6
=
4. Solve:
4
9
x
8
12
=
5. Solve:
8
4
+
3
32
=
6. Solve:
0.5
1
4
=

FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF ALGEBRA
Commutative Law of Addition a + b = b + a
9 + 1 = 1 + 9
Associative Law of Addition a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
4 + (3 + 2) = (4 + 3) + 2
Commutative Law of Multiplication ab = ba
6 7 = 7 6
Associative Law of Multiplication a (bc) = (ab) c
4(5 2) = (4 5)2
Distributive Law a (b + c) = ab + ac
2 (3 + 9) = 2 3 + 2 9

SOLVING EQUATIONS AND FORMULAS
An arithmetic equation such as 3 + 2 = 5 means that the number named on the left (3 + 2) is the same as the
number named on the right (5).
An algebraic equation, such as x + 3 = 7, is a statement that the sum of some number x and 3 is equal to 7. If
we choose the correct value for x, then the number x + 3 will be equal to 7. x is a variable, a symbol that stands
for a number in an equation, a blank space to be filled. Many numbers might be put in the space, but only one
makes the equation a true statement.
Find the missing numbers in the following arithmetic equations:
a) 37 + _______ = 58 b) _______ - 15 = 29
c) 4 x _______ = 52 d) 28 _______ = 4
We could have written these equations as
a) 37 + A = 58 b) B - 15 = 29
c) 4 x C = 52 d) 28 D = 4
Of course any letters would do in place of A, B, C, and D in these algebraic equations.
How did you solve these equations? You probably eye-balled them and then mentally juggled the other
information in the equation until you had found a number that made the equation true. Solving algebraic
equations is very similar except that we can't "eyeball" it entirely. We need certain and systematic ways of
solving the equation that will produce the correct answer quickly every time.
Each value of the variable that makes an equation true is called a solution of the equation. For example, the
solution of x + 3 = 7 is x = 4.
Check: (4) + 3 = 7
Another example: The solution of 2x - 9 = 18 - 7x is x = 3
Check: 2(3) - 9 = 18 - 7(3)
6 - 9 = 18 - 21
-3 = -3

For certain equations more than one value of the variable may make the equation true. For example, the
equation x
2
+ 6 = 5x is true for x = 2.
Check: (2)
2
+ 6 = 5(2)
4 + 6 = 5 2
10 = 10
It is also true for x = 3,
Check: (3)
2
+ 6 = 5(3)
9 + 6 = 5 3
15 = 15
Use your knowledge of arithmetic to find the solution of each of the following:
a) 4 + x = 11 b) x - 1 = 6
c) x + 2 = 9 d) 8 - x = 1
Solving Equations
Equations as simple as the ones above are easy to solve by guessing, but guessing is not a very dependable way
to do mathematics. We need some sort of rule that will enable us to rewrite the equation to be solved. The
general rule is to treat every equation as a balance of the two sides. Any changes made in the equation must not
disturb this balance. Any operation performed on one side of the equation must also be performed on the
other side.
Two kinds of balancing operations may be used.
1. Adding or subtracting a number on both sides of the equation does not change the
balance.
2. Multiplying or dividing both sides of the equation by a number (but not zero) does
not change the balance.
Example: x - 4 = 2 We want to change this equation to an equivalent equation with
only x on the left, so we add 4 to each side of the
equation.
x - 4 + 4 = 2 + 4 Next we want to combine like terms.
x - 0 = 6

x = 6 Solution.

Check: x - 4 = 2
6 - 4 = 2
2 = 2
Use these balancing operations to solve the equations below:
a) 8 + x = 14 b) x - 4 = 10
c) 12 + x = 27 d) x + 6 = 2
Solving many simple algebraic equations involves both kinds of operations: addition/subtraction and
multiplication/division. For example,
Solve: 2x + 6 = 14 We want to change this equation to an equivalent
equation with only x or terms that include x on
the left, so subtract 6 from both sides.
2x + 6 - 6 = 14 - 6 Combine like terms.
2x = 8 Now change this to an equivalent equation with only x
on the left by dividing both sides by 2.
2x 2 = 8 2 2x 2 = x and 8 2 = 4
x = 4
Use these balancing operations to solve the equations below:
a) 3x - 7 = 11 b) 7x + 2 = 51
c) x - 6 = 3x d) 12 - 2x = 4 - x
e) 17x = 0 f) 3 + 2x = 17
g) 5y + 3 = 28 h) (x - 2) - (4 - 2x) = 12

Transposing Equations
To transpose an equation or formula so as to solve for a different unknown means to rewrite the formula as an
equivalent formula with that letter isolated on the left of the equals sign.
For example, the area of the triangle is given by the formula
A =
BH
2
where A is the area, B is the length of the base, and H is the height.
Solving for the base B gives the equivalent formula
B =
2A
H
Solving for the height H gives the equivalent formula
H =
2A
B
Solving formulas is a very important practical application of algebra. Very often a formula is not written in the
form that is most useful. To use it you may need to rewrite the formula, solving it for the letter whose value you
need to calculate.
To solve a formula, use the same balancing operations that you used to solve equations. You may add or
subtract the same quantity on both sides of the formula and you may multiply or divide both sides of the formula
by the same non-zero quantity.
For example, to solve the formula
S =
R+ P
2
for R
First, multiply both sides of the equation by 2.
2 2 S = (
R+ P
2
) - -
The 2's on the right cancel.

2S = R + P
Second, subtract P from both sides of the equation.
2S - = R + P - P P
The P's on the right cancel.
2S - P = R
This formula can be reversed to read.
R = 2S - P
We have solved the formula for R.
Remember, when using the multiplication/division rule, you must multiply or divide all of both sides of
the formula by the same quantity. Practice solving formulas with the following problems:
a) V =
3K
T
for K b)
c)
V =
R
H - AB for H
2
t
e)
P = 2A + 3B for A
f)
E = M
C
for M
2
Q = 1 - R + T for R
d)
P =
T
A - B
for A

g) h)

S =
A - RT
1 - R
for A

S =
1
2
gt for g
2
i) j)
P =
I
R for R
2

I =
V
R + a
for R
k) l)
A =
2V - W
R
for V

F =
9C
5
+ 32 for C
m) n)
A =
R
S
360
for S
2
t

P =
t
dN
3.78
for d
2
o) p)
C =
AD
A + 12
for D

V =
LT
6
+ 2 for L
2
t
Factoring and Adding/Removing Parentheses
Parentheses are used to group or isolate terms in an expression for special consideration. When two or more
terms are enclosed in parentheses they are to be treated as a single quantity. A term is an expression in a
quantity which is isolated by plus or minus signs.
Removal of Parentheses - Parentheses preceded by a plus sign can be removed without changing any signs.
Parentheses preceded by a minus sign can be removed only if all the enclosed signs are changed.
Example: A + (B + C - D) is the same as A + B + C - D
A - (B + C - D) is the same as A - B - C + D

Parentheses Preceded by a Factor - These can be handled two ways.
a) By performing all operations within the parentheses first and then multiplying.
Example: A(4 + 5)
A(9)
9A
b) Or multiplying each term within the parentheses by the factor.
Example: A(4 + 5)
4A + 5A
9A The result is the same as above.
Factoring - In the expression A(B + C - D), each term with the parentheses must be multiplied by the
factor A with the result being
A(B + C - D)
AB + AC - AD
Conversely, if a series of terms have a common quantity, that quantity can be factored out.
Example: AB + AC - AD the factor A is common
A(B + C - D) result of factoring out A
Example: 4AB + 4AX - 4AY factors 4 and A are common
4A(B + X - Y) result of factoring out 4A
Using Square Roots in Solving Equations
The equations you have learned to solve so far are all linear equations. The variable appears only to the first
power with no x
2
or x
3
terms appearing in the equations. Terms that are raised to a power greater than one can
also be solved using the balancing operations from the previous lessons. As an example, let's solve the
following equation.

2 2 2
c
=
a
+
b
for c
First, we have to take the square root of both sides.

2 2 2
c
=
a
+
b
The square root of C
2
is C, and the result is

c =
a
+
b
2 2

TRIANGLE TRIGONOMETRY
The word trigonometry means simply "triangle measurement". We know that the ancient Egyptian engineers
and architects of 4000 years ago used practical trigonometry in building the pyramids. By 140 B.C. the Greek
mathematician Hipparchus had made trigonometry a part of formal mathematics and taught it as astronomy.
We will look at only the simple practical trigonometry used in electrical applications.
A triangle is a polygon having three sides. In this course, the electrical applications will only need to refer to a
right triangle. A right triangle contains a 90 angle. The sum of the remaining two angles is 90. Two of the
sides are perpendicular to each other. The longest side of a right triangle is always the side opposite to the right
angle. This side is called the hypotenuse of the triangle.
Labeling of Sides and Angles
The following figure indicates the conventional method for designating sides and angles:

Side a is the altitude of the triangle.
Side b is the base of the triangle.
Side c is the hypotenuse of the triangle.
* Note that each angle has the same letter designation as the opposite side. When the angle is unknown
Greek letters are used to represent these angles. A common Greek letter used for angles is u (theta).
A
B
C
c
b
a

Pythagorean Theorem
The Pythagorean theorem is a rule or formula that allows us to calculate the length of one side of a right triangle
when we are given the lengths of the other two sides. Although the formula is named after the ancient Greek
mathematician Pythagoras, it was known to Babylonian engineers and surveyors more than a thousand years
before Pythagoras lived.
Pythagorean Theorem - For any right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum
of the squares of the other two sides.

2 2 2
c
=
a
+
b
Trigonometric Functions
We have observed the relationship of the side lengths of a right triangle based upon the Pythagorean Theorem.
There is also a relationship between the ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse for a fixed angle. The ratio
will always be constant regardless the unit of measure of the sides. The same applies to the ratio of the adjacent
side to the hypotenuse and the ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side.
These ratios are useful in solving right triangles and certain other scientific calculations. These ratios are called
trigonometric functions. Using the labeling techniques from the previous page, these functions are shown as
follows:

sine =
OppositeSide
Hypotenuse
Zu

cosine =
Adjacent Side
Hypotenuse
Zu

tangent =
OppositeSide
Adjacent Side
Zu

The sine of angle A is written:

sine A =
O
H
=
a
c
Z
The cosine of angle A is written:

cosine A =
A
H
=
b
c
Z
The tangent of angle A is written:

tangent A =
O
A
=
a
b
Z
A
B
C
c
b
a

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
In technical and scientific work, numbers are often encountered which are either very large or very small in magnitude.
Illustrations of such numbers are given in the following examples.
Television signals travel at about 30,000,000,000 cm/second
The mass of the earth is about 6,600,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons
A typical coating used on aluminum is about 0.0005 inches thick
The wave length of some x-rays is about 0.000000095 cm
Writing numbers such as these is inconvenient in ordinary notation, as shown above, particularly when the numbers of
zeros needed for the proper location of the decimal point are excessive. Therefore, a convenient notation, known as
scientific notation, is normally used to represent such numbers. A number written in scientific notation is expressed as
the product of a number between 1 and 10 and a power of ten. Basically, we can say that a number expressed in
scientific notation will only have 1 digit left of the decimal point. Let's convert the numbers from above:
Television signals travel at about 30,000,000,000.0 cm/second
or 3 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 cm/second
or 3.0 x 10
10
cm/second

Note: When moving the decimal point to the left, add one exponent for each place moved.
The wave length of some x-rays is about 0.000000095 cm
or 9.5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 cm
or 9.5 x 10
-8
cm

Note: When moving the decimal point to the right, subtract one from exponent for each place moved.
3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 .0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 5
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION USING SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Before adding or subtracting two numbers expressed in scientific notation, their powers of 10 must be
equal.
Example: Add: 1.63 x 10
4
+ 2.8 x 10
3

Convert to: 16.3 x 10
3
+ 2.8 x 10
3
= 19.1 x 10
3

or: 1.63 x 10
4
+ .28 x 10
4
= 1.91 x 10
4
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION USING SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
To multiply two numbers expressed in scientific notation, multiply their decimal numbers together first, then
add their exponents. If the decimal number is greater than 9 after the multiplication, move the decimal point and
compensate the exponent to express in scientific notation.
8.4 X 10
3
2.2 X 10
2
= 18.48 X 10
5
= 1.848 x 10
6
To divide two numbers expressed in scientific notation, divide separately their decimal numbers and subtract
their exponents.
8.4 X 10
3
2.0 X 10
2
= 4.2 X 10
1
POWERS OF TEN NOTATION USING ENGINEERING UNITS
Powers of ten notation follows the same rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division as scientific
notation. The only difference is that the resultant for powers of ten does not have to be expressed with only 1
digit to the left of the decimal point. When using engineering units for calculations, this is very important.
Below is a table for engineering units expressed in powers of ten:
Power Decimal Number Prefix Abbreviation
1 x 10
9
1,000,000,000 Giga (G)
1 x 10
6
1,000,000 Mega (M)
1 x 10
3
1,000 Kilo (K)
1 x 10
0
1 Unity
1 x 10
-3
.001 Milli (m)
1 x 10
-6
. 000,001 Micro ()
1 x 10
-9
. 000,000,001 Nano (n)
1 x 10
-12
.000,000,000,001 Pico (p)

Example: V = I R
1.2 Kvolts = 200 mAmps 6 KW

APPROXIMATE NUMBERS AND SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
When we perform calculations on numbers, we must consider the accuracy of these numbers, since this affects
the accuracy of the results obtained. Most of the numbers involved in technical work are approximate, having
been arrived at through some process of measurement. However, certain other numbers are exact, having been
arrived at through some definition (1 hour = 60 minutes) or counting process (cured tires counted). We can
determine whether or not a number is approximate or exact if we know how the number was determined.
Most numbers used in the calculations for this course will be approximate. In calculations using approximate
numbers, the position of the decimal point as well as the number of significant digits is important. What are
significant digits? Except for the left-most zeros, all digits are considered to be significant digits.
The last significant digit of an approximate number is known not to be completely accurate. It has usually been
determined by estimation of rounding off. However, we do know that it is at most in error by one-half of a unit
in its place value.
The principle of rounding off a number is to write the closest approximation, with the last
significant digit in a specified position, or with a specified number of significant digits.
Let's specify this process of rounding off as follows: If we want a certain number of significant digits, we
examine the digit in the next place to the right. If this digit is less than 5, we accept the digit in the last place. If
the next digit is 5 or greater, we increase the digit in the last place by 1, and this resulting digit becomes the
final significant digit of the approximation.
The answers on the assessment are taken to the fourth digit and round back to three places right of the decimal.
Please utilize this format during this class.
Basic D.C.
Circuits

SERIES CIRCUITS

The above circuit is classified as a series circuit. In this circuit there is only one
current path. This distinguishes the series circuit from the parallel circuit. The
battery is the voltage source and is usually referred to as the applied or total
voltage of the circuit.

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES
A. The amount of current flowing in one part of the circuit is equal
to the amount flowing in any other part of the circuit. In other
words, the same current flows through R
1
, R
2
, and R
3
.
I
T
= I
R1
= I
R2
= I
R3

As seen from Ohm's Law, a current flowing through a resistor
produces a potential difference across the terminals of the resistor.
(V = I x R) This potential difference is called a Voltage drop.

B. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

V
T
= V
R1
+ V
R2
+ V
R3
I
R1
R
1
R
2
R
3
-
+
V
T
I
R2
I
R3
I
T
I
T
V
R1
V
R3
V
R2
The sum of the voltage drops around
a circuit loop must be equal to the
applied voltage.

OHM'S LAW
R
T
- I
T
= (R
1
- I
T
) + (R
2
- I
T
) + (R
3
- I
T
) (Substitute Ohms Law into Kirchhoffs Law)

Divide both sides of the equation by I
T

I
I R
+
I
I R
+
I
I R
=
I
I R
T
T 3
T
T 2
T
T 1
T
T T
- - - -

I
T
cancels and the following equation is the result:

RULE FOR SERIES CIRCUITS: Total resistance for any series resistive circuit is
the sum of the individual resistances.

V
T
= V
R1
+ V
R2
+ V
R3
(Kirchhoff's Voltage Law for Series Circuits)
I
T
= I
R1
= I
R2
= I
R3
(Current common in series circuits)
V
R1
= R
1
- I
T
V
R2
= R
2
- I
T
(Ohm's Law)
V
R3
= R
3
- I
T
V
T
= R
T
- I
T
R
T
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3


UNIT OF POWER

Power is the rate of doing work, and the unit of electrical power is the watt.

Time
Work
Power =

Power is expressed as VOLTS X AMPS or as an equation. P = V X I

Note that: I = V R and V = I X R (Ohm's Law).

By substituting Ohm's Law into the expression P = V x I we get:

Example:
A device is connected across a supply of 230V. There is a current flow of 5
AMPS. What is the power dissipated by the circuit?

P = V x I
P = 230V x 5A = 1150W or 1.15KW

Power for electric motors is sometimes rated in watts or kilowatts, but more usually
in Horsepower (hp).

1 hp = 746 watts

Energy and work are essentially the same and are expressed in identical units.
Power is different, however, because it is the time rate of doing work. The Kilowatt-
hour (KWh) is the practical commercial unit of electrical energy or work performed.
If a device, as in the above example, were connected to the supply for a period of
ten (10) hours, then 11.5 KWh would be used (1.15 KW x 10 Hrs.).

Work = Power x time
R
I
= P or
R
V
= P
2
2


Find the Power P
T
:

1. V
T
= 48v

I
T
= 2A

P
T
=

2. R
1
= 10O

I
T
= 8A

P
T
=

3. V
T
= 40v

R
1
= 100O

P
T
=


Given:
I
T
= 60 A

R
1
= 5 O

R
2
= 3 O

R
3
= 9 O

R
4
= 5 O

R
5
= 8 O

Find:
V
T
=

V
R1
=

V
R2
=

V
R3
=

V
R4
=

P
T
=
I
R1
R
1
R
3
R
5
-
+
V
T
I
R3
I
R5
I
T
I
T
V
R1
V
R5
V
R3
I
R2
R
2
R
4
I
R4
V
R2
V
R4

Given:
V
T
= 210 V

R
1
= 6 O

R
2
= 19 O

R
3
= 5 O

Find: I
T
=

R
1
R
2
R
3
-
+
V
T
I
T

R
1
R
2
R
3
-
+
V
T
I
T

Given:
V
T
= 250 V

I
T
= 25 A

R
1
= 5 O

R
2
= 2.5 O

Find: R
T
=

R
3
=


PARALLEL CIRCUITS

The above circuit is classified as a parallel circuit. In this circuit a total current (I
T
)
leaves the negative terminal of the battery. When the current reaches the junction
labeled (A), it splits into two branch currents (I
R1
) and (I
R2
).

When (I
R1
) and (I
R2
) reach the junction labeled B, they join back together as I
T
and
continue on to the positive side of the battery. Since no current can be lost, the sum
of I
R1
and I
R2
must be equal to I
T
.

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES

A. The voltage across one branch of a parallel circuit is equal to
the voltage across any other parallel branch of the circuit.

V
T
= V
R1
= V
R2

B. Kirchhoff's Current Law

I
T
= I
R1
+ I
R2
-
+
V
T
I
T
I
T
R
2
I
R2
V
R2
R
1
I
R1
V
R1
A
B

The sum of the currents entering a junction must
equal the sum of currents leaving the junction.

When two resistors are connected in parallel, the electrons can move more easily.
In a parallel circuit the electrons can move through one branch of the circuit without
having to go through the other branch. The total current flowing through a parallel
circuit splits up, some going one way and some going the other. The branch
currents will add up.

(Substitute Ohms Law into Kirchhoffs Current Law)
R
V
+
R
V
=
R
V
2
T
1
T
T
T

(Divide both sides of the equation by V
T
)

V
1
)
R
V
+
R
V
( = )
V
1
(
R
V
T 2
T
1
T
T T
T
- -
And then,
R V
V
+
R V
V
=
R V
V
2 T
T
1 T
T
T T
T

V
T
now cancels out and the following equation is the result:

R
+
R
=
R 2 1 T
1 1 1
Use the reciprocal to get
2 1
1 1
1
R R
= R
T
+

-
+
V
T
I
T
I
T
R
2
I
R2
V
R2
R
1
I
R1
V
R1
A
B
I
T
= I
R1
+ I
R2
(Kirchhoff's Current Law for Parallel Circuits)
V
T
= V
R1
= V
R2
(Voltage common in parallel circuits)
I
R1
= V
T
R
1
I
R2
= V
T
R
2
(Ohm's Law)
I
T
= V
T
R
T

Given:
V
T
= 120 V
R
1
= 15 O
R
2
= 10 O
Find: R
T
=
I
T
=
I
R1
=
I
R2
=

-
+
V
T
I
T
R
2
I
R2
R
1
I
R1


Given:
I
T
= 3 A
R
1
= 12 O
R
2
= 15 O
R
3
= 10 O
Find: R
T
=
V
T
=
I
R1
=
I
R2
=
I
R3
=
-
+
V
T
I
T
R
2
I
R2
R
1
I
R1
R
2
I
R2

SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
If resistors are arranged in both series and parallel in the same circuit, then solving
the parallel section first and then the entire circuit is the simplest solution. In the
circuit shown, R
2
and R
3
are in parallel and this combination is in series with R
1
. We
may call the resistance of the parallel section R
EQ
and find it by the reciprocal
method:

3 2
1 1
1
R R
R
EQ
+
=
We may then redraw the circuit as shown below, where the branch with resistance R
EQ

has replaced the parallel section R
2
and R
3.

Now the resistance of the entire circuit is simply: R
T
= R
1
+ R
EQ
.

Note: R
EQ
= Equivalent resistance for R
2
in parallel with R
3
and is shown as a broken line.
-
+
V
T
I
T
I
T
R
3
I
R3
V
R3
R
2
I
R2
V
R2
A
B
I
R1
R
1
V
R1
I
R1
R
1
R
EQ
-
+
V
T
I
T
I
T
V
R1

Given:
V
T
= 150 V
R
1
= 6 O
R
2
= 4 O
R
3
= 14 O
R
4
= 16 O
Find:
I
T
=
I
R1
=
I
R3
=
V
R4
=
P
R1
=
P
R2
=
R
1
R
3
I
R1
I
R3
R
2
R
4
V
T
-
+
I
T


Given:
V
T
= 30 V
R
1
= 10 O
R
2
= 15 O
R
3
= 20 O
Find:
R
T
=
I
T
=
V
R1
=
I
R3
=
-
+
V
T
I
T
R
3
I
R3
R
2
I
R2
I
R1
R
1
V
R1

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUIT

A type of circuit that is widely used for precision measurements of resistance is the
Wheatstone bridge. The circuit diagram, as shown above, is the standard drawing
configuration. This type circuit can be drawn and evaluated as a basic D.C. combination
circuit. Before we redraw and look at some applications of Wheatstone bridges, let's look
at the characteristics of this circuit.

A bridge circuit may be either balanced or unbalanced. A balanced bridge is one where
the voltage across terminals A and B will equal zero (V
A to B
= 0). There would be a
difference in potential across terminals A and B if the circuit were unbalanced. First, let's
evaluate a balanced circuit.
If V
A to B
= 0 then:

volts K mA R I V
volts K mA R I V
mA
K
v
R R
V
I I
volts K mA R I V
volts K mA R I V
mA
K
v
R R
V
I I
R R
R R
T
R R
R R
R R
T
R R
20 20 1
10 10 1
1
30
30
20 2 10
10 1 10
10
3
30
4 4 4
3 3 3
4 3
4 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 1
2 1
= O = =
= O = =
=
O
=
+
= =
= O = =
= O = =
=
O
=
+
= =
V
T
I
T
-
+
30 Volts
A
B
I
R1
1K O
I
R3
10K O
I
R2
2K O
I
R4
20K O
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
V

The calculations from the previous page determined that V
R2
= 20 volts and V
R4
= 20 volts.
Lets measure the voltage at terminal A and B using the negative side of the battery as a reference
(- lead of meter) and reading the voltage with the (+) positive lead of the meter. Since V
R2
= V
A
and
V
R4
= V
B
, we can state that V
A
= +20 volts and V
B
= +20 volts There is no potential difference
across terminals A and B and therefore V
A to B
= 0 volts. This bridge circuit is balanced and a
relationship between the resistances can be written as follows.

R
R
=
R
R
4
3
2
1

Note: For this relationship to be true the branch circuits must remain the same.
V
T
I
T
-
+
15 Volts
A B
R
3
I
R3
10K O R
1
I
R1
1K O
R
2
I
R2
5K O R
4
I
R4
40K O
V
B
V
A
Now, let's evaluate another circuit to see if it is balanced or unbalanced. For the circuit to
be balanced, V
AB
= 0v as we saw from the previous example. For the circuit to be
unbalanced, V
AB
= 0v. Let's use the resistance relationship from the previous example.
4
1
5
1
40K
10K
=
5K
1K
R
R
=
R
R
4
3
2
1
=
O
O
O
O
, ,
The bridge is unbalanced. Now let's find V
A to B
.
volts K mA R I V
volts K mA R I V
mA
K
v
R R
V
I I
volts K mA R I V
volts K mA R I V
mA
K
v
R R
V
I I
R R
R R
T
R R
R R
R R
T
R R
12 40 3 . 0
3 10 3 . 0
3 . 0
50
15
5 . 12 5 5 . 2
5 . 2 1 5 . 2
5 . 2
6
15
4 4 4
3 3 3
4 3
4 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 1
2 1
= O = =
= O = =
=
O
=
+
= =
= O = =
= O = =
=
O
=
+
= =
Using the negative side of the battery as reference again, measure the voltage:
V
A
12.5 volts, V
B
= 12 volts, V
A to B
= 0.5 volts
If a voltmeter were connected across terminal A and B, there would be a potential
difference of 0.5 volts and the bridge is unbalanced.

Given: Find:
V
T
= 150 V R
T
=
R
1
, R
2
, R
3
= 10O I
T
=
R
4
= 7O I
R9
=
R
5
= 13O V
R6
=
R
6
= 15O P
R12
=
R
7
= 3O V
A-B
=
R
8
= 12O
R
9
= 5O
R
10
= 8O
R
11
= 15O
R
12
= 3O
R
13
= 20O
R
14
= 10O
R
1
-
+
R
2
R
3
R
5
R
4
R
6
R
7
R
8
R
9
R
10
R
11
R
12
R
14
R
13
V
T
I
T
A
B
Inductance
in A.C.

INDUCTANCE
The study of inductance presents a very challenging but rewarding segment of electricity. It is challenging in
the sense that, at first, it will seem that new concepts are being introduced. The reader will realize as this unit
progresses that these "new concepts" are merely extensions and enlargements of fundamental principles that
have been acquired previously in the study of magnetism. The study of inductance is rewarding in the sense
that a thorough understanding of it will enable the reader to acquire a working knowledge of electrical circuits
more rapidly and with more surety of purpose than would otherwise be possible.

Inductance is the characteristic of an electrical circuit that makes itself evident by opposing the starting,
stopping, or changing of current flow. The above statement is of such importance to the study of inductance
that it bears repeating in a simplified form.

Inductance is the characteristic of an electrical conductor, which opposes a CHANGE in
current flow.

One does not have to look far to find a physical analogy of inductance. Anyone who has ever had to push a
heavy load (wheelbarrow, car, etc.) is aware that it takes more work to start the load moving than it does to
keep it moving. This is because the load possesses the property of inertia. Inertia is the characteristic of
mass that opposes a CHANGE in velocity. Therefore, inertia can hinder us in some ways and help us in
others. Inductance exhibits the same effect on current in an electric circuit as inertia does on velocity of a
mechanical object. The effects of inductance are sometimes desirable and sometimes undesirable.

Michael Faraday started to experiment with electricity around 1805 while working as an apprentice
bookbinder. It was in 1831 that Faraday performed experiments on magnetically coupled coils. A voltage
was induced in one of the coils due to a magnetic field created by current flow in the other coil. From this
experiment came the induction coil, the theory of which eventually made possible many of our modern
conveniences such as the automobile, doorbell, auto radio, etc. In performing this experiment Faraday also
invented the first transformer, but since alternating current had not yet been discovered the transformer had
few practical applications. Two months later, based on these experiments, Faraday constructed the first direct
current generator. At the same time Faraday was doing his work in England, Joseph Henry was working
independently along the same lines in New York. The discovery of the property of self-induction of a coil was
actually made by Henry a little in advance of Faraday and it is in honor of Joseph Henry that the unit of
inductance is called the HENRY.

Unit of Inductance

The unit for measuring inductance (L) is the HENRY (h). An inductor has an inductance of 1 henry if an emf
of 1 volt is induced in the inductor when the current through the inductor is changing at the rate of 1 ampere
per second. The relation between the induced voltage, inductance, and the rate of change of current with
respect to time is stated mathematically as:

induced V
= L
I
t
A
A

Where I
nduced
is the induced emf in volts, L is the inductance in henrys, and AI is the change in current in
amperes occurring in At seconds. (Delta, symbol A, means "a change in.......")

The henry is a large unit of inductance and is used with relatively large inductors. The unit employed with
small inductors is the millihenry, mh. For still smaller inductors the unit of inductance is the microhenry, h.

Self-Inductance

Even a perfectly straight length of conductor has some inductance. As previously explained, current in a
conductor always produces a magnetic field surrounding, or linking with, the conductor. When the current
changes, the magnetic field changes, and an emf is induced in the conductor. This emf is called a SELF-
INDUCED EMF because it is induced in the conductor carrying the current. The direction of the induced emf
has a definite relation to the direction in which the field that induces the emf varies. When the current in a
circuit is increasing, the flux linking with the circuit is increasing. This flux cuts across the conductor and
induces an emf in the conductor in such a direction as to oppose the increase in current and flux. This emf is
sometimes referred to as counter-electro-motive-force (Cemf) or back emf. Likewise, when the current is
decreasing, an emf is induced in the opposite direction and opposes the decrease in current. These effects
are summarized by Lenz's Law, which states that the induced emf in any circuit is always in a direction to
oppose the effect that produced it.


Shaping a conductor so that the electromagnetic field around each portion of the conductor cuts across some
other portion of the same conductor increases the inductance (as illustrated on the next page). A length of
conductor is looped so those two portions of the conductor lie adjacent and parallel to each other. This
conductor is in the form of a coil or inductor.

When an alternating voltage is applied to the loops of the conductor and a current starts to flow through the
conductor loops, a concentric magnetic field starts to expand around all portions of the looped conductor.
With increasing current, the field expands outward, cutting across a portion of the adjacent conductor. The
resultant induced emf in that conductor opposes the main current. The direction of this induced voltage and
current may be determined by applying the Left-Hand-Rule for Generators. To do this we will reference the
middle conductor and evaluate what effects the expanding magnetic field around the left conductor has on
relative motion, flux, and direction of the induced current in the middle conductor.

In applying this rule we will need to use the thumb, the index finger and the middle finger. The thumb of the
left hand points in the direction that a conductor is moved through a field (F - relative motion). With the
conductor stationary, the magnetic field is expanding or moving. This would be the same as if the conductor
were moving in the opposite direction). The index finger points in the direction of the magnetic field from
North to South (B). The middle finger will now indicate the direction of the induced or generated current (I).

CHARACTERISTICS OF COILS

Physical Characteristics

A coil's inductance depends on how it is wound, the core material on which it is wound, and the number of
turns of wire with which it is wound.

L =
N
A
l
r
2

1. Inductance (L) increases as the relative permeability
r
of the core material increases.
2. Inductance increases as the square of the number of turns N of wire around the core
increases.
3. Inductance increases as the area A enclosed by each turn increases. Since the area is a
function of the square of the diameter of the coil, inductance increases as the square of the
diameter.
4. Inductance decreases as the length l of the coil increases (assuming the number of turns
remains the constant).

M
a
i
n

C
u
r
r
e
n
t
-
+
M
a
i
n

C
u
r
r
e
n
t
c
e
m
f
F = Relative Motion
B = Flux
I = Current

Reactance of a Coil
When an AC voltage is applied across a coil:

1. The AC voltage will produce an alternating current.
2. When a current flows in a conductor, magnetic flux lines are produced around the conductor.
3. Large currents produce many lines of flux and small currents produce only a few lines of flux.
4. As the current changes, the number of lines of flux will change. The magnetic field will
expand and contract as the current increases and decreases.
5. As the magnetic field expands and contracts around one conductor, these lines of flux cut
across the conductors which form the turns of the coil.
6. When a conductor cuts lines of magnetic flux, a voltage and current is induced in the
conductor.
7. This induced voltage is in a direction so as to oppose the supply voltage and is called
counter-emf (Cemf) or back-emf.
8. The overall effect of this Cemf is to reduce the voltage across the inductive component of the
coil. The net effect of this Cemf is to oppose the change of current due to the alternating
voltage. This opposition to current flow causes the voltage to lead the current by 90.
9. In this sense, the Cemf is acting like a resistance in reducing the current.
10. Actually, it is extremely convenient to consider the current-reducing effect of this Cemf as a
number of ohms of effective resistance. However, since a Cemf is not actually a resistance
but merely acts as a resistance, we use the term inductive reactance to describe this
effect. The inductive reactance of a coil is the number of ohms of resistance that the coil
seems to offer as a result of a Cemf induced in it. Its symbol is X
L
to differentiate it from the
DC resistance r.

INDUCTIVE REACTANCE

Inductive reactance, X
L
is the opposition to AC current due to the inductance in the circuit. The unit of
inductive reactance is the ohm. The formula for inductive reactance is

) (h henrys in measured , inductance = L
Hz in measured frequency, = f
in measured reactance, inductive =
X
where
fL = 2
X
L
L
O
t

In a circuit containing only inductance, Ohm's Law can be used to find current and voltage by substituting X
L

for R. The circuit below would be considered a purely inductive circuit in theory only. This purely
inductive circuit is used only to help us understand more about the out of phase relationship. In the
circuit below the supply voltage leads the current by 90 due to the counter-emf caused by the pure inductor.
This 90 phase angle (u) is only theoretical since there is no actual pure inductor.

L
T
T
T X T X
L
X
X
X
V
I then
I I and V V Since
X
V
I
L L
L
L
=
= =
=

The equation above will only be true for a purely inductive circuit.

Vector Diagram
90
0
I
V
0
0
0
0
90
0
180
0
270
0
360
0
I (Current)
V (Voltage)
+
-
t
I
T
V
T
L V
XL

Inductive Reactance and Series Internal Resistance

Because any practical inductor must be wound with wire that has resistance, it is impossible to obtain a coil
without some internal DC resistance. The internal DC resistance associated with a coil, L, may be considered
as a separate resistor, r, in series with the inductive reactance, X
L
. This internal DC resistance would be the
actual resistance of the coil if you connected an ohmmeter across its terminals.

For clarity and consistency, we will show the inductor (L) with an internal resistance (r) and an
inductive reactance (X
L
) inside a dotted line. This will show that the inductor is one device with two
internal components in series as shown below.

Since the circuit below is a series circuit, the total current (I
T
) is equal to the current through the internal
resistance (I
r
) and is equal to the current through the inductive reactance (I
XL
). With this series internal
resistance added, the rms current (I
T
) is limited by both the inductive reactance (X
L
) and the internal
resistance (r). The current, I
T
is the reference since it is common through X
L
and r for a series circuit.

The voltage drop across r is V
r
= I
r
r. The current I
r
through r and its voltage drop happen at the same time
and are in phase so the phase angle (u) is 0.

The voltage drop across X
L
is V
XL
= I
XL
X
L
. The voltage across X
L
leads the current through X
L
by 90 and
they do not happen at the same time. This is the phase angle (u) between the current through the inductive
reactance and the self-induced voltage caused by the inductive reactance.

I
V
T
T
X
L
L
r
Vector Diagram
I
T
90
0
V
XL
V
r

Since Ohm's Law applies to V
r
and V
XL
, then V
T
should be the sum of the two. However, the voltage drops
dont happen at the same time and are not in phase with each other. Therefore they can not be added
directly. Their sums must be added vectorially. This can be done graphically by using a vector diagram and
projecting the vectors to an intersection point or coordinate. Then the resultant vector can be drawn from the
origin to this coordinate. The resultant vector V
T
is the vector sum of V
r
and V
XL
.

This voltage relationship or triangle can also be expressed from the geometry of a right triangle using the
Pythagorean Theorem which states, the hypotenuse is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of
the other two sides.

T r
2
XL
2
V
=
V
+
V

The phase angle (u) can also be calculated by trigonometric functions.

sin
cos
tan
Z
Z
Z
|
|
|
=
opposite
hypotenuse
=
V
V
=
adjacent
hypotenuse
=
V
V
=
opposite
adjacent
=
V
V
XL
T
r
T
XL
r

V
XL
V
RT
V
T
u
T
I
T
V
XL
V
RT
Voltage Vector Diagram
90
0

Example:
Given: V
T
= 120 Volts
I
T
= 595.367 mAmps
X
L
= 200 O
r = 25 O

Solve for: V
r
=
V
XL
=
uT =

Draw the voltage vector diagram.

I
V
T
T
X
L
L
r


IMPEDANCE
The total opposition to current flow in a purely resistive AC series circuit is the resistance (R). In a purely
inductive AC series circuit the total opposition to current flow is the inductive reactance (X
L
). In an AC series
circuit containing both resistance and inductive reactance, the total opposition to current flow is called
impedance (Z).

Just as with the voltage relationship, the current (I) is the reference since it is a series circuit and is common to
both components. The internal resistance will be drawn at 0 with reference to the series current. This is due
to the current through it and the voltage across it being in phase with each other. The inductive reactance,
however, is drawn at 90 with reference to the series current because the voltage across it is out of phase with
the current through it. The total impedance (Z
T
) for this circuit is the vector sum of the internal resistance (r)
and the inductive reactance (X
L
) of the coil. . The internal resistance (r) is the total resistance in the circuit
above. Later we will see how the addition of external resistance (R) affects the circuit.

This impedance relationship or triangle can also be expressed from the geometry of a right triangle using
the Pythagorean Theorem which states, the hypotenuse is equal to the square root of the sum of the
squares of the other two sides

X
+ r =
Z
2
L T
2

I
V
T
T
X
L
L
r
r
Z
T
u
T
I
T
r
Impedance Vector Diagram
90
0
X
L

The phase angle (u) can also be calculated by trigonometric functions. It also should be noted that this phase
angle (u) is the same as the phase angle (u) for the voltage relationship.
T
L
T
T
T
L
R
X
=
adjacent
opposite
=
Z
R
=
hypotenuse
adjacent
=
Z
X
=
hypotenuse
opposite
=
|
|
|
Z
Z
Z
tan
cos
sin

Example:
Given: V
T
= 110 Volts
L = 40 mh
r = 30 O
f = 60 Hz

Solve for: I
T
=
Z
T
=
uT =

Draw the impedance vector diagram.

Solve the circuit parameters now if f = 120 Hz.

I
V
T
T
X
L
L
r


RL - RESISTIVE INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS
In most AC circuit applications, there would be more resistance in the circuit than just the internal DC
resistance (r) of the coil. This external resistance is sometimes shown as only one resistor that includes the
internal resistance. For our applications, we will show these two resistances as two separate resistors. The
total resistance in the circuit is equal to the sum of all resistances in the circuit.

3 2 1
R + R + R + r = R
T

For the circuit below, there is a series resistance (R) added to the circuit. The inductor (L) still has internal
resistance (r) and inductive reactance (X
L
). The impedance (Z
L
not Z
Total
) and phase angle (u
L
not u
Total
) of
the inductor or coil would be the same as discussed before and is illustrated with the dotted vector and angle.
The external resistance (R) is added to the x-axis along with the internal resistance (r). These two
resistances would equal R
T
and could be represented as one vector. Once the external resistance has been
added to the x-axis, the phase angle (u
Total
) and the impedance vector for the total impedance in the circuit
(Z
Total
) will change. The inductive reactance (X
L
) has not changed in the circuit.
Vector Diagram
I
T
X
L
r
L
R
V
T

X
L
X
L
X
L
r R
Z T
Z
L
u
L
u
T
I
T
r R
90
0


Example:
Given: V
T
= 110 Volts
L = 100 mh
r = 10 O
R = 30 O
f = 60 Hz

Solve for: I
T
=
Z
L
=
Z
T
=
uT =

Draw the voltage and impedance vector diagrams.

I
T
X
L
r
L
R
V
T

POWER IN RL CIRCUITS

Real Power
In an AC circuit with inductive reactance, the applied voltage leads the line current. The real power, P, is
equal to the voltage multiplied by only that portion of the line current that is in phase with the voltage. The
current and voltage are only in phase for the resistive components. The inductive or reactive components are
always out of phase. Real Power is measured in Watts and is equal to:

u I V =
P
T T Real
cos - -

The cos u is equal to the power factor of the circuit and is sometimes represented by PF.

PF = cos u

The real power can also be expressed using current and resistance. However, all resistances in the circuit
must be taken into account.

T T Real
R I =
P
-
2

Reactive Power
Reactive power in an AC circuit is the product of voltage and the out-of-phase current. It represents the
stored energy due to the expansion of the magnetic field. The reactive power, Q, is measured in volt-
amperes reactive (VARS) and is equal to:

u I V = Q
T T Reactive
sin - -
Apparent Power
Apparent power in an AC circuit is the product of the rms voltage and rms current. It is the vector sum of real
and reactive power. The apparent power, S, is measured in volt amperes (VA) and is equal to:

T T Apparent
I V =
S
-


In all power formulas, the V and I are rms values. The power vector diagram can illustrate the relationships of
real, reactive, and apparent power.

Q Q
P
S
u
I
T
P
90
0

Example:
Given: V
L
= 230 Volts
L = 600 mh
r = 30 O
R = 60 O
f = 60 Hz

Solve for: P =
Q =
S =

Draw the power vector diagram.

I
T
X
L
r
L
R
V
T


Summary of Voltage, Impedance, and Power in AC

In the three vector relationships discussed in this section, the circuit current was always the common factor.
The triangles formed by these relationships are similar. The phase angles (u) of the three triangles are equal
even though the magnitudes of the sides are different.

V
XL
V
RT
V
T
u
T
I
T
V
XL
V
RT
Voltage Vector Diagram
90
0
X
L
X
L
X
L
r R
ZT
Z
L
u
L
u
T
I
T
r R
Impedance Vector Diagram
90
0
Q Q
P
S
u
I
T
P
Power Vector Diagram
90
0

DEFINITIONS

INDUCTOR (L) - A device that opposes the change in current

INDUCTANCE (L) - The characteristic of an electrical conductor which opposes
a CHANGE in current flow
The measure of a coils ability to oppose a change in
current, measured in henrys

INDUCTIVE REACTANCE (X
L
) - The opposition to the flow of alternating current caused by the
inductance of a circuit, measured in ohms.

IMPEDANCE (Z) - The total opposition to current flow in an AC circuit. It is
the vector sum of resistance and reactance, measured in
ohms.

HENRY (h) - The unit of measure for inductance

REAL POWER (P) - Equal to the voltage multiplied by only that portion of the
line current which is in phase with the voltage, measured in
watts.

REACTIVE POWER (Q) - The product of voltage and the out-of-phase current. It represents
the stored energy due to the expansion of the magnetic
field, measured in VARS.

APPARENT POWER (S) - The product of the rms voltage and rms current. It is the
vector sum of real and reactive power, measured in VA.

POWER FACTOR (PF) - The ratio of total watts to the total rms volt-amperes. PF = cos u
Capacitance
in A.C.

CAPACITANCE

Electrically, capacitance is the ability to store an electric charge. In the DC section, we
learned that capacitance is equal to the amount of charge that can be stored in a capacitor
divided by the voltage applied across the plates.

V
Q
C =
Where C = capacitance in Farads
Q = amount of charge in Coulombs
V = voltage in Volts

A capacitor that is initially uncharged tends to draw a large current when a DC voltage is
first applied. During the charging period, the capacitor voltage rises. After the capacitor
has received sufficient charge the capacitor voltage equals the applied voltage and the
current flow ceases. After the capacitor has charged, it looks like an open circuit in a DC
circuit. This is not the case in AC. If an AC voltage is applied to a pure capacitor, the
current is at maximum when the voltage begins to rise from zero, and the current is zero
when the voltage across the capacitor is at maximum. The current leads the applied
voltage by 90, as indicated with the waveform below.

V
T
I
T
C
I V
0
o
90
o
180
o
270
o
360
o

The voltage and current relationships are shown below in vector diagram form. Vector
diagram A shows the current leading the voltage by 90 in the 1st quadrant with the voltage
vector at 0. Vector diagram B shows the current leading the voltage by 90 in the 4th
quadrant with the current at 0. Since we will be dealing with series circuits only, vector
diagram B will be most useful. Note that the voltage vector is downward, exactly opposite
from an inductive circuit, because of the opposite phase angle.

Factors That Control Charging Current

Because a capacitor of large capacitance can store more energy than one of small
capacitance, a larger current must flow to charge a large capacitor than to charge a small
one, assuming the same time interval in both cases. Also, because the current flow
depends on the rate of charge and discharge, the higher the frequency, the greater is the
current flow per unit time.

The charging current in purely capacitive circuits varies directly with the capacitance,
voltage, and frequency.

fCV I t 2 =

Where I is effective current in amperes, f is frequency in hertz, C is the capacitance in
farads, and V is the effective voltage in volts.

90
o
0
o
V
I
-90
o
0
o
V
I

CAPACITIVE REACTANCE

The ratio of the effective voltage across the capacitor to the effective current is called the
Capacitive Reactance, X
C
.

RMS
RMS
C
I
V
X =

Capacitive Reactance, X
C
represents the opposition to current flow in a purely capacitive
circuit, measured in ohms. Using the formula on the previous page, let's substitute X
C
.

fCV I t 2 =

fC
V
I
t 2 =

fC I
V
t 2
1
=

fC
X
C
t 2
1
=

When f is in hertz, and C is in farads, then X
C
is in ohms.


Example: What is the capacitive reactance of a capacitor operating at a frequency of
60 Hz and having a capacitance of 133 F.

fC
X
C
t 2
1
=

F Hz
X
C
6
10 133 60 2
1
- - -
=
t

O = 944 . 19
C
X

Voltage and current in a circuit containing only capacitive reactance can be found using
Ohms Law. However, in the case of a capacitive circuit, R is replaced by X
C
.

C X X
X I V
C C
=

C
X
X
X
V
I
C
C
=

C
C
X
X
C
I
V
X =

Where: I
XC
= the current through the capacitor, Amps
V
XC
= the voltage across the capacitor, Volts
X
C
= capacitive reactance, Ohms


RC RESISTIVE CAPACITIVE CIRCUITS
IN SERIES

As with inductive circuits, the combination of resistance and capacitive reactance is called
impedance. In a series circuit containing R and X
C
, the same current I
T
flows in X
C
and R.
The voltage drop across R is V
R
= I
T
R
T
, and the voltage drop across X
C
is V
XC
= I
T
X
C
. The
current through X
C
leads the voltage across X
C
by 90
o
. The current through R
T
is in phase
with the voltage across R
T
since resistance does not produce a phase shift. To find the
total voltage V
T
, we add the vectors V
R
and V
XC
since they form a right triangle.
V
T
I
T
C
R
V
R
V
XC
V
T
u

This voltage relationship or triangle can be expressed from the geometry of a right triangle
using the Pythagorean Theorem which states, the hypotenuse is equal to the square root
of the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
2 2
C
X R T
V V V + =
The phase angle () can also be calculated by trigonometric functions.

T
X
V
V
hypotenuse
opposite
C
= = Zu sin

T
R
V
V
hypotenuse
adjacent
= = Zu cos

R
X
V
V
adjacent
opposite
C
= = Zu tan

EXAMPLE:
Given: I
T
= 1 Amp
X
C
= 120O
R = 50O

Solve for: V
R
=
V
XC
=
V
T
=
=

Draw the voltage vector diagram

V
T
I
T
C
R

IMPEDANCE IN SERIES RC CIRCUITS

The total opposition to current flow in a purely resistive AC series circuit is the resistance
(R). In a purely capacitive AC series circuit the total opposition to current flow is the
capacitive reactance (X
C
). In an AC series circuit containing both resistance and capacitive
reactance, the total opposition to current flow is called impedance (Z).

Just as with the voltage relationship, the current (I) is the reference since it is a series
circuit and is common to both components. The resistance will be drawn at 0
o
with
reference to the series current. This is due to the current through it and the voltage across
it being in phase with each other. The capacitive reactance, however, is drawn at 90
o

with reference to the series current because the current through it is out of phase with the
voltage across it.

This impedance relationship or triangle can also be expressed from the geometry of a
right triangle using the Pythagorean Theorem which states, the hypotenuse is equal to the
square root of the sum of the squares of the other two sides. R
T
is the total combination of
the resistance (R) in the circuit.

2 2
C T T
X R Z + =

The phase angle () can also be calculated by trigonometric functions. It also should be
noted that this phase angle ( is the same as the phase angle () for the voltage
relationship.

T
C
Z
X
hypotenuse
opposite
= = Zu sin

T
T
Z
R
hypotenuse
adjacent
= = Zu cos

T
C
R
X
adjacent
opposite
= = Zu tan
-90
o
R
X
C
Z
u
I
T

EXAMPLE:
Given: V
T
= 120 Volts
C

= 50 F
R = 100 O
f = 60 Hz

Solve for: I
T
=
Z
T
=
X
C
=
=

Draw the voltage and impedance vector diagram

V
T
I
T
C
R

POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

Real Power
In an AC circuit with capacitive reactance, the line current leads the applied voltage.
The real power, P, is equal to the voltage multiplied by only that portion of the line
current that is in phase with the voltage. The current and voltage are only in phase for
the resistive components. The capacitive or reactive components are always out of
phase. Real Power is measured in Watts and is equal to:

u cos - - =
T T REAL
I V P

The cos H is equal to the power factor of the circuit and is sometimes represented by
PF.

PF = cos
The real power can also be expressed using current and resistance. However, all
resistances (R
T
) in the circuit must be taken into account.

T T REAL
R I P - =
2

Reactive Power
Reactive power in an AC circuit is the product of voltage and the out-of-
phase current. It represents the stored energy due to the charging and
discharging of the capacitor. The Reactive Power, Q, is measured in volt-
amperes reactive (VARS) and is equal to:

u sin
Re
- - =
T T active
I V Q
Apparent Power
Apparent power in an AC circuit is the product of the rms voltage and rms
current. It is the vector sum of real and reactive power. The apparent
power, S, is measured in volt amperes (VA) and is equal to:

T T Apparent
I V S - =

In all power formulas, the V and I are rms values. The relationships of real, reactive,
and apparent power can be illustrated by the power vector diagram.

90
o
P
Q
S
u
I
T

EXAMPLE:
Given: V
T
= 120 Volts
X
C
= 40
R = 30
f = 60 Hz

Solve for: P =
Q =
S =

Draw the Power vector diagram

V
T
I
T
C
R

Summary of Voltage, Impedance, and Power
in AC

In the three vector relationships discussed in this section, the circuit current
was always the common factor. The triangles formed by these relationships
are similar. The phase angles () of the three triangles are equal even though
the magnitudes of the sides are different.

-90
o
V
R
V
XC
V
T
I
T
u
-90
o
R
X
C
Z
u
I
T
-90
o
P
Q
S
u
I
T

DEFINITIONS

CAPACITOR (C) - A device which stores an electric charge.

CAPACITANCE (C) - The ability of a device or circuit to store
an electric charge.

CAPACITIVE REACTANCE (X
C
) - The opposition to the flow of alternating
current caused by the capacitance of a
circuit, measured in ohms.

IMPEDANCE (Z) - The total opposition to current flow in an
AC circuit. It is the vector sum of
resistance and reactance, measured in
ohms.

FARAD (F) - The unit of measure for capacitance.

REAL POWER (P) - Equal to the voltage multiplied by only
that portion of the line current which is in
phase with the voltage, measured in
watts.

REACTIVE POWER (Q) - The product of voltage and the out-of-
phase current. It represents the stored
energy due to the charging and
discharging of the capacitor, measured in
VARS.

APPARENT POWER (S) - The product of the rms voltage and rms
current. It is the vector sum of real and
reactive power, measured in VA.

POWER FACTOR (PF) - The ratio of total watts to the total rms
volt-amperes. PF = cos u

Single Phase
Transformers

IDEAL TRANSFORMER CHARACTERISTICS
The basic transformer consists of two coils electrically insulated from each other and wound upon a common core.
Magnetic coupling is used to transfer electric energy from one coil to another. The coil, which receives energy from the
AC source, is called the primary. The coil, which delivers energy to the AC load, is called the secondary. The core of
transformers used at low frequencies is generally made of magnetic material, usually sheet steel. Cores of transformers
used at higher frequencies are made of powdered iron and ceramics, or nonmagnetic materials. Some coils are simply
wound on nonmagnetic hollow forms such as cardboard or plastic so that the core material is actually air.

If a transformer is assumed to be operating under an ideal or perfect condition, the transfer of energy from one voltage to
another is accompanied by no losses.
VOLTAGE RELATIONSHIP
The voltage (V) on the coils of a transformer is directly proportional to the number (N) of turns on the coils. This voltage
relationship is expressed by the formula:
pri pri V
V
=
N
N sec sec
where V
pri
= voltage on primary coil, V
V
sec
= voltage on secondary coil, V
N
pri
= number of turns on primary coil
N
sec
= number of turns on secondary coil
RL

Step-up and Step-down transformers
A voltage ratio of 1:4 (read as 1 to 4) means that for each volt on the transformer primary, there is 4 volts on the
secondary. When the secondary voltage is greater than the primary voltage, the transformer is a step-up transformer. A
voltage ratio of 4:1 means that for every 4 volts on the primary, there is only 1 volt on the secondary. When the
secondary voltage is less than the primary voltage, the transformer is called a step-down transformer. The voltage
relationship discussed previously will apply to both step-up and step-down transformers.
CURRENT RELATIONSHIP
The current (I) in the coils of a transformer is inversely proportional to the voltage (V) on the coils. This current
relationship is expressed by the formula:
pri
pri
V
V
=
I
I sec
sec
Where V
pri
= voltage on primary coil, V
V
sec
= voltage on secondary coil, V
I
pri
= current in the primary coil, A
I
sec
= current in the secondary coil, A
EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a transformer is equal to the ratio of the power output of the secondary winding to power input of the
primary winding. An ideal transformer is 100% efficient because it delivers all the energy it receives. Because of core
and copper losses, the efficiency of even the best practical transformer is less than 100%. Efficiency expressed as an
equation is:
Eff =
output power
input power
=
P
Ppri
sec
Where Eff = efficiency
P
sec
= power output from the secondary coil, W
P
pri
= power input to the primary coil, W

TRANSFORMER RATINGS
Transformer capacity is rated in kilo-volt-amperes (KVA). This transformer rating is sometimes represented by the letter
S. Since power in an AC circuit depends on the power factor of the load and the current in the load, an output rating in
kilowatts must specify the power factor.
For an ideal transformer we would assume efficiency to be 100%. Since our calculations will deal with ideal
transformers, we can state the following relationships:
pri pri pri
pri
VA
=
V

I
VA
=
V

I
VA
=
VA
-
-
sec sec sec
sec
Where VA
pri
= power input to the primary coil, VA
VA
sec
= power output from the secondary coil, VA
V
pri
= primary voltage
I
pri
= primary current
V
sec
= secondary voltage
I
sec
= secondary current

EXERCISES
1. Given: N
pri
= 1500 turns
N
sec
= 1000 turns
V
pri
= 100 V
Find: V
sec
=
2. Given: N
pri
= 4000 turns
N
sec
= 400 turns
I
sec
= 6 A
Find: I
pri
=
What is the turns ratio?
3. Given: V
pri
= 300 V
V
sec
= 24 V
I
sec
= 1 A
N
pri
= 1000 turns
Find: N
sec
=
I
pri
=
4. Given: VA
pri
= 100
V
pri
= 460 V
V
sec
= 110 V
Find: I
pri
=
I
sec
=
N
sec
N
pri
V
pri
V
sec
I
pri
I
sec
Three Phase
Systems

CHARACTERISTICS OF THREE PHASE SYSTEMS

A three phase (3|) system is a combination of three single phase (1|) systems.
In a 3| balanced system, the power comes from an AC generator that
produces three separate but equal voltages, each of which is out of phase with
the other voltages by 120(illustrated below). When any of the three voltages
is at its maximum value (negative or positive), each of the other two voltages
will be at 50 percent of their maximum value in the opposite direction.
Although 1| circuits are widely used in electrical systems, most generation
and distribution of alternating current is 3|

DEFINITIONS
Single Phase System - System energized by a single alternating voltage.
Poly Phase System - System energized by two, three or more alternating voltages.
Three Phase System - System energized by three equal alternating voltages 120 apart.
Line Voltage (V
L
) - The voltage measured between terminals of an alternator, motor or
branch circuit feeder wires.
Phase - Each winding of an alternator, of a motor, or of a branch circuit
forming part of a load.
Phase Voltage (V
ph
) - The voltage measured across a phase of an alternator, motor or
load.
Phase A Phase B
Phase C
Time
+ Voltage
- Voltage
120
o
120
o
120
o

Advantages of 3| versus 1|
- 3| circuits require less weight of conductors than 1| circuits of the same power
rating.
- 3| circuits permit flexibility in the choice of voltages.
- 3| circuits can be used for 1| loads.
- 3| equipment is smaller in size, lighter in weight, and more efficient than 1|
machinery of the same rated capacity.

The three phases of a 3| system may be connected in two ways.
1. If the three common ends of each phase are connected together at a common
terminal marked N for neutral, and the other three ends are connected to the 3|
line, the system is Wye or Y-connected. This configuration can be related as
being connected in series. Sometimes the neutral connection is brought out to
form a 3|, 4-wire system.

2. If the three phases are connected to form a closed loop, the system is delta or A-
connected. This configuration can be related as being connected in parallel.

GENERATOR
Phase Winding
A
C
B

N
Neutral
GENERATOR
A
B
C
Phase Winding

THREE PHASE RELATIONSHIPS

Voltage Relationship in a Wye Configuration - Since the line voltage is connected across two windings and
the phase voltage is only connected across one winding, the line voltage (V
L
) is much larger than the phase
voltage (V
ph
). At first, you would think that the line voltage is twice as large as the phase voltage, this is not
the case. The actual relationship is as follows:

Current Relationship in a Wye Configuration - Since the line current does not
split as it enters the phase winding, the line current (I
L
) is equal to the phase
current (I
ph
). The relationship is as follows:

Power Relationship in a Wye Configuration - As discussed in AC concepts, there are
three different power relationships for AC circuits. Real, reactive and apparent power still
applies for three phase circuits. There are some minor differences as shown with the
relationships below:

Real L L
Reactive
L L
Apparent L L
P
= 3
V

I

Q = 3
V

I

S
= 3
V

I
- - -
- - -
- -
cos
sin
u
u

L ph
ph
L
V
= 3
V
or
V
=
V
3
-
I
=
I ph L
N
GENERATOR
V
ph
V
L
V
L
I
ph
I
L
I
L
I
ph
I ph
V
L
I
L


Voltage Relationship in a Delta Configuration - Since the line voltage is
connected across one winding just as is the phase voltage, the line voltage (V
L
)
is equal to the phase voltage (V
ph
). The actual relationship is as follows:
L ph V
=
V

Current Relationship in a Delta Configuration - Since the line current is a
combination of current from two windings and the phase current only comes
from one winding, the line current (I
L
) is much larger than the phase current
(I
ph
). At first, you would think that the line current is twice as large as the
phase current, this is not the case. The actual relationship is as follows:
L ph
ph
L
I
= 3
I
or
I
=
I
3
-

Power Relationship in a Delta Configuration - As discussed in AC concepts,
there are three different power relationships for AC circuits. Real, reactive
and apparent power still applies for three phase circuits. There are some
minor differences as shown with the relationships below:
I V
3 =
S

I V
3 = Q

I V
3 =
P
L L Apparent
L L
Reactive
L L Real
- -
- - -
- - -
u
u
sin
cos

V
ph
V
L
I
ph
I
L
GENERATOR
V
L
I
ph
V
L
I
L
I
ph
I
L


THREE PHASE LOADS
The generation of 3| AC and the associated relationships has been discussed.
We now need to talk about the 3| loads and their associated relationships.
The voltage, current and power relationships that apply to the generation of
3| AC also applies to 3| loads. There are two different types of loads:
balanced and unbalanced. We will only be discussing the balanced loads.
Balanced 3| loads have identical impedances in each winding. The phase
voltage V
ph
and the phase current I
ph
are the same for each winding. Once
the phase voltage V
ph
and phase current I
ph
are established, the circuit can be
evaluated just as a single phase AC circuit.

N
LOAD
V
ph
V
L
V
L
I
ph
I
L
Z
ph
Z
p
h
Z
p
h

V
ph
V
L
I
ph
I
L
LOAD
V
L
I
ph
Z ph
Z
p
h
Z
p
h


Practice Exercise

Given: V
ph
= 120v (Generator)
F = 60Hz
R = 12O
L = 0.5h

Find: P
Real
=
I
L
=
P.F. =
VA =
I
L
LOAD
Z
p
h
Z
p
h
Z
ph
N
GENERATOR

Practice Exercise

Given: V
ph
= 208v (Generator)
f = 60Hz
R = 100O
L = 0.2h

Find: P
Real
=
I
L
=
P.F. =
VA =
N
LOAD
Z
ph
Z
p
h
Z
p
h
GENERATOR
AC Motors

INTRODUCTION
Since alternating voltage can be easily transformed from high voltages to low voltages or vice versa, it can be transmitted
over a much greater distance without too much loss in efficiency. Therefore, power generating systems today produce
alternating current usually. Thus, it follows that a great majority of the electrical motors utilized today are designed to
operate on alternating current. However, there are other advantages in the use of AC motors besides the wide availability
of AC power.
Advantages of AC Motors versus DC Motors
- A readily available power supply
- Cheaper
- Maintenance cost
- Less weight
DC motors are best suited for applications that require variable-speed motors. However, AC motors along with variable
speed AC drives are becoming more widely used.
AC motors are manufactured in many different sizes, shapes, and ratings, for use on an even greater number of
applications. They are designed for use with either single-phase or polyphase power systems. This unit cannot possibly
discuss all aspects of the subject of AC motors. Consequently, it will deal with the most common type, which is the
three phase induction motor.
Three Phase AC Motors
There are two classes of Three Phase AC Motors: Synchronous and Asynchronous.
The main difference between these two classes of AC motors is their physical construction. While both have the same
stator construction, their rotors vary greatly.
The purpose of the stator in both class motors is to create a rotating magnetic field.
A synchronous motor is one whose rotor speed (N
r
) is equal to the speed of the stator rotating magnetic field (N
s
). In
other words the speed of the shaft is rotating at the same speed as the rotating magnetic field.
N
s
= N
r
An asynchronous motor is one whose rotor speed (N
r
) is not equal to the speed of the rotating magnetic field (N
s
). The
asynchronous motor is more commonly called an induction motor.
N
s
> N
r

Three Phase AC Induction Motors
There are two main types of induction motors:
Squirrel-Cage
Wound Rotor
Both motors operate on induction and the principles are very similar. Let's first discuss the squirrel-cage motor and its
construction since it is the simplest form. We will then look at the differences and applications of the wound rotor
induction motor.
SQUIRREL-CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR
Construction
Stator - The stationary winding of the motor and it provides the rotating magnetic field. The stator
windings are wound around the laminated pole pieces, which are mounted to the outside
housing of the motor. It is also connected to the AC supply.
Rotor - The rotating member of the motor and it provides the torque or power to do the mechanical
work. The rotor is made of circular laminations with copper or aluminum bars imbedded
around the outside edge. It is connected to the shaft of the motor.
End Bells - Support the shaft of the motor and house the bearings.

Fan
Rotor
End Bell End Bell
Stator
Frame
Terminal Box

Rotating Magnetic Field
The speed of the rotating magnetic field is called the synchronous speed of the motor. The following formula can be used
to determine the speed of the rotating magnetic field created by the stator:
s N
=
60 f
P
-
Where N
s
is the speed of the stator rotating magnetic field in RPMs
f is the frequency of the applied voltage in hertz (H
z
)
P is the number of pair of poles per phase in the stator winding
When motor manufacturers describe a 2-pole motor, they are talking about the numbers of poles that are created in the
rotor due to the rotating magnetic field.
For a 2-pole motor which has only 1 pair of poles per phase:
N
s
= 3600 rpm (assuming 60 Hz)
For a 4-pole motor which has 2 pair of poles per phase:
N
s
N
s
N
s
In AC theory we learned the left-hand rule for conductors, the left-hand rule for coils, and the left-hand rule for
generators. We now can use those rules to show how the rotating magnetic field is created in the stator. The following
diagrams can be used to illustrate the creation of the stator rotating magnetic field and explain why the rotor rotates:

Induction Motor Slip
An induction motor cannot run at synchronous speed since the rotor would be standing still with respect to the rotating
field and no current would be induced in the rotor. The rotor speed must be slightly less than synchronous speed in order
that current be induced in the rotor to permit rotor rotation. The difference between rotor speed and synchronous speed is
called slip:
slip =
N
-
N S r
Where N
S
= synchronous speed, in rpm
N
r
= rotor speed, in rpm
Slip can also be expressed as a percent of synchronous speed:
% slip =
N
-
N
N
x 100
S r
S
Where N
S
= synchronous speed, in rpm
N
r
= rotor speed, in rpm
To calculate the actual shaft speed of an induction motor this relationship will be used:
r N
=
60 f
P
- slip
-
Where N
r
= is the actual shaft speed in RPMs
f = is the frequency of the applied voltage in hertz (H
z
)
P = is the number of pair of poles per phase in the stator winding

Induction Motor Efficiency
The three-phase, squirrel-cage induction motor operates at a relatively constant speed from no-load to full-load. Because
of the extremely low impedance of the rotor, only a slight decrease is speed is necessary to cause a large increase in rotor
current to develop the necessary torque to turn the increased load. The percent slip at no-load is less than 1% while at
full-load it is usually between 3-5%. This small change in percent slip from no-load to full-load likewise indicates why a
squirrel-cage induction motor is considered a fairly constant speed motor. As the slip increases in a straight line
characteristic, the rotor current will likewise increase in practically a direct proportion and cause the torque to increase as
a straight line characteristic.
The losses in an induction motor consist of the stray power losses and the copper losses. The stray power losses include
mechanical friction losses, windage losses, and iron losses. These remain relatively constant at all load points and are
often called fixed losses. The second group of losses, called copper losses, is the I
2
R losses in the windings of the motor.
As the current increases in the motor windings with an increase in load, the I
2
R losses increase. At light loads the
percent efficiency (q) is low because the fixed losses become a smaller part of the input and the efficiency increases to its
maximum value. However, when the rated capacity of the motor is exceeded, the copper losses become excessive and
the efficiency decreases.
The efficiency of an AC induction motor can be determined by:
q =
P
P
x 100
out
in
Where q = Greek letter eta, percent efficiency
P
out
= the output power produced by the shaft in watts
P
in
= the input power required in watts
Example:
Given: P
in
= 8500 watts
P
out
= 10 hp
Find: q =

THE WOUND ROTOR INDUCTION MOTOR
The motor consists of three electrical parts:
1. A set of insulated windings mounted on the body of the motor. These windings are similar to those of
the squirrel-cage induction motor and are also called the stator windings.
2. A set of insulated windings recessed into the laminated plates of the rotor. These windings are always
connected in the wye configuration with the three free ends brought out and each one connected to
each of three brass rings mounted on the motor shaft. These rings are the slip rings.
3. A means of making electrical connection with the slip rings is needed so that current may flow through
the rotor windings when they are in rotation.
These connections are by means of brushes, which are held in position in contact with the slip rings
by the brush-holder.
STATOR WINDINGS
ROTOR WINDINGS
SLIP
RINGS
Bearing
STATOR FRAME
ROTOR SHAFT

Construction
As stated the wound rotor is constructed of windings instead of shorting bars, as in the squirrel-cage induction motor.
Like the squirrel-cage induction motor, it receives its power through induction. Its windings are connected in a star
configuration, and are accessible through the use of slip rings and brush assembly.
This access to the rotor circuit is the major advantage of the wound rotor induction motor. It allows changes in rotor
impedance, through external resistance changes. This allows the torque of the motor to be controlled. The wound rotor
induction motor can be used where the maximum torque is desired throughout the entire speed range. As the speed
changes, rotor circuit resistance is varied to maintain the resistance of the rotor equal to the inductive reactance of the
rotor (R = X
L
). When R and X
L
are equal, the phase angle of the impedance of the rotor is 45.
The following basic block diagram illustrates the connection of external resistors to the rotor:

The external resistance is usually of a value such that the resistance of the rotor circuit is equal to, or greater than, the
rotor reactance at standstill. The wound-rotor motor is usually started with all the resistance in the rotor circuit. Starting
torque with all the resistance is at maximum. As the motor comes up to speed, the rotor resistance is shorted out by a
contactor. With all external rotor resistance cut out, the motor has good speed regulation, but somewhat less than that of
the standard squirrel-cage motor. This can also be done in stages with numerous contactors as is illustrated on the
following page.
Three
Phase
Source
Stator
Rotor
Slip Rings
Brushes
Resistor Bank
Con
Con


Operating Characteristics
The insertion of resistance in the rotor circuit limits the starting surge of current and also permits high starting torque and
adjustable speed. If all the resistance of the resistor banks is connected into the rotor circuit when the motor is running,
the rotor current becomes less, and the motor slows down. As the rotor speed decreases, more voltage is induced in the
rotor windings due to the stator rotating magnetic field speed being constant. As a result, more current flows in the rotor
windings, which creates the necessary torque at the reduced speed.
Speed Regulation
To increase the speed, for full speed operation, the rotor winding resistance is shorted out through the contactor.
Although the insertion of resistance in the rotor circuit improves the starting torque at low speeds, it has the opposite
effect at normal speeds. Thus the speed regulation of the motor is poorer with resistance in the rotor circuit. The
resistance is shorted out as the motor comes up to speed in order to maintain running torque and better speed regulation.
Although inserting the external resistance into the rotor circuit will vary the speed of the motor by changing the torque,
this method is only seen in older installations.
Applications
Because the wound rotor induction motor is similar to the squirrel-cage induction motor, it is used in similar applications.
However, the wound rotor induction motor is seen more often in applications where some speed or torque control is
needed. As discussed earlier, we can manipulate the torque of the wound rotor induction motor by changing the value of
the externally connected resistances. Because torque has a direct affect on speed, we will also be varying the speed of the
motor.
Wound rotor motors can be used as variable-speed motors. Their initial cost is much greater, so they are usually used
only where frequent large starting currents exist and for loads that require slow acceleration with controlled torque.
Wound rotor motors are most frequently used in applications where high values of starting torque and low starting
currents are required; also, where the inertia of the driven machine is extremely high.

MOTOR NAMEPLATES

MOTEURS PATAY LYON
Type BCVL38B2 No. 592320
ch 1.7 tr/mn 1000
kw 1.25 Hz 50 Sce SI
FREIN-Type FM138-2 Couple 1 m kg
V 380
V 220
A 2.4 A 4.1
TYPICAL EUROPEAN
AMP 3.7/1.85
EFFICIENCY
40 DEG. C MAX. AMB
FRAME 143T
STOCK NO. K-137
MODEL 5K143AL234E NO CRF
VOLTS 230/460 PHASE 3 HERTZ 60
TIME RATING CONT RPM 1745
INS
A
NEMA
DESIGN
B
TYPE K CODE M
GENERAL ELECTRIC
INDUCTION MOTOR
HP 1 SERVICE FACTOR 115
CLASS
TYPICAL AMERICAN

DUAL VOLTAGE MOTOR CONNECTIONS
It is common for electric motor manufacturers to build motors for connection to many different voltage sources.
Manufacturing motors for dual voltages, such as 480/240 volt, enables the same motor to be used in applications where
the line voltages are different. These motors have the same characteristics on either voltage. The speed and horsepower
remain the same if the motor is operated on either the higher or lower voltage.
Dual-voltage connections are either wye-connected or delta-connected. Each phase is divided into two sections with the
same number of pole-phase groups in each section and nine external connections are brought out from these sections
when the motor is wound. Each external lead or connection is stamped at the terminal block with a number from one to
nine.
T9
T1
T4
T3
T6
T2
T5
T7
T8
WYE
T8
T1
T2 T3
T4
T5
T6 T7
T9
DELTA

Wye-Connected Motors
Below illustrates the connections and terminal markings for a wye-connected, dual-voltage induction motor. In the
series-wye connection illustrated on the left, the ascending numbers go in succession in a clockwise direction to the three
points of the wye. Then starting at the end of the T1 winding, go around clockwise again, completing the three outside
groups. The third start is on the inside wye just below T4, and go around clockwise again. This makes the nine external
terminals of the six windings. The other three terminals of the internal wye are connected inside the motor for a nine lead
motor.
Note on the diagram on the left that this connection has two windings for each phase connected in series. This is known
as a series-wye connection and is always the higher voltage connection in a dual-voltage, wye-connected motor.
The drawing on the right illustrates how the same nine external leads are connected for the lower voltage operation. The
two windings of each phase are now connected in parallel and have the same voltage drop across each winding. This is
known as a parallel-wye connection, and is always the lower voltage connection for any dual-voltage, wye-connected
motor. In this connection there are two wye center points. The original internal wye and an external wye formed by
connecting leads T4, T5, and T6 together as illustrated.
460 Volt
Wye Connection
T9
T1
T4
T3
T6
T2
T5
T7
T8
(A)
Ph A
Ph B
Ph C
T9
T1
T4
T3
T6
T5
T7
T8
(B)
230 Volt
Wye Connection
Ph A
Ph C
Ph B
T2

Use the diagram below to practice the connections for a high voltage wye-connected, 9-lead American motor.

Use the diagram below to practice the connections for a low voltage wye-connected, 9-lead American motor.

Delta-Connected Motors
The diagrams below illustrate the connections and terminal markings for a delta-connected, dual-voltage induction motor.
The diagram on the left shows the method of numbering and connecting the nine external leads for high voltage
operation. The method of numbering for the delta is much the same as the wye. Starting at the top corner of the delta,
number the three corners T1, T2, T3. Then start at the end of the T1 winding and go clockwise to number for T4, T2
toT5, and T3 to T6. For the next terminal, start at the T4 winding and go clockwise to the next terminal for T7, then go to
clockwise of T5 and label T8, and finally label T9.
Note the diagram on the left, that the two sections of each phase are connected in series for the high voltage connection.

The drawing on the right illustrates the nine external lead connections for lower voltage operation. The two sections of
each phase are connected in parallel. This is a parallel-delta connection and always the lower voltage connection in a
dual-voltage, delta-connected motor.
T8
T1
T2
T4
T5
T6 T7
T9
T8
T1
T2 T3
T4
T5
T6 T7
T9
Ph A
Ph B Ph C
Ph A
Ph B Ph C
T3

Use the diagram below to practice the connections for a high voltage delta-connected, 9-lead American motor.

Use the diagram below to practice the connections for a low voltage delta-connected, 9-lead American motor.

EUROPEAN MOTORS
These motors have six leads, three coils, and have the capability of being connected either wye or delta. The wye
connection is used for high voltage, and the delta connection is used for low voltage. Another point to consider is that
these motors were designed for 380V or 220V. Normally in the plant, 480 volts will be used; and as you might expect,
the motor does not last as long. When they are burned out, they are rewound for 480 volts (wye connected) and will have
only three terminal wires. They then are no longer dual voltage motors. One additional factor is the European motor is
designed to operate on 50 Hertz. In the U.S., we have 60 Hertz and therefore, the nameplate rpms will not be correct.

W (W1)
U (U1)
X (U2)
Y (V2)
Z (W2)
V (V1)
Ph B Ph C
Ph A
U V W
Z X Y

Y V
Ph B Ph C
Ph A
U
X
Z
W
U V W
Z X Y
Open Circuit
Faults In
The Control
Circuit

GENERAL TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURE

Symptom - The machine does not start when the start button is pressed.

At this point the problem could be mechanical or electrical. We will focus on just the
electrical faults for now. This fault could be located in either the power circuit or the
control circuit. The fault could also be many different types, such as, open circuit fault,
short circuit fault or a ground fault. This general troubleshooting procedure is
designed to start in the middle of the problem area and give us the best idea which
direction to go. The control transformer is a good place to start since it is in the middle
of the circuit and is part of the power and control circuits.

The first three steps of this procedure will be the same for all faults and the rest will be
completed throughout this chapter in more than one procedure. There is no one procedure
that can guide you through any given problem.

For simplicitys sake we will now take one area and one type of fault at a time. The first
fault we will investigate is the open circuit fault. We will now investigate open circuit faults
in the control circuit.


Open Circuit Faults in the Control Circuit

Open circuit faults - An open circuit fault is any fault that stops the operation of a machine
due to an open wire or component.

Lets develop our procedure for troubleshooting an open circuit in the control circuit.
Remember that the first three steps will be the same for all faults.

Step 1. You must analyze the schematic diagram for a general circuit overview.

Step 2. You must carefully open the control panel with power energized since voltage
checks will need to be made. (The operation of the voltmeter should have been
verified before continuing)

Step 3. You should check the voltage at the X1 and X2 terminals at the secondary of the
control transformer.

- If correct voltage is not present, then the problem is in the power circuit.
- If correct voltage is present and the contactor is energized, then the problem is in the
power circuit.
- If correct voltage is present, the contactor is not energized and the OL is not tripped,
then the problem is in the control circuit.


L1 L2 L3
1FU
2FU
3FU
Fusible
Disconnect
1DISC
2L3
1L1
1L2
1L3
1MF
1OL
1T1
1T2
1T3
1MTR
1MR
208 Volts/3Phase
60Hz
2L2
2L1
H1 H3 H2 H4
X1 X2
1L1 1L2
3L1 3L2
208 V/120V/100VA 1T
5FU 4FU
Step 3


Scenario A is the motor does not start when the start button is pressed. The correct
voltage is present at X1 and X2, the contactor is not energized and the
OL is not tripped, then the problem is in the control circuit. For Scenario A,
the fault is an open circuit fault and inside the panel. From the schematic
on the previous page you should have read 120volts at terminals X1 and
X2.
Since the correct voltage is present we must troubleshoot the system in a logical order until
we lose the correct voltage.

Step 4. You should check the voltage on X1 at the top of the control circuit fuse and X2
terminal at the secondary of the control transformer.
- If the correct voltage is present, continue to Step 5.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then X1 wire is open from the top of the fuse
to the terminal on the secondary of the transformer.

at the top of the neutral link.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then X2 wire is open from the top of the
neutral link to the terminal on the secondary of the transformer.

If the voltage changes from a good reading on one device to a different
reading on the next device in logical order, then the device or wire in
between those readings is open.
X1 X2
208 V/120V/100VA
Step 5

X1 X2
208 V/120V/100VA
Step 4


Step 6. You should check the voltage on wire #1 at the bottom of the control fuse and
X2 at the top of the neutral link.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then the control fuse is open. If the fuse is
open, then there is either a short circuit or ground fault. If the fuse is not
open, then there is an open circuit fault. This is our first indication that the
fault is an open circuit fault.

wire #2 on the bottom of the neutral link.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then the neutral link is open.

X1 X2
208 V/120V/100VA
Step 6
X1 X2
208 V/120V/100VA
Step 7

Use the schematic diagram below as an illustration for Scenario A, assuming that we dont
know the location of the fault:

Step 8. Since the voltage at point a (bottom of the fuse) is the correct voltage, we
will use wire #2 as our reference. We will make our measurements from
left to right and then top to bottom until we find the voltage not present.

Step 9. Check the voltage at point b (left side of 1OL) with wire #2 as a reference.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then wire #1 is open from the bottom
of the fuse to the left of the normally closed contacts for 1OL.

Step 10. Check the voltage at point c (right side of 1OL) with wire #2 as a
reference.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then 1OL normally closed contacts
are open.

Step 11. Check the voltage at point d (top of terminal #3) with wire #2 as a
reference.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then wire #3 is open between the
right side of 1OL and the top of #3 terminal.

The fault is between the point where the voltage is present and the point at
which it is not present anymore.
X
2
X
1
1 OL 1 PB 2 PB
1M
1 2 3 4 5
Fault
V
M
d c b
a

Scenario B is the motor does not start when the start button is pressed. The correct
voltage is present at X1 and X2, the contactor is not energized and the
OL is not tripped, then the problem is in the control circuit. For Scenario B,
the fault is an open circuit fault and inside the panel.
we lose the correct voltage. Follow Steps 1 through 7 just as we did in Scenario A.

Use the schematic diagram below as an illustration for Scenario B, assuming that we dont
know the location of the fault:

Step 8. Since the voltage at point a (bottom of the fuse) is the correct voltage, we
will use wire #2 as our reference. We will make our measurements from
left to right and then top to bottom until we find the voltage not present.

Step 9. Check the voltage at point b (left of 1OL) with wire #2 as a reference.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then wire #1 is open from the bottom
of the fuse to the left of the normally closed contacts for 1OL.
X
2
X
1
1 OL 1 PB 2 PB
1M
1 2 3
4
5
Fault
c
b
a
e d
V
M
h
g f
V

Step 10. Check the voltage at point c (right of 1OL) with wire #2 as a reference.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then 1OL normally closed contacts
are open.

Step 11. Check the voltage at point d (top of terminal #3) with wire #2 as a
reference.
right side of 1OL and the top of #3 terminal.

Step 12. Since switch 1PB is located outside the panel, we must go to the next
terminal inside the panel. Check the voltage at point e (top of terminal
#4) with wire #2 as a reference.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then wire #3 or wire #4 is open
somewhere between the bottom side of #3 terminal and the bottom side
of #4 terminal.

Step 13. The next logical measurement would be to check the voltage at terminal
#5 with wire #2 as a reference. Since switch 2PB and contacts 1M are
open, there is no path for current flow. The voltage would be 0volts
normally. So we must use the wire #4 now as our reference and check
the voltage at point f (A2 terminal on the contactor coil). We will make
our measurements from right to left and then top to bottom until we
find the voltage not present. Be very careful because the meter lead
will be electrical hot.
neutral link (NL) and the A2 terminal on the contactor coil.

Step 14. Check the voltage at point g (A1 terminal on the contactor coil) with wire
#4 as a reference.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then the contactor coil is open.

Step 15. Check the voltage at point h (top of terminal #5) with wire #4 as a
reference.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then wire #5 is open between the top
of the #5 terminal and the A1 terminal on the contactor coil.
The fault is between the point where the voltage is present and the point at
which it is not present anymore.

Scenario C is the motor does not start when the start button is pressed. The correct
voltage is present at X1 and X2, the contactor is not energized and the OL
is not tripped, then the problem is in the control circuit. For Scenario C, the
fault is an open circuit fault and outside the panel. The normally open
contacts for the start pushbutton (2PB) are bad and wont close.

we lose the correct voltage. Follow Steps 1 through 15 just as we did in Scenario B. The
correct voltage is present from the top of terminal #4 to the top of terminal #5.

Use the schematic diagram on the following page as an illustration for
Scenario C, assuming that we dont know the location of the fault:

X
2
X
1
1 OL
1 PB
2 PB
1M
1 2
3
4 5
V
Fault
h
V
e
d
V
c b
a
M
g f

Step 16. Check the voltage at the bottom of terminal #4 and the top of terminal #5.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then terminal #4 is open.

Step 17. Check the voltage at the bottom of terminal #4 and the bottom of terminal
#5.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then terminal #5 is open.

Step 18. Since you have made all the measurements possible inside the panel,
the fault must be outside the panel and you must go to the pushbutton
station for 2PB. Carefully remove the cover. Check the voltage across
the terminals where wire #4 and wire #5 are connected.
- If the correct voltage is present, then push 2PB pushbutton. The motor
does not start. The normally open contacts for pushbutton 2PB are bad
and will not close. This is the fault.
- If the correct voltage had not been present, then there is an open circuit
between the bottom of the #4 terminal and the bottom of terminal #5
outside the panel.

4
PB Station
3
3 5
Terminal Strip
4
2 PB
5
1 PB
v
v

Scenario D is the motor does not start when the start button is pressed. The correct
voltage is present at X1 and X2, the contactor is not energized and the OL
is not tripped, then the problem is in the control circuit. For Scenario D, the
fault is an open circuit fault and outside the panel. Wire #5 is open between
the bottom of the #5 terminal and terminal on 2PB.

we lose the correct voltage. Follow Steps 1 through 17 just as we did in Scenario C. The
correct voltage is present from the bottom of terminal #4 to the bottom of terminal #5.

Use the schematic diagram on the following page as an illustration for
Scenario D, assuming that we dont know the location of the fault:

X
2
X
1
1 OL
1 PB
2 PB
1M
1 2
3
4 5
V
Fault
h
V
e
d
V
c b
a
M
g f

Step 18. Since you have made all the measurements possible inside the panel,
the fault is must be outside the panel and you must go to the
pushbutton station for 2PB. Carefully remove the cover. Check the
voltage across the terminals where wire #4 and wire #5 are connected.
- If the correct voltage is present, then push 2PB pushbutton. The motor
does not start. The normally open contacts for pushbutton 2PB are bad
and will not close.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then there is an open circuit between
the bottom of the terminal #4 and the bottom of terminal #5 outside the
panel; so continue to Step 19.

4
PB Station
3
3 5
Terminal Strip
4
2 PB
5
1 PB
v
v

Step 19. You know that wire #4 or wire #5 is open between the bottom of the
terminal strip and the pushbutton. There are two different methods to
eliminate the possibilities. First method, check the voltage across the
terminal with wire #4 to the ground terminal as a reference.
- If the voltage is present, then wire #4 is good and wire #5 must be open
between the bottom of the terminal strip and the 2PB.
- If the voltage is not present, then wire #4 must be open between the
bottom of the terminal strip and 2PB.
Second method, check the voltage across the terminal with wire #5 to wire #3 as a reference.
- If the voltage is present, then wire #5 is good and wire #4 must be
open.
- If the voltage is not present, then wire #5 must be open.
4
PB Station
3
3 5
Terminal Strip
4
2 PB
5
1 PB
v

4
PB Station
3
3 5
Terminal Strip
4
2 PB
5
1 PB
v
Short Circuits
& Ground
Faults In
The Control
Circuit

Short Circuit and Ground Faults in the Control Circuit

Short Circuit in the Control Circuit - An abnormal connection (including an arc) of
relatively low impedance, whether made accidentally or intentionally, between two points of
different potential. These abnormal connections will always causes one or more
fuses to open.

Ground Fault in the Control Circuit - The ground fault is any unwanted current between
a line and earth ground or to the chassis of a machine. This unwanted current will
always cause one or more fuses to open.
X1 X2
6FU
1 OL
1M
1 PB
1 NL
1 2 3 4 5
2 PB
1 M
X1 X2
6FU
1 OL
1M
1 PB
1 NL
1 2 3 4 5
2 PB
1 M

For both, short circuit faults or ground faults, one or more fuses will blow. The symptoms
for these faults are sometimes similar (0O) but a troubleshooter must know the difference
in order to evaluate the fault. The short circuit and ground faults analysis has already been
evaluated for the power circuit. Lets now look at ways to troubleshoot the control circuit
and evaluate whether its a short circuit or ground fault.

Let's use the schematic below as an example. It is easy to see that if a short circuit occurs,
it must be inside the cabinet because wire #2 does not leave the cabinet. The ground fault,
however, can occur either inside or outside the cabinet because the pushbuttons (1PB and
2PB) are located outside the cabinet.
X1 X2
6FU
1 OL
1M
1 PB
1 NL
1 2 3 4 5
2 PB
1 M

Scenario A is the motor does not start when the start button is pressed. The correct
voltage is present at X1 and X2, the contactor is not energized and the problem is in
the control circuit. For Scenario A, the fault is a short circuit fault from wire #9 to wire #2
and inside the panel.
Remember the first three steps will always be the same. You should have read the voltage
at terminals X1 and X2 and the correct voltage is present (120 volts).

we lose the correct voltage. The following measurements are just like open circuit
troubleshooting in the control circuit until we find that a fuse is open.

terminal at the secondary of the control transformer.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then X1 wire is open from the top of the fuse
to the terminal on the secondary of the transformer.
at the top of the neutral link.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then X2 wire is open from the top of the
neutral link to the terminal on the secondary of the transformer.

X1 X2
208 V/120V/100VA
Step 5

X1 X2
208 V/120V/100VA
Step 4


X2 at the top of the neutral link.
- If the correct voltage is not present, then the control fuse is open. If the fuse is
open, then there is either a short circuit or ground fault. This is our first
indication that the fault is a short circuit or ground fault.

Since we have determined that a fuse has opened, voltage readings can not be used. We
must find out the cause. It could be a short circuit or a ground fault. We dont know
which yet but both give the same indication (0O).

We will use the ohmmeter and use logical troubleshooting from left to right, top to
bottom

We will be using wire #2 as a reference for the following measurements.

We will, first, find the 0 O reading and then determine if it is a short circuit or a ground
fault.

You should follow the appropriate lockout procedure.

X1 X2
208 V/120V/100VA
Step 6

Step 11. Measure the ohmic value from wire #1 to #2.
- If the meter reads 0 O, then wire #1 and everything connected to it are either
shorted or grounded.
- If the meter reads the expected ohmic value (open loop), then wire #1 is OK. Go
to Step 8.

to Step 9.
X1 X2
6FU
1 OL
1 PB
1 NL
1
3 2 4 5
2 PB
2
1 MF
1 MR
3 PB
6 7
8
1 LS
2 LS
9 10
1 MR
1MF
O
1 MF
1 MR

to Step 10.

- If the meter reads the expected ohmic value (100O), then wire #5 is OK. Go to
Step 11.

Step 12.

Step 13.

- If the meter reads the expected ohmic value (100O), then wire #8 is OK.

Wire #8 read 0 O and should have read 100O. We have located the problem area,
but there are still many different possibilities, wire #8, 9, 10 are either shorted or
grounded.

Step 18. Measure the ohmic value from wire #8 to #2 again. It should still be 0 O. Now
open the neutral link.
- If the meter still reads 0 O, then wire #8 and everything connected to it are
shorted.
- If the meter reads the expected ohmic value (100O), then wire #8 is grounded.
To verify, measure the ohmic value from wire #8 to earth ground. The reading
should be 0 O.

The 0 O reading to wire #2 proves to us that the fault is a short circuit to wire #2 and is not
a ground fault. This neutral link is provided for that specific reason. Since we know that
our fault is a short circuit to wire #2 and it doesn't leave the panel, we know that wire #8, 9
or 10 is touching wire #2 in the panel. We must now eliminate the possibilities.

Step 19. Push 1MF in to open the normally closed contacts with wire #9 and #10
connected. Measure the ohmic value from wire #10 to #2.
- If the meter still reads 0 O, then wire #10 is shorted.
- If the meter reads the expected ohmic value (100O), then wire #10 is eliminated.

Step 20. Remove wire #8 from the top of the terminal strip. Measure the ohmic value
from wire #8 to #2.
- If the meter still reads 0 O, then wire #8 is shorted inside the panel.
- If the meter reads the expected ohmic value (open loop), then wire #8 is
eliminated.

from wire #9 to #2.
- If the meter still reads 0 O, then wire #9 is shorted inside the panel.

We now know that wire #9 is shorted to wire #2 somewhere inside the panel. We
now have to find it through visual inspection. Once the fault is found, then repaired
and verified, reconnect all wires, replace the fuse, remove the locks, and turn on the
power. The machine should be ready to check out.


Scenario B is the motor does not start when the start button is pressed. The correct
voltage is present at X1 and X2, the contactor is not energized and the problem is in
the control circuit. For Scenario B, the fault is a ground fault from wire #9 to ground and
outside the panel.
Remember the first three steps will always be the same. You should have read the voltage
at terminals X1 and X2 and the correct voltage is present (120 volts).

we lose the correct voltage. The measurements made in Step 4 through Step 6 will be the
exact same as with Scenario B. They are just like open circuit troubleshooting in the
control circuit until we find that a fuse is open.

Once we have determined that a fuse has opened, voltage readings can not be used. We
must find out the cause. It could be a short circuit or a ground fault. We dont know
which yet but both give the same indication (0O).

We will use the ohmmeter and use logical troubleshooting from left to right, top to
bottom.

We will be using wire #2 as a reference for the following measurements.

We will, first, find the 0 O reading and then determine if it is a short circuit or a ground
fault.

You should follow the appropriate lockout procedure.

We will use the same method with Scenario B. The steps up through opening the
neutral link will be the same as Scenario A. Lets review those steps:

to Step 8.

to Step 9.
X1 X2
6FU
1 OL
1 PB
1 NL
1
3 2 4 5
2 PB
2
1 MF
1 MR
3 PB
6 7
8
1 LS
2 LS
9 10
1 MR
1MF
O
1 MF
1 MR

to Step 10.

Step 11.

Step 12.

Step 13.

- If the meter reads the expected ohmic value (100O), then wire #8 is OK.

Wire #8 read 0 O and should have read 100O. We have located the problem area,
but there are still many different possibilities, wire #8, 9, 10 are either shorted or
grounded.

Step 14. Measure the ohmic value from wire #8 to #2 again. It should still be 0 O. Now
open the neutral link.
- If the meter still reads 0 O, then wire #8 and everything connected to it are
shorted.
- If the meter reads the expected ohmic value (100O), then wire #8 is grounded.
To verify, measure the ohmic value from wire #8 to earth ground. The reading
should be 0 O.

The 0 O reading to earth ground proves to us that the fault is a ground fault and is
not a short circuit. This neutral link is provided for that specific reason. Since our
fault is a ground fault and could be inside or outside of the panel, we know that wire
#8, 9 or 10 is touching earth ground or something connected to earth ground. We
must now eliminate the possibilities and use earth ground as our reference with the
neutral link open.

Step 15. Push 1MF in to open the normally closed contacts with wire #9 and #10
connected. Measure the ohmic value from wire #10 to earth ground.
- If the meter still reads 0 O, then wire #10 is grounded.
- If the meter reads the expected ohmic value (open loop), then wire #10 is
eliminated.

from wire #8 to earth ground.
- If the meter still reads 0 O, then wire #8 is grounded inside the panel.
- If the meter reads the expected ohmic value (open loop), then wire #8 inside the
panel is eliminated.

Step 17. Remove wire #8 from the bottom of the terminal strip. Measure the ohmic value
- If the meter still reads 0 O, then wire #8 and #9 are grounded outside the panel.
- If the meter reads the expected ohmic value (open loop), then wire #8 outside
the panel is eliminated and the terminal is grounded.

- If the meter still reads 0 O, then wire #9 is grounded inside the panel.
- If the meter reads the expected ohmic value (open loop), then wire #9 inside the
panel is eliminated.

Step 19. Remove wire #9 from the bottom of the terminal strip. Measure the ohmic value
- If the meter still reads 0 O, then wire #8 and #9 are grounded outside the panel.
- If the meter reads the expected ohmic value (open loop), then wire #9 outside
the panel is eliminated and the terminal is grounded.

Step 20. Go to 2LS and check wire #8 and #9, removing them from the terminals of the
limit switch. You should visually find wire #9 grounded to the chassis of the
switch or to the ground wire for the switch. Once the fault is found, repaired and
verified, reconnect all wires, replace the fuse, remove the locks, and turn on the
power. The machine should be ready to start.


Control Circuit Troubleshooting Flow Diagram

Control Fuse
Voltage Measurements
1
Expected Voltage - Fuse is Good
Open Circuit Fault
Use the voltmeter with wire #2 as reference
Start with wire #1 and go L>R, T>B
until Expected Voltage disappears
Not Expected Voltage - Fuse is Bad
Not Expected Voltage
2
Go back to wire with the Expected Voltage
Starting with meter lead on wire #2,
Go R>L, T>B
until there is Not Expected Voltage
Expected Votage - Normally Open Circuit (2PB)
3
The Open Circuit fault has been found. Isolate the faulted
components that are supposed to be open. Then isolate the
faulted component or wire. Isolate the components and wires
inside the panel first and then outside the panel.
1
Short Circuit or Ground Fault
Follow Lockout/Tagout Procedure
Switch voltmeter to ohms
2
Use ohmmeter with reference to wire #2
Start with wire #1 and go L>R, T>B
until 0 O reading
Machine Safe
0 O
3
Open the neutral link
Using wire #2 as a reference
Did the measurement change from 0 O
to the Expected Ohmic value?
5
Short Circuit is the problem! Isolated the
faulted wires and components,
inside 1st and then outside
4
Ground Fault is the problem! Isolate the
faulted wires and components,
inside 1st and then outside
Yes No
0
Control
Devices

PUSH BUTTON CONTROL STATIONS

A push button station is a device that can provide control of a motor with the pressing of the appropriate push
button. With push button stations a motor can be controlled from any one of several locations while only using
one magnetic starter. The start, forward, reverse, fast, slow and stop operations of a motor may be controlled
by push buttons. Auxiliary push buttons are used to control the motor from remote points. The auxiliary
control may be a simple stop or start button, or the same controls as the main station. Industrial push buttons
are used in control circuits to actuate magnetic contactors or remote-operated controllers which handle power
circuits.

Push buttons are pilot devices and must be ruggedly constructed to withstand operator and mechanical
abuse. They are frequently exposed to oils, coolants, chemicals, dusts, and various foreign elements. Heavy
electrical loads are sometimes carried by the contacts of the push button because of the high inrush current
drawn by larger contactors. Push buttons are classified as standard-duty or heavy-duty, according to their
current handling capabilities. Heavy-duty oil tight, and multi-light-control oil-tight are classified according to
their ability to withstand these conditions. The terms standard-duty and heavy-duty describe only the contact
capacity of the push button in its making and breaking ability. These designations have no reference to the
service conditions or frequency of operation.

STANDARD DUTY PUSH BUTTONS
Most systems use standard duty push button stations to control A-C or D-C starters. General-purpose push
button stations are designed for operating flexibility and ease of wiring. Padlocking attachments are
sometimes added to the push button stations. These padlocking attachments are added to lock the "stop"
button in the depressed position.

SINGLE CONTACT RATINGS
Standard-duty units have contacts rated for pilot duty, typically as follows:

A-C

3.0 Amperes, 120 volts
1.5 Amperes, 240 volts
0.75 Ampere, 480 volts
0.6 Ampere, 600 volts

HEAVY DUTY PUSH BUTTONS

Heavy-duty push button stations are found in many industrial applications. They have approximately twice the
current rating of the standard-duty station. They come with any combination of push buttons, selector
switches, jogging buttons, and pilot lights. Push buttons are available with flush, extended, or mushroom
heads. They may have either momentary or maintained contacts. Heavy-duty push button units have
double-break contacts rated for pilot duty, typically as follows:

A-C

6 Amps, 120 Volts
3 Amps, 240 Volts
1.5 Amps, 480 Volts
1.2 Amps, 600 Volts

D-C

1.1 Amps, 120 Volts
0.55 Amps, 230 Volts
0.2 Amps, 550 Volts

PUSH BUTTON STATION DESCRIPTIONS

General-purpose stations have steel bases and steel wraparound covers that fit tightly to exclude dirt and
dust, as illustrated below.

Watertight and dust tight stations have a stainless steel enclosure with a gasket between the cover and
base.

Water tight, corrosion-resistant stations are intended for applications where they are subject to corrosive
fumes or liquids. The enclosure is made of nonmetallic material, and synthetic rubber boots protects the push
buttons. This is illustrated below.

Push button stations for hazardous locations are suitable for hazardous gas and hazardous dust locations. A
machined surface is provided between the cover and base.

Oil tight push button control stations are used wherever there is presence of oil, coolant, and other
noncorrosive industrial liquids. These control stations may be the surface mounted, flush mounted or pendant
types. These stations have an enclosure that is sealed with a neoprene gasket. One or more neoprene
washers tightly seal individual oil tight units.

All these control units may include momentary or maintained contact push buttons. The contacts are usually
the double-break type. These contact blocks can be assembled in numerous contact arrangements.

Single and double circuit constructed contact blocks are frequently used in any combination of "normally
open" or "normally closed" circuits. Double circuit blocks have an individually operated contact plunger for
each circuit made from high strength phenolic to resist cracking and warping. Several contact blocks can be
stacked behind the push button operator, as illustrated below.


Each unit usually consists of two parts, the operator and the contact block. The bodies of the operators are
die-castings, the operating buttons are molded plastic, and the locking rings are usually aluminum. One or
more synthetic rubber washers provide the oil tight seal between the panel and operator.

ACCESSORIES

Some types of push button stations may be supplied with a padlocking attachment that locks the stop button
in the depressed position. Some push button stations may have pilot lights on them that indicate their
particular function. Push button stations usually use mushroom heads as an E-stop button.

PUSH BUTTON OPERATORS

Different types of push button and cylinder lock operators are used. Some of these are flush button, extended
button, mushroom head, and jumbo mushroom head. The buttons are a solid color usually made of molded
plastic. The cylinder lock type push button can be locked in various positions and the key can be removed
from the lock. A keyhole "dust cover" prevents dirt and other foreign matter from entering. Key operators may
be used with identical locks, dissimilar locks, or with dissimilar locks having a master key system.

SELECTOR SWITCH OPERATORS

Selector Switches can be obtained in two, three, four, and etc. position types. Cams in the operator sleeve
actuate the contact blocks. These selector switches can provide maintained or spring return contact
operation. Many circuit combinations can be made since there is a number of different operating cams
available and a variety of contact blocks.

KEY OPERATED SELECTOR SWITCH

Key operated selector switches work just like normal selector switches plus a key locking feature to prevent
unauthorized change or accidental tripping from a selected position. These switches also provide maintained
or spring return momentary cam action on the contact plungers.

ILLUMINATED PUSH BUTTONS

These devices combine the functions of both a push button operator and an indicating light in a single unit and
require only half the space of two separate units. The light unit may be either a resistor type or an
encapsulated transformer. These units are usually designed to give illumination from all angles. The contact
blocks can still be used for circuit control as before. A rubber diaphragm in the operator, a rubber lens gasket,
and a rubber panel gasket can provide oil tight assembly.
Standard Lever Extended Lever

Key Operator

INDICATING LIGHTS

Indicating lights can tell you at a glance what is happening. They indicate if everything is ready for operation
or operating smoothly. They also can warn of possible trouble and malfunction. Indicating lights also alert the
attendant of the next operation for their machine. Therefore, it is important that indicating lights function
accurately.

Standard indicating lights can have either a transformer built in to change the voltage or the lamps are rated
for the exact voltage. Indicating lights are available for both AC and DC voltages. They are also available in
color with plastic or glass lenses.

The press-to-test type indicating lights can test to see if the lamp is burned out.


LIMIT SWITCHES

Limit switches are devices used for interlocking a mechanical motion or position with an electrical circuit. The
selection of a limit switch involves both electrical application requirements and mechanical placement.

Limit switches are normally in the control circuit and can start a machine in motion or stop its motion. They
can also restrict the travel of a machine between two points or possibly initiate a separate action at a pre-
determined point of machine travel.

Limit switches are also often used in safety devices for the protection of both personnel and equipment.

TYPES OF LIMIT SWITCHES

The function performed by limit switches is similar no matter how complex the design of the electrical circuit.
The main differences are the mechanical design and the means by which the switch is actuated.

ACTUATORS
An actuator is the external linkage that detects the mechanical movement of the machine. This
actuates an internal mechanism that results in contacts opening or closing.


EXAMPLES OF ACTUATORS
Overcurrent
Relay
Technology

CONSTRUCTION
COVER
BI-METAL
CASE
CONTACTS
RETURN SPRING
RESET BUTTON
TRIPPING SLIDE
ADJUSTING LEVER
CAM
UPPER DIFFERENTIAL OPERATOR
LOWER DIFFERENTIAL OPERATOR
DIFFERENTIAL LEVER
TELEMECANIQUE
LR1-D
MOVING CONTACT
SUPPORT
BI-METAL
THERMAL COMPENSATION


O/L SPECIFICATIONS

OPERATING RANGES

LR1-DO9 LR1-D12 LR1-D16 LR1-D25 LR1-D40 LR1-D63
0.1-0.16A
0.16-0.25A
0.25-0.4A
0.4-0.63A
0.63-1.0A
1-1.6A
1.6-2.5A
2.5-4A
4-6A
5.5-8A
7-10A
10-13A 13-18A 18-25A 23-32A
30-40A
38-50A
48-57A
57-66A

Maximum Voltage: 600V AC or DC

Frequency Range: up to 400 Hz

CONTACTS
1 Normally Open and 1 Normally Closed

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION
From - 4 to 140 F
-20 to 60 C

DIFFERENTIAL
Phase loss and phase unbalance detection

FUNCTION - The overcurrent relay is used to protect motors in case of:
- Prolonged Overcurrent (105 to 125% Full Load Current)
- Phase Unbalance
- Phase Loss

SYMBOL

ADJUSTMENT and RESETTING

ADJUSTMENT - Adjusting dial must be set to read the full load current of
the motor (FLC).

RESETTING - Resetting is done by pressing the blue reset button after the bi-
metal elements have been allowed to cool down.

2 4 6
T1 T2 T3
T
E
0
.
4
0 . 6 3
A
0
.
5
Teleme'canique
LR2 D13
M
A
U
T
O
RESET STOP
TEST
NO NC
95 96 97 98

MECHANICAL OPERATION

Thermal Compensation Bi-Metal
Tripping
Slide
Reset Button
Case
Bi-Metals
Differential Operator
Cam Moving Contact Support
Contacts
Return
Spring

DIFFERENTIAL OPERATION

COLD POSITION - The differential operators are hard over to the right.

WARM POSITION - NORMAL BALANCED CURRENT - The 3 bi-metals and the
operators move to the left the same distance d.

WARM POSITION - BALANCED OVERCURRENT - The 3 bi-metals and the
operators move over to the left the same distance which trips
the overcurrent relay. Tripping current is 125% of the actual
adjusting dial value.

WARM POSITION - UNBALANCED CURRENT - The unbalanced current causes
unequal deflection of the 3 bi-metal strips. The differential
lever amplifies this unequal deflection. The distance d is also
amplified and causes the mechanism to trip. The tripping
current for an unbalanced current is equal to 80% of the
current for 3 balanced phases.
d
d
d
d
Fuses &
Circuit
Breakers

INTRODUCTION TO FUSES
I. Purpose - A fuse is intended to safely isolate a fault preventing damage to equipment. Current
resulting from an overload or short circuit fault will damage or completely destroy system components
if not quickly interrupted. A fuse provides reliable circuit protection preventing or minimizing damage
to components such as conductors, transformers, motors, motor starters, etc. Without adequate
protection of electrical distribution systems, a fault can result in severe damage to equipment and
significant monetary loss due to machine or manufacturing plant downtime.
II. Definitions
A. Overcurrent - An overcurrent is excess current resulting from either a short circuit or an
overload.
B. Overload - An overload is a current that is in excess of normal current but confined to
normal conducting paths. An overload current is typically one to six times the normal
current. It is usually associated with the normal start up of motors or inrush current to a
transformer. Provided that the overload current is not continuous, any temperature rise of
components will be small and have no harmful effects. An overload current becomes
harmful only when it is sustained.
An example of a sustained overload is a defective or overloaded motor. If an overload is
sustained beyond several seconds, components will begin to overheat due to the excess
current that they are required to pass. This excess heat will damage or degrade the
components and could lead to further problems such as short circuits due to melting
insulation.
C. Short Circuit - Unlike an overload current, a short circuit current is not confined to normal
conducting paths. Also, an overload current is relatively small being only one to six times
that of the normal level. A short circuit current can be several hundred times greater than
normal current levels.
A short circuit current can have very destructive effects totally destroying distribution
equipment and causing fires. The heat energy produced by a short circuit current can be
great enough to vaporize metal, melt conductors, and cause severe insulation damage.
Arcing produces ionized gases that result in other conductive paths and additional short
circuits.
Short circuit currents can result in destroying cable trays, warping bus bars and completely
disconnecting the bus bars from their retaining supports. Any conductor that carries current
will have a magnetic field around the conductor. When conductors are subjected to short
circuit currents, the forces produced by the interaction of conductor magnetic fields are very
destructive. The forces can typically be several hundred pounds per linear foot of the
conductor.

D. Voltage Rating - The voltage rating of a fuse is the maximum circuit voltage in which the
fuse can be safely applied. If the voltage rating is exceeded, re-strike is possible across the
open fuse element. The fuse also may not safely clear the fault. For instance, a 250volt fuse
could safely be used in a 208volt system but not in a 480volt system. The voltage rating is
marked on the fuse and is usually related to its physical length within the manufacturers
specifications. This is not to say that all 600volt fuses are all the same length, but that most
manufacturers have length specifications for their 600 volt fuses within its applications.
E. Continuous Current Rating - The continuous current rating on the fuse is the current that
the fuse is intended to normally carry. The fuse will carry this current indefinitely. In
selecting the continuous current rating, consideration must be given to the type of load,
application and code requirements. The continuous current rating is marked on the fuse and
is usually related to its physical diameter. This is not to say that all 30 ampere fuses are the
same diameter, but that most manufacturers have diameter specifications for their 30 ampere
fuses within its applications.
F. Interrupting Rating - A fuse must be able to withstand the destructive energy of a short
circuit current and be able to interrupt the current without rupture. The interrupting rating
is the maximum short circuit current that a fuse can safely interrupt without rupturing.
The National Electric Code, Section 110-9, requires equipment intended to break current at
fault levels to have an interrupting rating sufficient for the current that must be interrupted.
Analysis of a distribution system must be made to estimate available short circuit fault
currents. Upon completed analysis, fuses with an adequate interrupting rating can be
selected. A typical short circuit current available from a 500KVA, 480 Volt transformer is
approximately 50,000 amperes.
G. Current Limitation - The term current limitation is associated with short circuit conditions,
not overloads. A fuse is said to be current limiting if it operates quickly under short
circuit conditions, typically in less than one half of a cycle. By opening quickly, the
instantaneous peak short circuit current is limited to a value much less than the peak that
would otherwise occur. This greatly reduces the heat energy that would otherwise be let-
through to circuit conductors and components. The total energy let-through by a fuse is a
function of the product of the current squared and time in seconds (I
2
t).
A circuit breaker being an inherently slow device will subject a circuit to the full peak short
circuit current for several cycles before opening. During this period of time, circuit
conductors and components are being subjected to an enormous amount of heat energy. A
fuse being a fast acting current limiting device can be used in combination with a breaker to
overcome the breaker's limitation.
H. Selective Coordination - Selective coordination concerns the need to prevent facility
blackouts. If distribution systems protective devices are selective, only the protective
device nearest the faulted circuit will open. Devices upstream remain intact, supplying
other feeders. For a system to be selective, a minimum ratio must be maintained between
upstream and downstream continuous current ratings. The ratio is specified by the fuse
manufacturer and depends on the type of fuse.
III. Fuse Classification
A. Safety/Standards Organizations - Various safety and standard organizations exist which
assign classifications to fuses based on the criteria of safety and performance. The most
predominant of these organizations is Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. Underwriters
Laboratories evaluates fuses under specific conditions, regulatory codes and other standards

including international standards. Based upon the results, U.L. may "list" the fuse and assign
the fuse a class such as RK1, H, or J. There are U.L. standards that define the criteria that a
fuse must meet to be considered belonging to a particular class.
B. U.L. Classifications for Low Voltage Fuses - A low voltage fuse is a fuse with a voltage
rating of 600 volts or less. Illustrated on the following pages are charts. These charts list
fuses by U.L. classification and their corresponding characteristics.
C. Class Types - Fuses are available with different interrupting ratings which makes
misapplication possible. For instance, UL class K5 and class H fuses are both available with
the same physical dimensions. Although each fuse has the same physical dimensions,
voltage rating and continuous current rating, their interrupting ratings are significantly
different. The class K5 fuse has an interrupting rating of 50,000 to 200,000 amperes
where the class H fuse has a rating of 10,000 amperes. If the class H fuse is used in place
of the class K5 fuse and a short circuit occurs resulting in a fault current in excess of 10,000
amperes, the class H fuse will rupture possibly injuring nearby personnel.
To overcome this problem a rejection feature is built into the end ferrules of class RK1 and
RK5 fuses. The "R" in the class designation indicates a rejection type fuse with a minimum
interrupting rating of 200,000 amperes. Rejection type fuses will fit only into fuse blocks
intended to receive the modified end ferrule. The fuse block rejects a class H fuse, as it will
not fit, since it is missing the special end ferrule.

A. Motor Branch Circuits with Overcurrent Relays
1. Class RK series dual element time delay fuses (5 inch).
2. Sized to 125% times FLC of the motor and go up to next available nominal size.
If FLC of the motor = 18.7A

Fuse size = 18.7Ax1.25 = 23.375A

Actual fuse size = 25A
B. Control Circuit Transformer Primary and Secondary Fuses
1. Both primary and secondary windings will be fused.
2. Primary fuses - class RK series dual element time delay.
3. Secondary fuses - class K5 single element non-time delay.
4. Primary fuses sized to 125% times the primary current of the transformer and go up
to next available nominal size.
If primary current = 5A

Fuse size = 5Ax1.25 = 6.25A

5. Secondary fuses sized to 125% times the secondary current of the transformer.
Don't exceed the 125%, if needed go down to next nominal size.
If secondary current = 2.5

Fuse size = 2.5Ax1.25 = 3.125


OPERATING PRINCIPLES OF FUSES
High interrupting rated; current-limiting fuses provide safe and reliable protection for electrical distribution systems.
They can be used with complete confidence in their performance. Fuses operate from increased fuse element temperature
caused by an overcurrent flowing through them. Since the functioning of fuses does not depend on the operation of
intricate moving mechanical parts, fuse performance characteristics are reliable. Fuses remain safe and accurate since age
does not increase their current carrying capacity nor lengthen their opening time. After a fuse has been used to clear a
short-circuit or overload, it is replaced by a new safe, factory calibrated unit, as accurate and dependable as the original.
The two basic types of current-limiting fuses are single element and dual element fuses. Each type has a simple, reliable
operation principle.

Semiconductor or Rectifier type fuses are used for special applications on electronic equipment such as power supplies.
These fuses are very fast acting and are sized just like the single element type used for a control transformer secondary.
SINGLE ELEMENT FUSES
A single-element fuse consists of a link or several links contained in a tube filled with arc-quenching filler.
Tube
Fuse Element Arc Quenching Filler

Overload Operation - If an overload current of more than rated current is continued for a sufficiently long period of
time, the fuse link melts. An arc across the resulting gap burns back the metal, lengthening the gap. The arc is quenched
and the circuit interrupted when the break is of sufficient length. The surrounding filler aids the arc quenching process.
Short Circuit Operation - On a short circuit several sections of the link melt instantly. Arcing across the vaporized
portions of the link commences, and the arc extinguishing filler quickly aids in quenching these arcs, and thus clearing
the circuit. Although the fuse opening operation is caused by an increase in the link temperature, the fusing opening
operation is safely contained in the fuse casing and the circuit is interrupted in a fraction of a second. The total operating
time of current limiting fuses during short circuit conditions can be less than a half cycle (less than 8/1000 of a second).
For high short circuit currents the total clearing time can be less than a quarter cycle. It is this fast clearing speed which
enables current limiting fuses to protect system components from damage due to high short circuit currents that may
occur.

DUAL ELEMENT FUSES
The thermal cutout gives dual element fuses a time delay on overloads, such as motor starting current. This delay allows
the motor starting current to be disregarded during that time as long as the current is within five to six times normal
running current. The fuse link in dual element fuses provides current limiting, short circuit protection just as single
element fuses.
Dual element, time delay fuses utilize this time delay in the low overload range to eliminate needless opening on harmless
overloads and transient conditions. These fuses are extremely fast opening and current limiting on short circuit currents.
This beneficial time current characteristic is obtained by using two fusible elements (thus the name dual element)
connected in series and contained in one tube:
(1) The thermal cutout element and,
(2) The fuse link element surrounded with arc extinguishing filler.
The magnitude of the overcurrent determines which element functions. The thermal cutout element is designed to open
on overcurrents of up to approximately 500% of the fuse ampere rating. The fuse link or short circuit element is designed
to open on heavier overloads and short circuit currents. Typical dual element, time delay fuses by manufacture.
Manufacture Name Class
Bussman KTS-R RK1
Bussman DLS-R RK5
Bussman (Fusetron) FRS-R RK5
Gould Shawmut TRS1R RK5
Gould. Shawmut (Amp-Trap) A6D1R RK1
Thermal Cutout Fuse Link

Overload Operation - On a low overload current the short circuit fuse link remains entirely inactive. The overload
element consists of a center mass of copper on which is mounted a spring and a short connector. This connector is held
in place by a low melting point solder joint, which connects the center mass of copper to the fuse link. When overload
current flows long enough to raise the temperature of the center mass to the melting point of the solder, this connector is
pulled out of place by the spring, thereby opening the circuit.

The thermal cutout element has a built in time delay which permits momentary harmless surge currents such as motor
starting current to flow without opening the fuse. If the overload current persists too long, the thermal cutout element
clears the circuit, thus protecting the components and equipment. These fuses are ideal for motor, transformer and other
circuits with harmless start-up current.
Short Circuit Operation - During a short circuit condition the fuse link acts as described for a single element fuse. A
portion of the link vaporizes and the surrounding filler aids in extinguishing the arc. This fuse element has current-
limiting ability for short circuit currents thereby reducing the mechanical, thermal, and arcing stress which system
components would have to withstand.


CIRCUIT BREAKERS
OVERVIEW
The function of the circuit breaker corresponds basically to that of a switch in combination with a fuse.
When the current is above the normal rating, either on overload or short circuit current, the circuit breaker is an
automatic overcurrent protective device.
A circuit breaker (CB) will automatically interrupt current flow when the conditions are abnormal without damage
to itself. The circuit breaker mechanism is set to interrupt the current at a particular overload value and it can
interrupt a short circuit current.
The automatic circuit opening action of a circuit breaker is accomplished in several ways. Some of these are by
thermal release, magnetic action, the combination of thermal release and magnetic actions, hydraulic means, and
pneumatic means.
Advantages and Disadvantages - Comparison to Fuse Protection
A. Advantages
- Breakers can be reset after trip and need not be replaced normally.
- Breakers can be used as a switching device.
- In the case of air circuit breakers (ACB's) trip elements are adjustable (current and time)
B. Disadvantages
- Cost
- Size
- Handling and Weight
Circuit Breakers would be used in preference to fuses when a disconnect means is required. An example of this is
motor control systems. Circuit breakers would also be used if sufficient space is available and if standard current
ratings are required, such as, 20 A, 30A etc.
Fuses would be used in preference to circuit breakers where accurate current values are required, such as, 1.6A,
10.4A. Fuses (Rectifier/semi-conductor) would also be used in rapid response situations such as electronic circuits
or Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) Circuits found in D.C. Drives and other precise control circuits. Fuses are
normally used when no disconnect means is required.

Thermal Circuit Breakers
Thermal (heat) type air circuit breakers are used primarily for protection against overcurrent. A typical thermal
circuit breaker operates on the principle of metal expanding when heated. In Figure A, a mechanism holds the
contacts closed with a latch. The thermal element is a bimetallic strip made of two different metals bonded together
as illustrated in Figure B. The bimetallic strip, having resistance, heats in proportion to the line current. If the
current becomes excessive for a prolonged period of time, the bimetallic strip becomes hot and bends because of
different expansion rates of the two metals as illustrated in Figure B. When the strip bends sufficiently, it trips the
latch and opens the contacts as illustrated in Figure C.
Thermal circuit breakers provide overload protection at voltages up to 600 volts A-C and 250 volts D-C, from 10 to
60 amperes.

SPRING
CONTACTS
LATCH
HIGH EXPANSION METAL
DOTTED PORTION INDICATES EXPANDED LENGTH
HIGH
LOW
COLD POSITION
HOT POSITION
fig A
fig B
fig C
LOW EXPANSION METAL
BIMETALLIC
STRIP


Magnetic Circuit Breaker
A magnetic circuit breaker has no thermal device. It is used whenever instantaneous action is required to open a
faulted circuit. Figure A illustrates a magnetic circuit breaker under normal conditions. Figure B shows the circuit
breaker in a tripped position.
fig A
fig B
MAGNETIC COIL
MAGNETIC COIL
CONTACTS
CONTACTS
LATCH
LATCH
SPRING
SPRING

Thermal-Magnetic Circuit Breaker
A thermal-magnetic circuit breaker incorporates both a thermal strip and a magnetic coil. The thermal strip
provides a time delay for momentary overloads. The magnetic coil provides instantaneous trip on high or short
circuit currents. The magnetic trip also protects the bimetallic strip from excessive overheating that can destroy it.
Figure A illustrates normal operation and Figure B illustrates the tripped position of a thermal-magnetic circuit
breaker.
BIMETALLIC
SPRING
CONTACTS
LATCH
fig A
fig B
MAGNETIC COIL
STRIP

Ambient Compensating Circuit Breaker
The ambient-compensated circuit breaker has an overload bimetallic strip, and a compensating bimetallic strip.
Both elements bend with an increase in ambient heat but only the overload element responds to the current. Figure
A illustrates the ambient compensating circuit breaker in a normal ambient temperature of 18 to 21 degrees C.
Figure B illustrates the two bimetallic strips bending because of an increase of ambient temperature. This does not
trip the breaker. The breaker trips only when the excessive current through the overload strip causes it to bend more
than the compensating strip.
The ambient-compensated circuit breaker is used in areas where high temperatures are encountered.

BIMETALLIC
SPRING
CONTACTS
LATCH
fig A
fig B
MAGNETIC COIL
STRIP
COMPENSATING
BIMETALLIC STRIP
fig C
Electrical
Principles For
Contactors &
Relays

Damper
Case
Shading
Ring
Magnetic
Circuit
Coil
Return
Spring
Contacts
Moving
Support

PURPOSE
Both relays and contactors provide a means of automatic operation of a
machine from a remote location.

A contactor belongs to both the control circuit and the power circuit. The contactor
coil and auxiliary contacts such as those required to seal-in or provide electrical interlock
are found in the control circuit. The remaining main contacts are used to switch loads in
the power circuit.

A relay is always used in the control circuit. It is used to remember machine events
such as the momentary closure of a limit switch contact. It is also used to overcome
contact constraints, such as, incorrect type or not enough normally open or normally
closed contacts available on a particular device.

OPERATION AND CONSTRUCTION

CASE or HOUSING
Contains all the parts and provides the insulation necessary to isolate individual contacts.

CONTACTS
Main contacts, usually three and each of them having
Fixed contact
Movable contact
Sometimes an arc blow-out device

Auxiliary contacts, usually on the device or added and having
Fixed contact
Movable contact

Different types
Normally open contact
Normally closed contact

These contacts should open and close at the same time as the main contacts and
can be used to control various other circuits.

RETURN SPRING
This spring insures that the moveable core rapidly moves away for the stationary core
when the coil is de-energized. This rapid opening insures that the contacts, both main and
auxiliary open as quickly as possible.

ELECTROMAGNET
The main feature of a contactor that distinguishes it from a manual starter is the use of an
electromagnet. The electromagnet is ultimately responsible for switching the state of
the contacts. The electromagnet consists of the following:

Coil: The coil produces magnetic flux as the result of current flow. The impedance of the
coil limits the current in an AC circuit. The coil's impedance is mainly inductive
reactance since the coil usually has a very low internal resistance. Only the DC
resistance of the coil limits the current in a DC circuit.

Stationary Core: The stationary core concentrates magnetic flux. In doing so, this core's surface,
which mates with the moveable core, is polarized and attracts the moveable core. This core is
constructed of laminated steel to reduce Eddy currents.

Movable Core: The moveable core also concentrates magnetic flux. The moveable core
concentrates magnetic flux radiating from the mating surfaces of the stationary core. As a result, the
mating surfaces of the moveable core are attracted to the stationary core resulting in the movement of
the moveable core against the stationary core. The moveable core is attached through a plastic or
insulated assembly to the contacts. As the moveable core is pulled against the stationary core, the
contacts change state. Since the moveable core is made to move, it is often referred to as the
armature. This core is also constructed of laminated steel to reduce Eddy currents.

There are two inherent problems when an AC voltage is applied to a relay or
contactor coil.
1. The change in magnetic flux with respect to time induces a voltage in the core resulting
in undesirable induced currents called eddy currents. The core is constructed of
laminated steel to reduce these eddy currents. Laminations serve to increase the
electrical resistance of the core. If the resistance of the core is doubled, the current is
halved. Then from Watt's Law, we see that a reduction in current results in a significant
reduction in power since P = I
2
R. Eddy currents are undesirable because they result in
power dissipated by the core in the form of heat.
2. The magnetic flux produced by the coil also goes to zero twice per cycle due to the
alternations of the sinewave. Since there is no magnetic attraction, the two cores try to
pull apart during these two instants in time. Since this pulling apart would cause the
relay or contactor to chatter, something must retain the magnetic attraction during
these times. Shading rings are embedded in the surface of the stationary core.
These rings retain magnetic flux as the coil current passes through zero. The amount
of magnetic flux produced by the coil is proportional to the current through the coil. As
coil current passes through zero, it is making its greatest change with respect to time.
Since the flux and current are in phase, flux is also making its greatest change with
respect to time. This rapid change in flux causes an induced voltage and thus current
to flow in the shading ring. As the result of current flow in the shading ring, a small
magnetic field is created. The strength of this magnetic field is sufficient to retain the
attraction of the two cores during the instant the main magnetic field passes through
zero.
Small Eddy Currents
Large Eddy Currents

0
0
90
0
180
0
270
0
360
0
Shading Ring Flux
Coil Current
+
-
Main Flux

The contactor and relay functions mechanically exactly the same. The cross-section drawing
above shows how the moveable contacts are mechanically connected to the moveable part of the
magnetic circuit. When the moveable part of the magnetic circuit is pulled against the return
spring, the moveable part of the contacts either closes or opens relative to the stationary set of
corresponding contacts. This is a mechanical representation of the contactor. The moveable and
stationary contacts must be electrically insulated and isolated from each other, the magnetic
circuit and the coil. There are many different variations of contact configurations.
There is not just one symbol for a contactor or a relay. These devices are a combination of many
symbols, such as contacts and coils. Below is an electrical representation for a contactor and a relay.
Both contain a coil that has terminal numbers A1 and A2. The contactor has three main contacts
numbered L1 T1, L2 T2, L3 T3, which are designed to carry heavy loads to motors, heaters,
etc. The darker lines show these main contacts. The contactors auxiliary contacts are shown with
smaller lines and numbered 13 14. The relay has all smaller auxiliary type contacts with different
numbers. The numbers will be different for different configurations of contacts. The one shown is
two normally open and two normally closed.
Mechanical Drawing Cross-Section
Coil
Return
Spring
Case
Moveable
Contacts
Moving
Support
Magnetic
Circuit
Stationary
Contacts

Electrical Representation for a Contactor
L1
13
14
L3 L2
T1 T3 T2 A2
A1

Electrical Representation for a Relay
A2
A1
43
44
31
32
21
22
13
14
Troubleshooting
& Test
Instruments

TROUBLESHOOTING SAFETY

In this section we will look at the safety aspects associated with troubleshooting. Safety is
always important. Safety is especially important when troubleshooting because conditions
are unusually hazardous. The fact that a fault has occurred means that circuit conditions
are abnormal, unpredictable, and dangerous. Also, there is added pressure sometimes
to expedite the repair to save production time. The tendency to hurry, coupled with the
abnormal, unpredictable, and dangerous conditions, greatly increases the chances for
serious mistakes.

Always keep in mind that no equipment is so important and no service so urgent
that we cannot take the time to do the job safely.

Safety is basically using good judgement. You must be alert to the hazards that are
peculiar to each particular machine. There are, however, a few general rules that apply to
most situations:

- Always verify your test instruments.

- Isolate power personally if repair is necessary.

- Verify that no voltage is present before making any repairs.

- Think about what you are testing and what you expect to find. Random
probing with the test instruments can cause serious mistakes for
personnel and equipment.

- Be aware of the mechanical dangers. What may happen when the
machine is energized either normally or abnormally?

- Be certain any temporary work is absolutely safe.

- Verify safe working order after completion. Remove all test jumpers
and device defeats. Check all safety circuits before returning the
machine to normal service.

Troubleshooting Aids Used in Fault Finding
There are several important aids available to the troubleshooter.

- Operations Diagram which gives the sequence of operation of
machine functions.

- Electrical Schematic which gives the correct electrical sequence of
circuit components.

- Wiring Diagram which shows physical location of circuit components.

- Computerized Reports which will assist in evaluating the trouble
history of the machine.

The more familiar a troubleshooter becomes with each of these aids, the better he is
prepared to repair any machine. The operations diagram, electrical schematic, and wiring
diagram were presented earlier.

The computerized reports are a valuable aid in evaluating recurring problems. The report
should contain the machine description and location, time the fault occurred, the fault
symptoms, the actual fault, probable cause, corrective action taken, and time to complete.

Fault Diagnosis
All faults, whether electrical or mechanical, normally require quick action to correct the
fault. This should always be carried out in a safe and correct manner.

The techniques employed by different troubleshooters will vary according to circumstances.
The four senses are usually needed in all circumstances. It is not necessary to touch
something to prove that it is Hot. Close proximity gives adequate information or Warning.
It is also not necessary to inhale toxic smoke to detect that there is a fire. Use your
senses individually or as a combination, but always use care.

SIGHT
HEARING
TOUCH SMELL

TEST INSTRUMENTS

Test instruments come in various types, shapes and sizes. The most common
types of volt-ohm-meters are grouped in two categories, analog and digital.
There is also a type of ohmmeter called a meg-ohm-meter that will be
discussed later in this chapter.

The Analog Volt-Ohm-Meter (VOM)

Troubleshooting with an Analog VOM

The analog VOM is frequently used in conventional trouble-shooting but is
becoming more obsolete due to digital multi-meters. The VOM can tell the
trouble-shooter if voltage is present or not, and can also tell how much is
present. At times this additional information can be helpful. There are some
concerns to be aware of when using test instruments such as the VOM.

Meter Damage - It is easy to overlook the range and function selected on
a VOM. If the wrong range or function is selected,
incorrect readings and/or meter destruction can occur.

Calibration Errors - Most instruments of this type need periodic calibration.
An instrument that is out of calibration can cause lost
time and wasted efforts due to the incorrect readings.

Expense - Initial cost of industrial quality VOM's is quite high. As
with any precision instrument, extra care must be taken
to protect it.

The Digital Multi-Meter (DMM)
Fig. 1

Digital multimeters (DMM) have generally replaced the analog-type multimeter (VOM)
as the test device of choice for maintainers because they are easier to read, are often
more compact and have greater accuracy. The DMM performs all standard VOM
measurement functions of a-c and d-c. Some offer frequency and temperature
measurement. Many have such features as peak-hold display that provides short-term
memory for capturing the peak value of transient signals as well as audible and visual
indications for continuity testing and level detection.

To compare these two types of multimeters, let us examine their pros and cons in more
detail:

Ease of reading. One of the greatest problems with an analog meter is the errors that
occur due to the human factor when reading off the value from the many different
scales. The thin analog needle against a calibrated scale is similar to the hands of a
clock against the number scale indicating the hours. When you look at an analog clock,
you have to determine where the hands are, which number the hand is nearest to, and
so on. With a digital clock, however, the time is read directly from a display. With the
analog meter, the decoding of the scale is necessary, while the digital multimeter
displays the magnitude, polarity (+ or -), and the units (V, A, or A) on typically a four- or
five-digit readout. A disadvantage of the digital multimeter is its slow response to display
the amount on the readout once it has been connected in the circuit. To compensate for
this disadvantage, most DMMs have a bar graph display below the digital readout, as
shown in Fig. 2, showing the magnitude of the measured quantity using more or less
bars. A bar graph reading is updated 30 times per second while the digital display is
updated only 4 times per second. The bar graph is used when quickly changing signals
cause the digital display to flash or when there is a change in the circuit that is too rapid
for the digital display to detect. For example, a contacts resistance changes
momentarily from zero to infinity when a contact bounces. A DMM cannot indicate
contact bounce because the digital display requires more than 250 milliseconds to
update.
A DMM set to measure voltage may display a reading before the leads are connected to
a powered circuit. This is known as a ghost voltage and is produced by magnetic
fields, fluorescent lights and such which may be in close proximity. These voltages enter
the meter through the open test leads which act as antennae. These voltages are very
low and will not damage a meter but can be confusing as to their source.
Accuracy - DMMs are typically accurate to 0.01 % and have no need for a zero-ohms
adjustment. Returning to the example of the analog and digital clock, a person reading
the time from the traditional analog clock would say that the time is almost 12:30. The
wearer of the digital watch, however, will be totally specific and give the time as 12:27.
Similarly, an analog reading on a meter of about 7 V becomes 7.15 V with the far more
accurate DMM.

Price - Digital meters have complicated internal circuitry that is why the digital readout
meters usually have a more expensive price tag than the analog readout multi-meters.
Fig. 2


When troubleshooting with the digital multimeter, the maintainer is able to see the
situation and the problem within the circuit or system. Fig. 3 illustrates a typical
autoranging digital multimeter. Of course for the meter to be of any use it must first be
connected to the circuit or device to be tested. Both leads, one red and the other black,
must be inserted into the correct meter lead jacks. The black lead is connected to the
meter jack marked COM or common. It is usually the lower right jack as in this
illustration. (Be aware that not every meter has the same jack configuration.) The red
lead is connected to either of the appropriate jacks depending on what the maintainer
wants to measure; ohms, volts or amperes. The two jacks on the left are utilized when
measuring current, either in the 300mA or the 10 ampere range.

The display shows other functions as well.
- Low battery indicator
- Annunciators show what is being measured (volts, ohms, amps, etc.)
- Autopolarity indicates negative readings with a minus sign when the leads are
connected incorrectly without any damage
- Autoranging automatically selects proper measurement range
- One selector switch makes it easy to select measurement functions
- Overload protection prevents damage to the meter and the circuiit, and
protects the user

Fig. 3

Measuring resistance Fig. 4 shows the steps that should be followed when
measuring resistance. Remember that resistance measurements are carried out
without the power being applied to the component under test, and resistance values can
vary by as much as 20% due to the tolerance of certain resistors. Do not be misled if
your meter reading is slightly different from the color band on the resistor. If a resistors
value is off and exceeds the tolerance, the resistor should be replaced. A resistor will
rarely short, but typically will open. If a resistor does open, the DMM display will flash
on and off or display OL (open line) because the resistor has an infinite resistance.
1. Turn off power to the circuit
2. Select resistance O
3. Plug the black test lead into the COM jack and the red test lead into the O jack
4. Connect the probe tips across the component or portion of the circuit for which you
want to determine the resistance
5. View the reading and be sure to note the unit of measure, O, KO, MO, etc.
Fig. 4
R

Measuring voltage Fig. 5 shows the steps that should be followed when
measuring voltage. The measurement of both voltage and resistance is where
the DMM finds its greatest utilization. For voltage and resistance
measurement, the red lead is inserted into the V (volt or ohm) meter jack.
1. Select volts AC (V~), volts DC (V---), mvolts (V---) as desired
2. Plug the black test lead into the COM jack and the red test lead into the V
jack
3. Touch the probe tips to the circuit across a load or power source as shown (parallel
to the circuit to be tested)
4. View the reading being sure to note the unit of measure
Note: For DC readings of the correct polarity (+ or -), touch the red test probe to the positive side
of the circuit, and the black test probe to the negative side of the circuit ground. If you
reverse the connections, a DMM with auto-polarity will merely display a minus sign
indicating negative polarity. With an analog meter you risk damaging the meter.
Fig. 5
R
+
-
V

Measuring current Fig. 6 shows the steps that should be followed when measuring
current. The measurement of current is rarely performed when troubleshooting, as
the circuit path has to be opened to insert the DMM in series with the current flow.
However, if current is to be measured, the red lead is inserted into one of the
ampere jacks, 10 amp (10A) or 300 milliamp (300 mA) input jack depending on the
expected value of the reading.
1. Turn off the power to the circuit
2. Disconnect, cut or unsolder the circuit, creating a place where the meter probes can
be inserted
3. Select amps AC (A~), or amps DC (A---) as desired
4. Plug the black test lead into the COM jack and the red test lead into 10 amp (10A) or
300 milliamp (300mA) jack depending on the expected value of the reading
5. Connect the probe tips to the circuit across the bread as shown so that all current
will flow through the meter ( a series connection)
6. Turn the circuit power back on
7. View the reading being sure to note the unit of measure
Note: If test leads are reversed a negative (-) sign will be displayed
Fig. 6
R
S
+
-
V

Megohm meter
An ordinary ohmmeter cannot be used for measuring resistance of multi-millions of
ohms, such as conductor insulation. To adequately test for insulation breakdown, it is
necessary to use a much higher potential than is furnished by an ohmmeter's battery.
This potential is placed between the conductor and the outside surface of the insulation.

An instrument called a megohmmeter is used for these tests. The megohmmeter is a
portable instrument consisting of two primary elements.

1. A hand-driven DC generator G, which supplies the necessary voltage for making the
measurement

2. The instrument portion, which indicates the value of the resistance being measured
The instrument portion is of the opposed-coil type as shown above. Coils a and b are
mounted on the movable member c with a fixed angular relationship to each other, and are
free to turn as a unit in a magnetic field. Coil b tends to move the pointer counterclockwise,
and coil a clockwise.

Coil a is connected in series with R
3
and the unknown resistance R
X
to be measured. The
combination of coil R
3
and R
X
form a direct series path between the positive (+) and
negative (-) brushes of the DC generator. Coil b is connected in series with R
2
and this
combination is also connected across the generator. There are no restraining springs on
the movable member of the instrument portion of the megohm meter. Therefore, when the
generator is not operated, the pointer floats freely and may come to rest at any position on
the scale.

The guard ring intercepts leakage current. Any leakage currents intercepted are shunted
to the negative side of the generator. They do not flow through coil a; therefore, they do
not affect the meter reading.

If the test leads are open-circuited, no current flows in coil a. However, current flows
internally through coil b, and deflects the pointer to infinity, which indicates a resistance too
large to measure. When a resistance such as R
X
is connected between the test leads;
current also flows in coil a, tending to move the pointer clockwise. At the same time, coil b
still tends to move the pointer counterclockwise. Therefore, the moving element,
composed of both coils and the pointer, comes to rest at a position at which the two forces
are balanced. This position depends upon the value of the external resistance, which
controls the relative magnitude of current in coil a. Because changes in voltage affect both
coil a and coil b in the same proportion, the position of the moving system is independent
of the voltage. If the test leads are short-circuited, the pointer rests at zero because the
current in coil a is relatively large. The instrument is not injured under the circumstances
because the current is limited by R
3
.


To avoid excessive test voltages, most megohm meters are equipped with friction clutches.
When the generator is cranked faster than its rated speed, the clutch slips and the
generator speed and output voltage are not permitted to exceed their rated values. For
extended ranges, a 1000-volt generator is available. When extremely high resistances,
such as 10,000 megohms or more, are to be measured, a high voltage is needed to cause
sufficient current flow to actuate the meter movement.

A good rule of thumb for megging motors, conductors, etc. is to use a voltage level twice
the voltage insulation rating of the device to be checked.

Another rule of thumb is a 1MO value of motor insulation is considered to be acceptable.
Anything below this value is considered to be suspect.

Note: Always discharge the megohm meter after taking readings. The dielectric can act
like a capacitor and hold a charge, especially for higher voltages.
AC Drives

AC Drive Advantages
1. Cost - Three phase AC motors are much cheaper than DC motors of the same horsepower. AC controllers also
increase the efficiency of an AC motor.
2. Maintenance - AC motors are virtually maintenance free.
3. Speed Control - AC motors have a wide range of speed control (up to 20 to 1).
4. Fully Regenerative - Four-quadrant control is easily achieved.
5. Good Open Loop Control - Typical open loop speed regulation is less than 5%.
6. Quick Response - AC motors have a relatively low inertia, which provides better response.
7. Easily Synchronized - Multi-motor systems are easily synchronized with a single AC Drive controller.
8.
Selection of Motors - Wide range of standard three phase motors are available.
AC Drive Interface Circuits

Typical interface circuits that can be applied to AC drives are shown in the figure below.


dv/dt
Converter
/Rectifier
AC to DC
Intermediate
3
Bridge
Filters &
Smoothes
DC Buss
Voltage
DC Buss (V
AC
x
1.35 = V
DC
)
Inverter
Electronic
Switching
SCIM
Permissive
Start/Stop
Safeties/E-stop
PLC
Regulator
(Microprocessor)
Diagnostics & Logic
Control Drive
Conditions
Feedback
A, B, C
firing
angles
Speed Ref.
Dynamic
Braking
Resistors
Controls excess
voltage generated
during regeneration,
used only when
necessary
Interface Circuits
di/dt DC to AC
(Controlled
Freq. &
Voltage)

The most recognized AC drive interfaces are the AC supply, and the stator.
The feedback circuit can be a tachometer or it can be an optical encoder, an AC generator, a linear voltage displacement
transformer, and even a current transformer.
The drive condition circuit varies from a simple LED, to selectable conditions that will cause an output to change state.
These can be conditions such as "drive at speed" or "drive in current limit". These conditions are outputs from the drive
that can be used in external circuits.
The run permissives include all of the external circuits that enable the drive. These can be safety gates, interlocks or
contacts from another drive showing that it is "running at speed".
The speed reference circuit is shown as a three-wire connection. The most common manual configuration is a three-wire
pot used to manually set the speed reference. Other sources for the speed reference are an analogue output card from a
PLC or a motion controller like the Allen Bradley IMC 121. These basic interface circuits can be identified on almost all
drives. Recognizing them and being able to verify their function is a prime responsibility of troubleshooters.

3AC

Basic AC Drive System
An AC adjustable frequency drive typically consists of three basic parts: operator controls, drive controller (often referred
to as an inverter) and an AC motor. The figure below shows a block diagram of these components.
The operator controls allow the operator to start, stop, and change direction and speed of the controller by simply turning
potentiometers or other operator devices. These controls may be an integral part of the controller or may be remotely
mounted. Programmable controllers are often used for this function.
The Drive Controller converts a fixed voltage AC to an AC waveform with adjustable frequency and voltage. It consists
of a Control Unit and a Power Conversion Unit as seen in the figure above.
The Control Unit oversees the operation of the drive and provides valuable system diagnostic information.

The figure below shows a block diagram of the Power Conversion Unit with the regulator shown as part of the control
unit and the speed reference as part of the operator controls.
The Power Conversion Unit performs several functions. In the converter block, it rectifies the incoming fixed AC
voltage (changes AC to DC). The resultant DC voltage is then filtered through an LC low pass filter to obtain a DC
voltage bus in the intermediate block. The inverter block then produces an AC current and voltage output having the
desired frequency to control the motor.
The AC Motor converts the adjustable frequency AC from the drive controller to rotating mechanical energy.
Feedback
Devices

Name: DC Tachometer/Generator
Type of Signal: Pulsing DC w/polarity
Type of Information: Speed Amplitude V
DC
Direction Polarity
Rating: Volts/RPM
Examples: 6v/1000RPM
50v/1000RPM
100v/1000RPM
- Maximum Speed Rating
Maintenance: High
Examples: -Clean
-Replace brushes
-Must be PM'ed

Tachometer
A tachometer generator, or tach generator, is a machine that generates a voltage that is used as a signal rather than a
power source. The signal output from the tach is intended to be directly proportional to the speed of the motor. The
output of the tach can be fed back to the drive controller providing the controller with a measure of the motor's speed.
The controller can then regulate the speed using the voltage feedback. This would represent a closed loop control system
as shown below.
Because of the nature of the tach's application it does not need to have a large power capacity. It is important, however,
for the tach to have a low ripple on its output voltage. It should also have a linear voltage to speed ratio.
The ripple in the output of the tach is set by the number of coils and commutator segments determined by its construction.
An average tach would have 32 segments in its commutator. A more expensive and accurate tach could have as high as
100 segments.
In order to achieve good linearity, a tach generator must have a constant field strength. The majority of tachs used are
now constructed with a permanent magnet field. This makes sure the voltage at a given RPM is always the same, and so
the generated voltage is in direct proportion to the speed. The polarity of the generated signal is an indication of the
direction of the rotation of the motor.
Permanent
Magnet
Field
Variable
DC
Output
Tach
Gen.
Speed Reference
Feedback
Drive
Motor Tach

Vdc = 40v with 200 mV
ripple @ 1000RPM
Tach . Good
Vdc = -40v with 200
mV ripple @ 1000RPM
Tach . Good
Motoring in
reverse
0
40
-40
Motoring in
forward

Name: Incremental Encoder

Type of Signal: Digital Signal (Binary) Pulse train
(Squarewave)
Type of Information: Speed = Freq.
Direction = Phase Relationship
Angular Position = Count & Marker
Rating: Windows/turn or
Pulses/turn
#Channels
Maximum frequency
Maintenance: Replace as needed, critical alignment, fragile
Note: Encoder must be clean
Properly align
No preload on the bearing

Incremental Encoders
Incremental encoders are position verification devices that indicate rotary or linear motion and the direction of
movement. An encoder plus a counting device make up an incremental system. The counting device will sum the
positive and negative increments allowing the user to detect the net amount of movement at any point in time. Linear
incremental encoders should be applied to traverse operations. Rotary encoders are the best choice for angular
applications.
Basic Operation of a Rotary Encoder
A rotary incremental optical encoder consists of five basic components. The light source (LED or incandescent), the
encoder disc, grid assembly, photo-detector, and amplification electronics. These are shown below.
The disc is one of the key elements of the encoder. A simplified disc is shown below.
Encoder
Disk
Encoder
Shaft
Window
Amplifiers
Data
Tracks
Vcc

It is typically a glass material with imprinted marks of metal with slots precisely located. The quantity of marks or slots is
equivalent to the number of pulses per turn. A typical resolution is 500 or 1000 pulses per revolution. For example, a
glass disc with 1000 marks imprinted would have moved 180 after 500 pulses. The maximum resolution of the encoder
is limited by the number of marks or windows that can be physically located on the disk, which determines the number of
pulses per revolution.
Most rotary encoders also provide a single mark on the disk called the Z channel or marker. The pulse from this channel
provides a reference once per revolution to detect errors within a given revolution.
Encoder Disk

The LED or incandescent light source is constantly enabled. As the disk rotates, light reaches the photo-detector as each
slot or window passes as shown below.
Rotary Incremental Optical Encoder
As the photo-detector senses light it allows current to flow and produces a current sine wave. The frequency of the sine
wave is controlled by the alternations of light and dark from the disk's movement.
The outputs from the photo-detector are then converted into a square waveform and supplied to a counting device.
All incremental encoders rely on a counter to determine position and a stable clock to determine velocity. These systems
use a variety of techniques to separate "up' counts from "down" counts, and maximize the incoming pulse rate. Correct
position information is dependent on accurate counting and proper transmission of pulses. The use of complementary
outputs will prevent false counting due to electrical noise developing stray electrical pulses.
Light
Source
Mask
Photo
Detector
Schmitt
Trigger
Current Voltage
Waveforms
Encoder
Disk

Incremental Encoders
The majority of all incremental encoders have a second light source and sensor (Channel B) located over the windows on
the disk. Channel B is mechanically offset one half window from Channel A's light source and photo-detector.
Channels A and B will produce two square waves that are 90 electrical degrees apart. By monitoring the phase shift of
both channels A and B one can determine direction. For example, if channel B leads channel A, that could indicate
counter clockwise rotation. If channel A was to lead channel B, the opposite would be true. The waveform shown below
is considered standard for forward rotation.

An additional benefit of a quadrature encoder is the ability to multiply the encoder disk resolution by four. By counting
the leading and trailing edge of each window on both channels, each slot of window now gives four counts. Using this
procedure, a 1000 window disk can have a resolution of 4000 counts per revolution.
User Abuse
Even with the appropriate package, shaft, bearings and disc, the user must exercise care to avoid undue shock and abuse.
In particular, the glass code disc can be damaged if the encoder is dropped or if a pulley is hammered onto the shaft. The
typical shock and vibration specification for an industrial encoder is 50 grams of shock of 11 msec, as well as a vibration
of 20 grams from 2-2000 Hz. In applications utilizing gears or drive belts, excessive radial (side) loading on the shaft can
shorten bearing life. Therefore great care should be taken when tensioning an encoder's drive belt.
Channel A
Channel A
Channel B
Channel B
Quadrature Encoder with
Complementary Outputs

Name: Absolute Encoder

Type of Signal: Grey code
Type of Information: Position verification
Rating: Counts/turn
#Disks
#Turns
Maintenance: Replace as needed, Breakout box (grey
code interpreter, PLC display

Absolute Encoders
Basics of Absolute Encoders
An absolute encoder is a position verification device that provides unique position information for each shaft location.
The location is independent of all other locations, unlike the incremental encoder, where a count from a reference is
required to determine position.
In an absolute encoder, there are several concentric tracks, unlike the incremental encoder, with its single track. A
simplified absolute encoder disk is shown below.
Grey Code for an Absolute Encoder Disk

Each track has a separate and independent light source. As the light passes through a slot a high state (true "1") is
created. If light does not pass through the disk a low state (false "0") is created. The position of the shaft can be
identified through the pattern of "1's" and "0's".
The tracks of an absolute encoder vary in slot size, moving from smaller at the outside edge to larger towards the center,
the pattern of slots is also staggered with respect to preceding and succeeding tracks. The number of tracks determines
the amount of position information that can be derived from the encoder disk-resolution. For example, if the disk has ten
tracks, the resolution of the encoder would be 2
10
or 1,024 positions per revolution.
For reliability, it is desirable to have the disks constructed of metal rather than glass. A metal disk is not as fragile, and
has a lower inertia.
Absolute Encoder Output
The disk pattern of an absolute encoder is in machine-readable code, usually binary, grey code or a variant of grey.

Grey Code for an Absolute Encoder Disk
The figure above represents a simple binary output with four bits of information if the current location was at the
equivalent to the decimal 2 (0-0-1-0 binary). Moving clockwise from the current position, the next decimal number is not
3 but 6 (0-1-1-0 binary). Moving counter-clockwise from the current position, the next decimal number would be 3(0-0-
1-1). For this reason the output of the absolute encoder is usually decoded by a microprocessor.
Multi-turn Absolute Encoders
Gearing an additional absolute disk to the primary high-resolution disk provides for turns counting, so that unique
position information is available over multiple revolutions. Here is an example of how an encoder with 1,024 discrete
positions per revolution becomes an absolute device for 524,288 discrete positions.
The primary high-resolution disk has 1,024 discrete positions per revolution. A second disk with three tracks of
information will be attached to the high-resolution disk with a gearing ratio of 8:1. The absolute encoder now turns 8
complete rotations for each rotation of the shaft, or 8,192 discrete positions. Adding a third disk geared 8:1 and a fourth
disk geared 8:1 would provide 512 turns of the high-resolution disk to each turn of the shaft and therefore, 524,288
discrete absolute positions. Encoders using this technique are called multi-turn absolute encoders.

Resolvers
The resolver is a form of synchro (resolvers are very often called synchro resolvers) in which the sine-cosine windings on
the stator are displaced mechanically at 90 from each other instead of 120 as in synchros. The resolver therefore
exploits the sinusoidal relationship between the shaft angle and the output voltage. The primary or source winding is
placed on the rotor.
In outward appearance, resolvers are very similar to synchros and are produced in the standard synchro frame diameters.
Internally, resolvers come in many forms with a wide variety of winding
configurations and transformation ratios. The simplest resolver would have
a rotor with a single winding and a stator with two windings at 90 to each
other. It would be represented as shown in the figure below.
Name: Resolver

Type of Signal: AC/Amplitude Modulated
Type of Information: Speed = Freq.
Direction = Phase
Angular position = Sin/Cos
Rating: Voltage of carries
# poles (up to 4)
Maintenance: Calibration
Alignment
DC Drives

Analog DC Drives
One of the mainstays of DC Drives is the analog drive. The analog drive does not use a microprocessor or other forms of
digital processing. The transistor and the operational amplifier are the active components in the drive. The analog drive
is cheaper to build which is why it is still being made today.
Digital DC Drives
The analog drive used transistors and op amps to perform its control functions. The digital drive is different in that it uses
a microprocessor to bring about its control functions. The typical digital drive will have a logic and control board as the
center of its drive control system. One of the benefits gained through the use of digital drives is their ability to
communicate with other digital systems as shown below.

DC Drive Interface Circuits
Typical interface circuits that can be applied to either analog or digital drives are shown in the figure below.
The most recognized DC drive interfaces are the AC supply, the armature (A1 - A2), and the field (F1 - F2).
The feedback circuit can be a tachometer or it can be an optical encoder, an AC generator, a linear voltage displacement
transformer, and even a current transformer.
The drive condition circuit varies from a simple LED, to selectable conditions that will cause an output to change state.
These can be conditions such as "drive at speed" or "drive in current limit". These conditions are outputs from the drive
that can be used in external circuits.
The run permissives include all of the external circuits that enable the drive. These can be safety gates, interlocks or
contacts from another drive showing that it is "running at speed".

The speed reference circuit is shown as a three-wire connection. The most common manual configuration is a three-wire
pot used to manually set the speed reference. Other sources for the speed reference are an analogue output card from a
PLC or a motion controller like the Allen Bradley IMC 121. These basic interface circuits can be identified on almost all
drives. Recognizing them and being able to verify their function is a prime responsibility of troubleshooters.

DC Drive Block Diagram
A typical block diagram of a DC drive's circuits which, can be applied to either analog or digital drives is shown in the
figure below.
RUN
PERMISSIVES
ERROR
CIRCUIT
SYNC
CIRCUIT
CLAMPING
CIRCUIT
DELAY
CIRCUIT
ELECTRONIC
POWER
SUPPLY
FIRING
CIRCUIT
POWER
CIRCUIT
DC
MOTOR
REFERENCE
FEEDBACK
ACLine
ACLine

DC Drive Block Descriptions
Error Circuit - Compares reference and feedback signals and produces an error signal for any correction needed.
Usually contains two loops.
(1) Major loop - the regulation loop
(2) Minor loop - the current loop (much faster than the major loop)
Sync Circuit - Provides a time frame or "window" where the gate pulse may be developed. It synchronizes the drive
with the incoming line voltage.
Delay Circuit - Produces a signal that triggers the firing circuit exactly where the gate pulse is to be placed within the
sync window. This is the timing function of the drive. Usually produces a ramp voltage that will trigger the firing circuit
at a particular level.
Firing Circuit - Uses the signal developed by the Delay Circuit to generate a pulse with proper voltage, current, and time
so that the pulse will fire the SCR's.
Power Circuit - Contains the power devices, SCR's, and diodes to drive the motor.
Electronic Power Supply - Supplies all the necessary D.C. voltages to the electronic circuits.
Clamping Circuit - Limits the drive in some manner. It may not allow the drive to run at all or may limit the drive in
current, speed, etc.
Run Permissives - Any conditions that must be met to run the drives, such as close to run circuits, E-stops, safeties, etc.
Usually external inputs to the drive.
Basic DC
Motor
Principles

Electromotive Force
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field it is subjected to an electromotive force. The direction of
the force is given by the right hand rule.

F = Force on the conductor in newtons.
B = Flux density.
I = Current in amperes.
The electromotive force is a result of the two magnetic fields and their interaction. The right hand rule is one way to
establish the direction of force, another is the basic magnetic laws. Like poles repel and opposite poles attract. The
permanent magnets flux lines travel from north to south. The left hand rule would indicate the flux lines around the wire.
Once the flux lines from both sources are established the direction of force is known, flux lines traveling in opposite
directions-attract.
-V
+V
I
N
S

Torque
Torque is produced when a force exerts a twisting action on a body, tending to make it rotate.
T = Fr , where T = Torque, F = Force, and r = radius
The developed torque is directly proportional to:
B: the flux density set up by the permanent magnet.
L: the effective length of the current carrying conductor.
I: the amount of current in the conductor.
N: the numbers of loops.
D: the distance between the two opposite live conductors.
Torque = BLIND (unit for torque = Nm)
Since B,L,N, and D are constants, the torque depends only on I, the amount of current in the conductor.
Torque is produced in a DC Motor through the interaction of two magnetic fields.
This force is the result of Field Flux (
f
) and Armature Flux (
arm
).
T = k
f

arm
To change the speed of a DC Motor, you must affect the torque equilibrium.
If a motor is at constant speed:
T
mtr
= T
load
.
To accelerate, this relationship must be taken out of equilibrium:
T
mtr
> T
load

Shunt DC Motor
Equivalent circuit of a D.C. Shunt Motor
By using Mesh analysis, we can obtain the following equation describing a Shunt Wound DC Motor:
V
line
= V
cemf
+ I
arm
R
arm
(neglecting L
arm
)
V
line
is the instantaneous voltage potential from the DC Drive Controller that is applied directly to the armature. As we
have seen before V
cemf
can be expressed as:
V
cemf
= k
f
S
k = motor constants
f
= field flux
S = speed
Increasing V
line
will increase the amount of I
arm
that will flow. This will likewise increase the torque delivered to the
motor increasing its speed. The V
cemf
will naturally increase with speed causing I
arm
to decrease. However, I
arm
will settle
to a value that is higher than its original value. Therefore, the end result is an increase in motor speed. A similar
statement could be made for a decrease in V
line
. It can therefore be seen that the speed of a Shunt Wound DC Motor is
controlled by manipulating V
line
.
Combining the two above equations, we can obtain an expression describing the speed of a Shunt Wound DC Motor.
To avoid confusion let's reiterate that we control the speed of a DC Motor by controlling I
arm
. This may seem to contradict
our last statement, which said that we vary V
line
to control the speed. However, our previous discussion also revealed that
a change in V
line
would produce a similar change in I
arm
.
It can therefore be concluded that both arguments are true since they both make the same statement.
Our equation for the speed of a DC Motor also reveals another method of controlling speed, through the variation of
f
.
This may seem odd at first, so let's consider a scenario. Let's say we decreased
f
. This would cause a decrease in V
cemf
,
which in turn would cause an increase in I
arm
. The result would be an increase in motor speed. As stated in an earlier
discussion, this is referred to as Field Weakening.
uF
arm arm L
k
R I
-
V
= S
VL
R ARM
RF
L ARM
V CEMF

In an effort to reduce its inertia, as little wire as possible is used during the winding of the armature. This means that the
resistance of the armature is very low, usually less than 1 . This low resistance, combined with the absence of V
cemf
,
requires that V
line
be reduced during starting in order to keep I
arm
from reaching dangerously high levels. With the field
connected in parallel with the armature, a reduction of V
line
will also reduce the magnetic flux produced by the field
windings. Without the presence of field flux the motor will exhibit poor starting torque.
To improve the starting torque of a Shunt Wound DC Motor, the field is excited by a different source than of the
armature. This allows the field to be at full strength at starting and greatly improves the starting torque. This
configuration is referred to as the Separately Excited DC Shunt Motor and is the most common type found in industry.
The equivalent circuit is shown below.
Equivalent circuit of a Separately Excited D.C. Shunt Motor
The low resistance of the armature (1 to 3 ohms), combined with its low inductance, does allow it to be very responsive.
In the above equation, I
A
R
A
is at maximum only 5% of V
L
, because R
A
is so small. Therefore, the most effect on speed a
change in current from no load to full load can have is 5%.
The small armature resistance and the small effect armature current has on speed makes the Shunt Motor the best of all
DC Motor configurations in the area of speed regulation.
The separately excited DC shunt wound motor is by far the most utilized DC motor in industry; therefore, it will be the
only one we discuss in detail.

uF
arm arm L
k
R I
-
V
= S
100 x
Speed Load Full
Speed Load Full - Speed Load No
= SR%
VL
R ARM
L ARM
V CEMF
RF
VF

Series DC Motor
Because the field is now in series with the armature, the current in each will be equal. Therefore, some of the equations
describing the motor operation will change slightly.
For example, the equation for speed now becomes:
The expression for torque will also change:
T = k I
2
arm
The series motor will also exhibit its own unique characteristics. One of these characteristics is its high starting torque.
Because the field is now in series with the armature, reduced voltage starting is no longer necessary. The resistance of
the field winding will prevent the armature current from reaching a level that would prove destructive.
A less desirable characteristic of the series motor is its poor speed regulation. The field winding possesses a very high
inductance. Since inductance opposes a change in the magnitude or direction of current flow, the motor cannot respond
to quick load changes. This obviously affects its ability to maintain a constant speed over a varying load.
As seen from the speed formula above, as I
arm
decreases, speed increases. Therefore, care must be taken to never operate
the motor unloaded, or it will run away.
I
k
)
R
+
R
(
I
-
V
= S
arm
f arm arm L
VL
R ARM
RF
L ARM
V CEMF
Power
Supplies

DIODES

1. The diode acts like a check valve, allowing current flow in one direction and restricting it in the other direction.
2. Current flows from cathode to anode (electron current flow).
3. Germanium Diodes are normally low current, used on signal type circuits with about .3 volt drop when forward
biased.
4. Silicon Diodes are normally high current, used on power supply type circuits with about .7 volt drop when
forward biased.
HOW TO CHECK WITH AN OHMMETER USING R1 SCALE

Note: This value is only approximate. It depends on the type of diode, ohmmeter battery condition and connections.
A. Low power devices
B. Medium power devices
C. High power devices

Schematic Symbol
+ -
Anode Cathode

Physical Device
+
-
Anode Cathode

Forward Bias
Reverse Bias
Black
Lead
+
-
M
Red
Lead
+
-
Red
Lead
Black
Lead
M

50 - 200O O

HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION

Shown above is a diode connected in an AC circuit. Current can flow only from the cathode to the anode. With an AC
voltage source applied, the diode will conduct when the supply voltage connected to the anode is positive. During the
positive half cycle, the diode conducts and the supply voltage is delivered to the load. Since the diode is a semiconductor
device, there is a voltage drop across it while it is conducting. The two main types of materials used for diodes are silicon
and germanium. Silicon diodes have approximately .7 volt drop while germanium has approximately .3 volt drop. This
diode drop is very small but has to be considered for the voltage level delivered to the load.
When the supply voltage reverses polarity at the end of the positive half cycle, the diode no longer conducts. It now acts
as an open circuit and no current is delivered to the load. Consequently, the diode only conducts during the positive half
cycles which converts the AC voltage source to a pulsating DC voltage. The voltage supplied to the load is alternating
but not changing polarity, therefore, it is a usable DC voltage. This is half-wave rectification since only half of the input
waveform is usable.
R
Di od
e
Voltage
in
Voltage
out
L
+
-
+
-

Let's evaluate the value of the DC output voltage to the load if the input supply voltage is 24 volts rms. The rms value of
the AC input waveform is the effective value for the complete sine wave. Since the diode blocks part of the waveform,
this rms value does not apply to the DC output waveform. We must convert the rms value to a peak value so we can
calculate the DC output voltage.
INPUT
V
=
V
.707

INPUT
V
=
24V
.707

INPUT
V
= 33.946volts
PK
rms
PK
PK
This 33.946 volts is the peak value for the input waveform. The voltage drop of the diode now has to be subtracted from
this peak value. Let's use a silicon type diode.
OUTPUT
V
= INPUT
V
- DD

OUTPUT
V
= 33.946 - .7 volts

OUTPUT
V
= 33.246volts
PK PK
PK
PK
The rms value of the AC input waveform is the effective value for the complete sine wave. This value can't be used for
the output waveform since it is not a sine wave anymore. The average value for half-wave DC must be used.
AV
PK
AV
AV
V
=
OUTPUT
V

V
= 33.246volts x .318

V
= 10.583volts
t
This V
AV
value is the effective or average DC voltage which can be used just as though it were a battery. Notice that we
used p in this calculation. Remember p represents 180 in radian mode. This is the average DC voltage usable for this
basic half-wave rectifier.

FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION
Shown above are two diodes connected in an AC circuit. Notice that the transformer has a center tapped secondary
winding with the load connected from there to the cathodes of the two diodes. With an AC voltage source applied, the
diode (D1) will conduct during the positive half-cycle and (D2) conducts during the negative half-cycle. There is still
only one diode drop to be considered since only one is conducting at any time. Also notice that there is a transformer and
the voltage/current/turns relationships have to be considered.
Again the voltage supplied to the load is alternating but not changing polarity. It is a usable DC voltage and now there
are two output cycles for one input cycle. This is full-wave rectification.
Let's evaluate the value of the DC output voltage to the load if the input supply voltage across half of the secondary
winding of the transformer is 24 volts rms. This will give us a good comparison to the half-wave calculations from
before. We must again convert the rms value to a peak value so we can calculate the DC output voltage.
R
L
D1
D2
Input Peak Voltage
+
-
Output Peak Voltage +
-
- Diode Drop


INPUT
V
=
V
.707

INPUT
V
=
24V
.707

INPUT
V
= 33.946volts
PK
rms
PK
PK
This 33.946 volts is the peak value for the input waveform applied to the rectifier. The voltage drop of the diode again
has to be subtracted from this peak value.
OUTPUT
V
= INPUT
V
- DD

OUTPUT
V
= 33.946 - .7 volts

OUTPUT
V
= 33.246volts
PK PK
PK
PK
The rms value of the AC input waveform is the effective value for the complete sine wave. This value also can't be used
for the output waveform since it is not a sine wave either. The average value for this full-wave DC must be used.
AV
PK
AV
AV
V
= 2(
OUTPUT
V
)

V
= 33.246volts x .637

V
= 21.165volts
t
This V
AV
value is the effective or average DC voltage which can be used just as though it were a battery. Notice that this
relationship is the same as for half-wave rectification, except we have multiplied by 2. This is the average DC voltage
usable for this basic full-wave rectifier.

FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFICATION

Shown above are four diodes connected in a bridge configuration. Notice that the transformer is not the center tapped
type. With the secondary voltage applied to the bridge, diodes (D1 and D4) will conduct during the positive half-cycle
and (D2 and D3) conducts during the negative half-cycle. Now there will be two diode drops to be considered since two
diodes are conducting. Also don't forget to consider the voltage/current/turns relationships due to the transformer.
Again the voltage supplied to the load is alternating but not changing polarity. It is a usable DC voltage and there are two
output cycles for one input cycle. This is full-wave bridge rectification.
Let's evaluate the value of the DC output voltage to the load if the input supply voltage of the secondary winding of the
transformer is 24 volts rms. We must again convert the rms value to a peak value so we can calculate the DC output
voltage.
Input Peak Voltage
+
-
Output Peak Voltage
+
-
- Diode Drops
R
L
D1 D2
D4 D3


INPUT
V
=
V
.707

INPUT
V
=
24V
.707

INPUT
V
= 33.946volts
PK
rms
PK
PK
This 33.946 volts is the peak value for the input waveform applied to the rectifier. The voltage drop of the two diodes
has to be subtracted from this peak value.
OUTPUT
V
= INPUT
V
- DD

OUTPUT
V
= 33.946 - 1.4 volts

OUTPUT
V
= 32.546volts
PK PK
PK
PK
The rms value of the AC input waveform is the effective value for the complete sine wave. This value also can't be used
for the output waveform since it is not a sine wave either. The average value for this full-wave DC must be used.
AV
PK
AV
AV
V
= 2(
OUTPUT
V
)

V
= 32.546volts x .637

V
= 20.732volts
t

POWER SUPPLY FILTERING WITH A CAPACITOR
The most common method of reducing the ripple of a rectified signal and increasing the average voltage is the placement
of a filter capacitor in parallel with the load. The energy storage capabilities of a capacitor make it an ideal device for this
application. Because the load voltage is DC, we can use an electrolytic capacitor, which are polarity sensitive.
Electrolytic capacitors are very popular in this application because of their availability and low cost.
The capacitor will quickly charge during a portion of each half-cycle and then slowly discharge, causing the full-wave
rectified waveform to take the shape of the one shown below. As can be seen, the load voltage never drops below V
LOAD
MIN
. The result is a more continuous load current and increased DC or average voltage. The peak to peak ripple value of
this new waveform is a product of the size of the capacitor added to the circuit. Since the waveform is not linear, the
sizing of the capacitor would be a complicated process.
D1 D2
D4 D3
R
L

Time
+ Voltage
- Voltage
OLD DC AVERAGE VOLTAGE
NEW DC AVERAGE VOLTAGE
V
LOAD MIN
V
LOAD PEAK
Programmable
Logic
Controllers

What is a PLC?

A programmable logic controller is a solid-state industrialized computer system
designed to perform the logic functions previously accomplished by components such
as electromechanical relays, drum switches, mechanical times/counters, etc., for the
control and operation of manufacturing process equipment and machinery.

Why change from relay logic? Even though the electromechanical relay (control relays,
pneumatic timer relays, etc.) has served well for many generations, often, under
adverse conditions, the ever-increasing sophistication and complexity of modern
processing equipment requires faster acting, more reliable control functions than
electromechanical relays and/or timing devices can offer. Relays have to be hardwired
to perform a specific function, and when the system requirements change, the relay
wiring has to be changed or modified. In many cases complete control panels had to be
replaced since it was not economically feasible to rewire the old panels with each
system changeover.

It was, in fact, the requirements of the auto industry and other highly specialized, high-
speed repetitive manufacturing processes that created a demand for smaller, faster
acting, and more reliable control devices. The electrical/electronics industry responded
with modular-designed, solid-state electronic devices. These early devices, while
offering solid-state reliability, lower power consumption, expandability, and elimination of
much of the hard-wiring, also brought with them a new language. The language
consisted of AND gates, OR gates, NOT gates, OFF RETURN MEMORY, J-K flip flops,
and so on. Most of industrys technical staff resisted these new systems.

What happened to simple relay logic and ladder diagrams they asked the solid-state
device manufactures. The reluctance of the end user to learn a new language and the
advent of the microprocessor gave the industry what is now known as the
programmable logic controller (PLC). Richard (Dick) E. Morley, who was the founder
of the Modicon Corporation, invented the first programmable logic controller in 1969.

Internally there are still AND gates, OR gates, and so forth in the processor, but the
design engineers have preprogrammed the PLC so that programs can be entered using
RELAY LADDER LOGIC. While RELAY LADDER LOGIC may not have the mystique of
other computer languages such as FORTRAN and COBOL, it is a high level, real world,
graphic language that is understood by most electricians.


The National Electrical Manufacturing Association (NEMA) defines a programmable
controller as follows:

A programmable controller is a digital electronic apparatus with a programmable
memory for storing instructions to implement specific functions, such as logic,
sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic to control machines and processes.

What does a PLC consist of, and how is it different from a computer control system?
The PLC consists of a programming device (keyboard), processor unit, power supply,
and an input/output interface such as the system illustrated below.

POWER SUPPLY
PROCESSOR INPUTS OUTPUTS
TERMINAL
Power Supply
I
N
P
U
T
S
O
U
T
P
U
T
Term
Process

NOTE: An interface occurs when two systems come together and interact, or
communicate. In the case of the PLC, the communication or interaction is between the
inputs (limit switches, push buttons, sensors, etc.), outputs (coils, solenoids, lights, and
so forth), and the processor. This interface happens when any input voltage (AC or DC)
or current signal is changed to a low-voltage DC signal that the processor uses
internally for the decision making process.

PLCs are designed to be operated by plant engineers and maintenance personnel with
limited knowledge of computers. The PLC is like the computer, which has an internal
memory for its operation and storage of a program, the PLC also has memory for
storing the user program, or LOGIC, as well as a memory for controlling the operation of
a process machine or driven equipment.
PUSH-
BUTTON
PLC
MOTOR
STARTER
MOTOR
CONTROL CIRCUIT POWER CIRCUIT
Processor
Power Supply
Inputs
Outputs
The actual
interfacing
takes place in
both of these
places

But unlike the computer, the PLC is programmed in RELAY LADDER LOGIC, not one of
the computer languages. It should be stated, however, that some PLCs will use a form
of Boolean Algebra to enter the RELAY LADDER LOGIC. Some of the newest PLC
software packages are now programming with graphical blocks, similar to a flowchart.

The PLC is also designed to operate in the industrial environment with wide ranges of
ambient temperature, vibration, and humidity, and is not usually affected by the
electrical noise that is inherent in most industrial locations.

Maybe one of the biggest, or at least most significant, differences between the PLC and
a computer is that PLCs have been designed for installation and maintenance by plant
electricians who are not required to be highly-skilled electronics technicians.
Troubleshooting is simplified in most PLCs because they include fault indicators,
blown-fuse indicators, input and output status indicators, and written fault information
that can be displayed on the programmer.

Although the PLC and the computer are different in many ways, the computer is often
used for programming and monitoring the PLC. Using computers in conjunction with
PLCs will be discussed in later chapters.

A typical PLC can be divided into four components. These components, as shown
below, consist of the processor unit, power supply, the input/output sections
(interfaces), and the programming device.

POWER SUPPLY
PROCESSOR INPUTS OUTPUTS
Power Supply
I
N
P
U
T
S
O
U
T
P
U
T
Term
Process

The processor unit houses the processor which is the decision-maker, or brain of the
system. The brain is a microprocessor-based system that replaces control relays,
counters, timers, sequences, and so forth, and is designed so that the user can enter
the desired program in RELAY LADDER LOGIC. The processor then makes all the
decisions necessary to carry out the user program, based on the status of the inputs
and outputs for control of a machine or process. It can also perform arithmetic
functions, data manipulation, and communications between the local input/output
section, remotely located I/O sections, and/or other networked PLC systems.

NOTE: Some manufacturers refer to the processor as a CPU or central processing unit.
Shown below is the family of PLC 5 Enhanced
Processors. To the right is a line drawing that shows
the: status LEDs, keyswitch, communication ports,
battery cover.

The power supply is necessary to convert 120 or 240 volts (V) AC voltages to the low
voltage DC required for the logic circuits of the processor, and for the internal power
required for the I/O modules. The power supply can be a separate unit, one of modular
design that plugs into the processor rack(shown below), or one, depending on the
manufacturer, that is an integral part of the processor.

NOTE: The power supply does not supply power for the actual input or output devices
themselves; it only provides the power needed for the internal circuitry of the input and
output modules. DC power for the input and output devices, if required, must be
provided from a separate source.

The size or amperage rating of the power supply is based on the size, number, and type
of I/O modules that are to be used. Power supplies are normally available with output
current ratings of 3-20 amps.

NOTE: Consider future needs and the possibility of expansion when initially sizing the
power supply. It is cheaper in the longrun to install a larger power supply initially than to
try and add additional capacity at a later date.

These power supply modules are used in 1771 I/O chassis to provide
5Vdc power directly to the chassis back plane. These power supplies
occupy one or two slots and can provide up to 8 amps per supply to the
I/O chassis
Slot mounted power supplies

Input and output modules, referred to as the I/O (I for input and O for output) are where
the real-world devices are connected. The real-world input (I) devices can be push
buttons, limit switches, analog sensors, thumbwheels, selector switches, etc., while the
real-world output devices (O) can be hard-wired to motor starter coils, solenoid valves,
indicator lights, positioning valves, and the like. The term real world is used to separate
actual devices that exist and must be physically wired as compared to the internal
functions of the PLC system that duplicate the function of relays, timers, counters, and
so on, even though none physically exists. This may seem a bit strange and hard to
understand at this point, but the distinction between what the processor can do
internally-which eliminates the need for all the previously-used control relays, timers,
counters, and so forth-will be graphically shown and readily understandable later in the
text.

Real-world input and output devices are of two types: discrete and analog. Discrete I/O
devices are either ON or OFF, open or closed, while analog devices have an infinite
number of possible values. Examples of analog input devices are temperature probes,
and pressure indicators. The input from an analog input
The input/output section consists of input modules and output modules. The
number of input and output modules necessary is dictated by the requirements
of the equipment that is to be controlled by a PLC. Modules are plugged-in or
added as required.

A 16 point SLC A fully populated SLC Chassis A 16 point
SLC
Input Card Power Supply on the left Output card
Processor in the first slot
Then six cards in the I/O section

device (varying voltage or current) is converted by way of an Analog-to-digital converter
(ADC). The conversion value is proportional to the analog input signal and is stored in
memory for later use or comparison. Limit switches, push buttons, and the like, are
examples of discrete input devices. The drawing below shows discrete inputs and
outputs.

Examples of discrete output devices are motor starter coils, solenoids, and indicator
lamps. Analog output devices require varying voltage or current levels to control the
analog output. The varying value will be accomplished using a Digital-to-Analog
Converter (DAC). The analog output normally is isolated from the output logic circuitry
by means of optical coupling.

PROCESSOR
MEMORY INPUTS OUTPUTS
POWER SUPPLY
M
-V +V L1 L2

A reference was made earlier in this chapter to the I/O section as an interface.
Although not a common reference, it is an accurate one. The I/O section contains the
circuitry necessary to convert input voltages of 120-240 V AC or 0-24 V DC, etc., from
discrete input devices to low-level DC voltages for the processor. Similarly, the output
module changes low-level DC signals from the processor to 120-240 V AC or DC
voltages required to operate the discrete output devices. This is a brief overview of the
I/O section and its function. How input and output devices are wired to I/O modules and
more information about the module circuitry itself is covered in Chapter 2.

The programming device is used to enter the desired program or sequence of
operation into the PLC memory. The program is entered using RELAY LADDER
LOGIC, and it is this program that determines the sequence of operation and ultimate
control of the process equipment or driven machinery. The programming device can
be any one of the three types: hand-held; dedicated; or personal computer.

The hand-held programmer used either LED (light emitting diode) or LCD (liquid crystal
display). The hand-held programmers are small, lightweight, and convenient to use in
the field. The small size, however, limits the display capabilities, which in turn limits its
effectiveness for reviewing the program or using the programmer for troubleshooting.

Several manufacturers offer a dedicated programmer that uses a standard video display
terminal (VDT) for displaying the program. The use of a standard viewing screen allows
more of the program to be viewed at one time and makes troubleshooting and memory
access much easier.

A personal computer (PC) can be used to program most of the PLCs on the market
today if it can run DOS and it is IBM compatible. Some PLCs require only software to
communicate with a personal computer, while others require special hardware keys
and/or communication cards for them to work successfully as programming devices.
Once communicators between the personal computer and the PLC have been
established, the PC provides all the benefits of the dedicated programmer, plus it
provides program storage as well as runs all the various software packages we have
come to depend on today such as spreadsheets, word processing, and graphics.

Due to the versatility and lower cost-when compared to dedicated programmers- PCs
have become the most popular programming device.

Shown in the figure above are just two of the possible communications configurations
possible with a personal computer and a PLC.


SUMMARY

Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) have made it possible to precisely
control large process machines and driven equipment with less physical
wiring and lower installation costs than is required with standard
electromechanical relays, pneumatic timers, drum switches, and so on. The
programmability allows for fast and easy changes in the RELAY LADDER
LOGIC to meet the changing needs of the process or driven equipment
without the need for expensive time-consuming rewiring. By designing the
modern programmable logic controller (PLC) to be technician friendly, the
PLC is easier to program and to be used by maintenance technicians who
have little or no electronics background.

Number
Systems

INTRODUCTION

This chapter introduces the number systems and digital codes that are most often encountered in
programmable logic controllers. The most common number systems used for addressing the input and
output assignments as well as developing programs are the binary, decimal, hexadecimal and octal systems.

A familiarity with number systems is a necessity when working with PLC's. This is true because the basic
function of these devices is to represent, store, and operate on numbers. In general, PLC's work on binary
numbers in one form or another to do even the simplest of operations. The work being done in the PLC is
normally unseen to the troubleshooter but there will be occasions when they will need to interpret the various
codes or quantities being used.

First let's review the basics of number systems:

Each system has a base or radix.
Each system can be used for counting.
Each system can be used to represent quantities or codes.
Each system uses a set of symbols.
Each system uses positional weighing.
Each system can be converted to another.

NUMBER SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION

When working with different number systems, it is often necessary to have some method of
identifying which number system the digits are being used in. This is even more evident
with numbers using only 0's and 1's. For example, the number 101 is one hundred and
one in the decimal system. Yet, in the binary system it represents a quantity of five.

To distinguish one system from another a small subscript number is generally written after the number. The
identifying subscript is the base or radix of the number system being used. Several examples are given
below.
101
2
= 5
10

101
10
= 1100101
2

Remember the base of a number system is set by the number of symbols used in that
system. The number systems normally encountered while using PLC's are base 2, base 8,
base 10, and base 16. These systems are labeled binary, octal, decimal and hexadecimal
respectively. To study the common characteristics of these number systems, lets study
the most familiar system, the decimal system.


DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

People usually learn to count to ten then by tens and that is the decimal system. The decimal system is a
base 10 system. It has 10 symbols or digits. This number system is based on the fact that most people have
either ten fingers or toes, so we learned to count in groups of ten. The symbols or digits for the decimal
system are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. We use these symbols to represent quantities that we have
counted.

The decimal system is so familiar to us that we don't even think about what to do if we count beyond the basic
group. How do we show a number with a value greater than 9? The method we are so familiar with is the
same method used in all number systems, positional weighing. As shown below, each position can be
expressed as a power of ten. Starting with 10
0
as the least significant position, each position moving to the
left is then increased by a power of one. The first position is called the units place and any digit from 0-9 can
be used there. The next position to the left of the units place is the tens place; next is the hundreds place, the
thousands place and so on, with each place expanding the capability of the decimal system by a power of 10
as shown below.

PLACE NAME THOUSANDS HUNDREDS TENS UNITS
BASE/EXPONENT 10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0

DIGITS 0-9 0-9 0-9 0-9

What we don't even think about when we use the decimal system is how we interpret the
digits in the different positions into a total value. In any number system, the digit in a
position is multiplied by its positional weight, which is the system base to the positions
exponent. Then we add all of these products. In other words each position's digit times its
positional weight is added to the total number.


For example if we used the number 1948 in the base 10 system as an
example, we actually do the following conversion without thinking
about it.

THOUSANDS HUNDREDS TENS UNITS
10
3
= 1000 10
2
= 100 10
1
= 10 10
0
= 1
1 9 4 8
1 x 10
3
= 1000 9 x 10
2
= 900 4 x 10
1
= 40 8 x 10
0
= 8

8
40
900
+1000
1948
10

The concept of positional weighing is common to almost all number systems. As we can see in the example
above the exponent of the base starts with zero for the least significant digit and increases by one for each
position to the left. This will be true for each of the number systems we study.

BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

The basic distinguishing characteristic of a number system is its base. The base indicates the number of
symbols or digits used in that system. The binary system has a base of 2 since only the symbols or digits 1
and 0 are used in counting or representing quantities.

The binary system is simple but inconvenient to use because we are not familiar with it. Once you understand
the system it is easy to work with. You can see the benefits of the system when it comes to constructing the
hardware used in digital systems.

In a digital system using the binary code only two states need to be represented, on or off, a 1 or a 0. If we
used the decimal code we would have to construct a circuit that could generate ten distinct states. A circuit
that has only two states is simpler and cheaper to construct and much more reliable.

If we apply the concepts that we know are the same in all number systems, we can consider the table below
for a binary number.

PLACE NAME EIGHTS FOURS TWOS ONES
BASE/EXPONENT 2
3
2
2
2
1
2
0

DIGITS 0-1 0-1 0-1 0-1

What we will have to think about when we use the binary system is how we interpret the digits in the different
positions into a total value. As in any number system, the digit in a position is multiplied by its positional
weight. Then we add all of these products. In other words each position's digit times its positional weight is
added to the total number.


For example if we used the number 1011 in the base 2 system as an example, we can do the following
conversion.

EIGHTS FOURS TWOS ONES
2
3
=8 2
2
=4 2
1
=2 2
0
=1
1 0 1 1
1x2
3
=8 0x2
2
=0 1x2
1
=2 1x2
0
=1

1
2
0
+8
11
10

The quantity represented by the binary number 1011 was determined by multiplying its
positional weight by each digit and obtaining a sum. We have just converted from one
number system, binary, to another, decimal, by using the positional weight method. When
we analyze the size of the number, we find that the binary system did not represent as
large of number with four positions as the decimal system did. This is the binary system's
main drawback. Even though the binary system is cumbersome for large numbers a digital
machine must use some form of number system using 0's and 1's.

HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

The hexadecimal number system was designed to overcome the shortcomings of the binary system. The hex
system uses 16 different symbols. Therefor it is a base 16 number system. The symbols used are 0-9 and A-
F, with 0 being the least and F being the most significant. The letters are used because it is necessary to
represent 16
10
different values with a single symbol for each value as shown below.

Decimal
Binary
Hex

0 0000 0
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
4 0100 4
5 0101 5
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
10 1010 A
11 1011 B
12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F

When comparing the three number systems side by side in the above table we can see
that the hexadecimal system uses fewer characters to represent larger numbers. As with
the other number systems the hexadecimal system can be represented by its decimal
equivalent using the positional weight method.

The table below shows the hexadecimal positional weight method.

PLACE NAME 4096'S 256'S 16'S ONES
BASE/EXPONENT 16
3
16
2
16
1
16
0

DIGITS 0-F 0-F 0-F 0-F

In any number system, the digit in a position is multiplied by its positional weight. Then we
add all of these products. In other words each position's digit times its positional weight is
added to the total number. The one thing we have to do in the hexadecimal system is use
the decimal value of each hexadecimal digit as shown in the example below. If we used
the number BA4F in the base 16 system as an example, we do the following conversion.

4096's 256's 16's 1'S
16
3
=4096 16
2
=256 16
1
=16 16
0
=1
B A 4 F
11x16
3
=45056 10x16
2
=2560 4x16
1
=64 15x16
0
=15

15
64
2560
+45056
47695
10

We see that the hexadecimal number BA4F is equivalent to the
decimal number 47,695. This illustrates the hexadecimal number
system's ability to represent very large numbers with smaller groups
of digits.


OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM

The last number system that we cover is the octal system. Allen-Bradley uses the octal numbering system for
I/O addressing in the PLC-2 and the PLC-5 families. We need to understand the octal system in order to
simplify the maintenance and troubleshooting of these systems.

Octal means eight, so we can expect this system to have a base 8. This means that this system will only use
the digits 0-7 as shown in the table below.

PLACE NAME 512'S 64'S 8'S 1'S
BASE/EXPONENT 8
3
8
2
8
1
8
0

DIGITS 0-7 0-7 0-7 0-7

Again, as in any number system, the digit in a position is multiplied by its positional weight.
Then we add all of these products. In other words each position's digit times its positional
weight is added to the total number. For example if we used the number 6742 in the base
8 system as an example, we can do the following conversion.

512'S 64'S 8'S 1'S
8
3
=512 8
2
=64 8
1
=8 8
0
=1
6 7 4 2
6x8
3
=3072 7x8
2
=448 4x8
1
=32 2x8
0
=2

2
32
448
+3072
3554
10

By using the positional weight times the digits and then adding the sum of the products, we find that the
number 6742
8
represents the same quantity as the number 3554
10
. We have converted an octal number to a
decimal number.


If we look at the number systems that we have covered in the table below, we recognize the relationships
between them. We see the use of positional weighing and realize that we can convert any of the systems to
decimal.

Decimal Binary Octal Hex

0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F

There is a need to convert between the number systems. It is very common to have to convert from decimal
to octal or octal to hexadecimal. We have seen the method of conversion from binary, hexadecimal, and octal
to decimal is the positional weight method. Now we need to learn some more techniques.


NUMBER SYSTEM CONVERSIONS

First, we will deal with the most direct conversions and the most common. If we have a quantity represented
in the binary format, all we need to do to convert it to hexadecimal or octal is group the digits. In the table
below, the octal numbers are shown below the binary equivalent.

BINARY 111 110 101 100 011 010 001 000
OCTAL 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

The table shows us that a group of three binary digits represent each of the octal digits up to the number
7
8
. How will we convert larger octal numbers? Time for some mathematical shenanigans. Because the
base 8 of the octal system is the third power of 2, which is the base of the binary numbers, the conversion
is simple. Three binary numbers are used to represent each octal digit. Convert each octal digit one at a
time to its binary equivalent, as shown in the examples below.

EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2
2 3 octal 7 6 1 7 5 2
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
010 011 binary 111 110 001 111 101 010

By converting one digit at a time, we have converted 23
8
to 010011
2
and 761752
8
to
111110001111101010
2
. Grouping the binary digits into groups of three and converting them directly to
octal also works as shown in the examples below.

EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2
100 011 101 011 binary 101 111 000 001
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
4 3 5 3 octal 5 7 0 1

This converted the number 100011101011
2
to 4353
8
and the number 101111000001
2
to 5701
8
. The
simplicity of converting from octal to binary and vice versa has many advantages in digital systems. It is
easier to print out, read and record octal numbers than the long strings of binary numbers.


Now we have a quantity represented in the binary format, and we want to convert it to hexadecimal. All
we need to do to convert it to hexadecimal is group the binary digits. In the table below, the hexadecimal
numbers are shown above the binary equivalent.

BINARY 1111 1110 1101 1100 1011 1010 1001 1000
HEX F E D C B A 9 8

The table shows us that a group of four binary digits represent each of the hexadecimal digits F
16
to 8
16
.
The grouping method will also work from 0
16
up to the number 7
16
. How will we convert larger
hexadecimal numbers? The mathematical shenanigans we looked at before again comes into play.
Because the base 16 of the hexadecimal system is the fourth power of 2, which is the base of the binary
numbers, the conversion is simple. Four binary numbers are used to represent each hexadecimal digit.
Convert each hexadecimal digit one at a time to its binary equivalent, as shown in the example below.

HEX 7 F D A 5 C
! ! ! ! ! ! !
BINARY 0111 1111 1101 1010 0101 1100

By converting one digit at a time, we have converted 7FDA5C
16
to 011111111101101001011100
2
.
Grouping the binary digits into groups of four and converting them directly to hexadecimal also works as
shown in the table below.

BINARY 1011 1111 1000 1001
! ! ! ! !
HEX B F 8 9

This converted the number 1011111110001001
2
to BF89
16
. The simplicity of converting from
hexadecimal to binary and vice versa has the same advantages as octal conversions did when working
with digital systems. It is easier to print out, read and record the hexadecimal numbers than the long
strings of binary numbers.


The grouping method also works very well for converting from hex
to octal or vice versa if the binary system is used as an
intermediary. Examine the examples shown below.

EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2
OCTAL 3 4 7 HEX F A
! ! ! ! ! ! !
BINARY 011 100 111 BINARY 1111 1010
REGROUPED REGROUPED
0 1110 0111 11 111 010
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
HEX 0 E 7 OCTAL 3 7 2

The last conversions we will consider will be those from decimal to the other number systems. Each
conversion uses the same method, the divide by base, to convert a decimal number into its system. Start
with a decimal to binary conversion. To convert 227
10
to its binary equivalent, we must divide it by the
base of the binary system and record the remainder. Continue to divide the decimal number until there is
only a remainder as shown below.
Remainder
227 2 = 113 1 (LSB)

113 2 = 56 1

56 2 = 28 0

28 2 = 14 0

14 2 = 7 0

7 2 = 3 1

3 2 = 1 1

1 2 = 0 1 (MSB)

The remainder from the first division is recorded as the least
significant bit and the last remainder is the most significant bit of
the binary number. Therefore:

227
10
= 11100011
2

If we convert the same decimal number to either hex or octal the easiest method is first
to convert to binary then use the grouping method to do the final conversion to either
hex or octal.

BINARY CODED DECIMAL

The last concept in numbers that we have to deal with is not a counting system but a CODE. Binary
coded decimal was introduced as a convenient means for us to handle numbers that had to be input to
digital machines and to interpret numbers output from the machines. The best solution to this need was a
direct conversion code from decimal to digital. In decimal, we have the digits 0-9, in binary coded
decimal; a 4-bit binary number represents each of these decimal digits. The table below shows this.

Decimal Binary BCD
0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0010 0010
3 0011 0011
4 0100 0100
5 0101 0101
6 0110 0110
7 0111 0111
8 1000 1000
9 1001 1001

The BCD representation of a decimal number is obtained simply by replacing each decimal digit by its
four-bit BCD equivalent. The BCD representation of the decimal number 7493
10
is shown below.

7 4 9 3
0111 0100 1001 0011

Typical PLC applications of BCD codes include data entry via thumbwheel switches,
data display via 7-segment displays, input from optical encoders, and many other uses.
Typically the conversion of decimal to BCD or vice versa takes place in the thumbwheel
switch or 7-segment display. The PLC is provided the BCD data and converted
internally to binary code through some instruction. Input or output of BCD takes four
lines for each decimal digit.

To distinguish a BCD coded number, the letters BCD are used as the subscript. For example:239
10
in
BCD is 0010 0011 1001
BCD
.

One advantage of the BCD code is that because so many types of electronic equipment use it as their
input or output format, it has become so accepted that it is almost a standard. Another benefit of BCD is
that the ten BCD code combinations are easy to remember. Once you begin to work with them they may
be almost as recognizable to you as decimal numbers

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