Proceedings oI International ConIerence on Computing Sciences

WILKES100 ICCS 2013

ISBN: 978-93-5107-172-3
Neuro-Fuzzy inIerence system Ior rainIall prediction over
Northern India
Manjushri Pathania
1*
, Gour Sundar Mitra Thakur
2
and Chandra Prakash
3

1, 2, 3
Department of Computer Applications, Lovely Professional University, PB 144 402, India
Abstract
Rain is a key constituent oI the water cycle and plays a vital role in depositing the most part oI the Iresh water on the
Earth. The urban desert island consequences lead to increase in rainIall amount and its intensity. Global warming is also a key
Iactor causing changes in rainIall patterns universally. The Iine particulate matter produced by industrial exhaust and vehicles
exhaust and many human activities Iorms cloud condensation oI pollution which inIluence the chances oI rain. Most oI the
existing models Ior rainIall prediction depends mainly on the historical data. But now it has been proved that pollution and
emission oI greenhouse gases in various region also inIluence the rainIall by considerable amount. In this paper, a new Neuro-
Fuzzy model has been developed to predict rainIall in northern India. InIluence oI rainIall has been measured using a Fuzzy
rule based system and then it has been used with some other Iactors to train a neural network Ior the prediction oI rainIall
amount. The model has been tested with the historical rainIall data Irom northern India surrounding Punjab. 2013 Elsevier
Science. All rights reserved.
2013 Elsevier Science. All rights reserved.
Keywords: RainIall Prediction, ArtiIicial Neural Network, Fuzzy Logic, Neuro-Iuzzy Model.
1. Introduction
Weather Iorecasting is to predict about the weather conditions that what the climate will be like Ior a Iew
time periods. Weather prediction is never that much reliable, as atmospheric environment changes Irequently,
also monitoring oI diIIerent stations and satellite data and images cannot be precise. Many weather Iorecasters
collect data on diIIerent weather conditions like atmospheric pressure, humidity, temperature with the help oI
satellites and radars and try to predict the weather with great accuracy with the analysis oI previous weather data
as climate conditions changes so Irequently. Many models have been proposed till date to predict the weather.
Sunyoung Lee et al. |1| predicted daily rainIall Ior 367 locations in Switzerland. They proposed a divide and
conquer approach and divided the whole region in 4 subparts and modelled each part with diIIerent method.
Bjarne.K.Hansen et al. |2| proposed Iuzzy logic along with case based reasoning and also proposed Iuzzy k-
nearest neighbour algorithm based prediction system Ior weather Iorecast which is WIND-1. M. Hulme et al. |3|
observed wide changes in rainIall amount and temperature oI AIrica. They Iocused on both the continental and
regional changes in temperature and rainIall amount. They also estimated the changes in the concentration oI
Greenhouse gases especially CO2 and global mean sea level rise. Dr. S.Santhosh Baboo et al. |4| proposed an
eIIicient weather Iorecasting system using Back Propagation Algorithm oI ArtiIicial Neural Network which gives
a very good result Ior the prediction oI weather. Weather predictors or Iorecasters collect all necessary real time
data Ior diIIerent weather parameters and give this data as input to programmed computers to understand the
weather conditions. Similarly predicting the RainIall with more accuracy can help the mankind in a big way as
aviation industry and agriculture is very sensitive to weather conditions. RainIall Prediction is to calculate
approximately the possibility oI raining as very small change in the climate can consequence in large extent shiIts
in weather conditions. According to many scientiIic studies it is observed that global warming plays an important
role in change in weather conditions. Greenhouse gases plays a big role in changing pattern oI rainIall and in
*
Corresponding author : Manjushri Pathania.
88 Elsevier Publications, 2013
Manfushri Pathania Gour Sundar Mitra Thakur and Chandra Prakash

weather change, Thus, introducing the greenhouse gases can help in predicting the rainIall with more accuracy
and reliability. It is caused by increasing concentrations oI greenhouse gases produced by human activities such
as the burning oI Iossil Iuels and deIorestation, black smoke (pollution created by vehicles) causing the earth
surIace temperature to rise. The greenhouse eIIect is the process by
which absorption and emission oI inIrared radiations by gases in the atmosphere warm a planet's lower
atmosphere and surIace. Warmer surIace temperature results an increase in the evaporation Irom the oceans and
land, which results to an increased global average rainIall. The major greenhouse gases are water vapours, which
causes about 3670 oI the greenhouse eIIect; carbon dioxide, which causes 926; methane, which causes 4
9; and ozone, which causes 37. Clouds also aIIect the radiation balance through cloud Iorcing which is
similar to greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide etc. There has been many weather events Floods, droughts,
extreme winter cold, extreme stormy, tornado; tropical cyclones observed that may be attributed to global
warming.
Forecasts based on precipitation are very important because they are used in Disaster Management to
protect liIe and property and sometimes activities are curtailed by heavy rainIall, snow Iall and wind chill. Many
methods have been used by metrological communities to predict the rainIall. An ArtiIicial Neural Network
(ANN) is inIormation processing system which is inspired by the biological nervous systems like human brain
which is a very complex system. Brain is highly complex, nonlinear and parallel computer system. Neural
networks, with their remarkable ability to derive meaning Irom complicated or imprecise data can be used to
extract patterns and detect trends that are too complex to be noticed by either humans or other computer
techniques. A trained neural network can be thought oI as an "expert" in the category oI inIormation it has been
given to analyse. This expert can then be used to provide inIormation regarding the given new situations oI
interest and answer oI questions. Neural networks process inIormation in a similar way in which the human brain
does. It is composed oI a large number oI highly interconnected processing elements that are called neurons,
working together to solve speciIic problems oI day to day liIe. ANNs, like people, learn by example and in neural
network learning is done through training data. Learning is done through changing the eIIectiveness oI the
synapses so that the inIluence oI one neuron or we can say that eIIectiveness oI one neuron on another neuron
changes. For proposing neuro Iuzzy system Ior rainIall prediction in the northern region oI India, considering the
eIIects oI greenhouse gases and ozone depletion Ior rainIall prediction can be very beneIicial.
2. Related Work
RainIall prediction is very complicating as predicting the rainIall with more accuracy is a very challenging
task. Norraseth Chantasut et al. |5| used artiIicial neural network along with data mining techniques to predict the
monthly rainIall oI Thailand region over Chao Phraya River. Back propagation algorithm is used to predict the
rainIall. A.D.Kumarasiri et al. |6| proposed technique based on artiIicial network using IeedIorward back
propagation algorithm Ior the rainIall prediction oI Sri Lanka. R.Remesan et al. |7| presented two artiIicial
techniques ANFIS (Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy InIerence System and NNARX (Neural Network Auto Regressive)
with exogenous input Ior rainIall runoII prediction. The perIormance oI both the models is compared with the
help oI various statistical parameters. And the results oI study had shown that both the models can provide a
reliable runoII prediction. Training data length selection and best input combination were carried out in
modelling with help oI Gamma Test. The perIormance oI the ANFIS model in training and testing sets were
compared with that oI NNARX model with help oI several statistical parameters.
Wint Thida Zaw et al. |8| used Empirical statistical modelling Ior rainIall prediction oI Myanmar and applied
polynomial regression equation Ior Iorecast. AIter getting the output oI this model, a comparison is done to check
the eIIiciency oI this model. Enireddy.Vamsidhar et al. |9| 2010 also applied the Back propagation model with
diIIerent parameters pressure, dew point, humidity. Two third oI data is used as training data and one third data is
used as testing data. Training data is Ied as input and output is given by the neural network on the basis oI
algorithm applied .The number oI training and testing patterns are 250 and 120 respectively. In training data
99.79 oI accuracy is obtained and in testing data 94.28 oI accuracy is obtained. G.Geetha et al. |10| proposed
Back propagation neural model to improve monthly rainIall Iorecast. A 32 year metrological data like relative
humidity, relative average mean temperature, wind speed, aerosol values were used to develop the artiIicial
neural network model. Parameters like air mean temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and aerosol values
89 Elsevier Publications, 2013
Neuro-Fuzzy inference system for rainfall prediction over Northern India

are given as input data. Monthly rainIall data Ior Chennai Irom 1978 to 2009 are selected to be the desired output
data Ior training and testing.
D. Raje et al. |11| compared the three downscaling techniques that is Conditional Random Field, K- nearest
neighbour and Support Vector Machine to predict the rainIall over Punjab region. Folorunsho Olaiya et al. |12|
applied the Data Mining techniques with the artiIicial neural network and decision tree algorithms Ior Iorecasting.
Metrological Data has been collected Irom year 2000 to 2009 Ior diIIerent parameters like maximum
temperature, rainIall, wind speed. A data model Ior the meteorological data was developed and this was used to
train the classiIier algorithms. The perIormance oI these algorithms were compared using standard perIormance
metrics, and the algorithm which gave the best results were used to generate classiIication rules. Multilayer
perception, a neural network algorithm is used to store the data which is treated as training data. Andrew Kusiak
et al. |13| used Data Mining approaches Ior modelling rainIall with the help oI Radar reIlectivity and Tipping
Bucket analysis Ior OxIord, South Amana, and Iowa City. The recorded values oI rainIall were used to build the
prediction models. Five data-mining algorithms, neural network (NN), random Iorest, classiIication and
regression tree, support vector machine, and k-nearest neighbour, were used to build the Iorecast models Ior the
prediction oI rainIall. Jesada Kajornrit et al.|14| 2012proposed the use oI modular Iuzzy inIerence system in
RainIall Prediction in Northern region oI Thailand. Three pre-processing techniques, that is Moving Average,
Principle Component Analysis and Singular Spectrum Analysis has been used to smoothen and perceive the
prediction time series data. In the Iuzzy inIerence system it contains 5 components: 1) A rule base 2) A database
that collects the membership Iunctions 3) A FuzziIication process and 4) A DeIuzziIication process and 5) An
inIerence engine. This model consists oI 12 monthly sub models in the prediction process, in which inputs are Ied
to these sub models and output is given through the Iuzzy inIerence system. Above model is used to investigate
the rainIall prediction oI northern region oI Thailand and compare the result with ANN. And its experimental
results showed that it can be a good model to get the accurate rain Iall prediction. Accuracy with all these systems
is limited. So, primary aim oI this study is to investigate an appropriate way to use Neuro Fuzzy InIerence
System Ior rainIall prediction.
3. Data Collection
Time series data used Ior rainIall prediction is collected Irom HYDROMET DIVISION oI INDIAN
METROLOGICAL DEPARTMENT, PUNE; district wise average RainIall InIormation Irom year 1996 to
2000 and 2004 to 2011 Ior Amritsar, a district in Punjab on monthly basis. Monthly average data related to
concentration oI green gases like Methane (CH4), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Ozone (O3) and Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
Irom year 1996 to 2000 and 2004 to 2011 is collected Irom the Cape Grim Baseline Air Pollution Station
(CGBAPS) on monthly basis, located near the North-West tip oI Tasmania, Australia. CGBAPS is managed by
Australian Bureau oI Meteorology and supervised by CISRO Marine and Atmospheric Research. Real time data
Ior other parameters is taken Irom under Ground community which provide the data as soon as issued by
National Weather Services Ior above mentioned years. Some sample data are mentioned in Table 1.
Table 1. Sample oI greenhouse gases data Ior (Jan 2004 April 2004)
Above Real time data is used to train a ArtiIicial Neural Network in the proposed Neuro Fuzzy Model with the
help oI Back Propagation algorithm and Radial basis Function Network. MATLAB has been used Ior
implementation oI the same.
Month
(2004)
Carbon dioxide
(ppm)
Nitrous Oxide
(ppb)
Methane
(ppb)
Ozone
(ppb)
January 373.553 317.452 1721.52 92.4
February 373.694 317.188 1713.99 86
March 372.778 317.068 1711.68 94
April 373.904 316.97 1716.9 116.8
90 Elsevier Publications, 2013

4. Proposed Neuro-fuzzy Model
In the Iirst step oI this model, real time data oI green house gases are Ied into Iuzzy inIerence system as input.
Parameters oI Greenhouse Gases that are taken as input Ior Fuzzy InIerence System are carbon dioxide, Methane,
Nitrous dioxide and ozone. Then the output given by this Fuzzy InIerence system is Ied as input with other
atmospheric parameters like average temperature, average dew point, average humidity, average sea level
pressure etc in neural network which help in training the network. RainIall amount is taken as output in testing
phase to Iorecast the rainIall Ior successor month with the input data oI preceding month. In testing phase oI that
network prediction is done with great accuracy.
Fig. 1. Proposed Neuro Fuzzy Model
4.1. Fuzzy Inference System
Fuzzy InIerence System is a system where crisp input is converted to Iuzzy values with the help oI a realistic
membership Iunction. In this proposed a work Iirst a Iuzzy rule base is Iormed with the help oI some domain
experts which will try to quantiIy pollution level on the basis oI presence oI some green house gases.
Membership range oI diIIerent green house gases in their Iuzzy set are mentioned in Table 2.
Table 2. Ranges oI Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse
Gases
Normal
Range
Tolerable Range High Range
Carbon dioxide 180-300 ppm 280-300 ppm 300-550 ppm
Methane 320-680 ppb 650-790 ppb 779-1774 ppb
Nitrous Oxide 150-230 ppb 200-319 ppb 290-323 ppb
Ozone 0-50 ppb 45-100 ppb 95-150 ppb
According to Low, Tolerable and High ranges oI all Iour inputs concentration deIined in the above table ,
membership Iunction Ior the output named Pollution` is prepared, that will help in Iinding the belongingness oI a
data to a particular Iuzzy set and will help in Iinding the output oI Iuzzy inIerence System when all statistics is
Ied into this Iuzzy inIerence system.
Fig. 4.1. shows the degree oI membership Ior the output variable Pollution` on the basis oI Iour input
variables. Output is represented with the help oI three linguistic terms low`, moderate` and high`. Trapezoidal
membership Iunction is used to represent all the variables (input and output) and Mamdani method is used Ior
the IuzziIication purpose. Fig. 4.2 shows the surIace viewer Ior the output variable Pollution`.
91 Elsevier Publications, 2013
Manfushri Pathania Gour Sundar Mitra Thakur and Chandra Prakash
Neuro-Fuzzy inference system for rainfall prediction over Northern India

Fig..4.1. Membership Iunction Ior the output variable Pollution`.
Fig.4.2. SurIace Viewer Ior Output`
4.2. Artificial Neural Network:
Above Fuzzy InIerence System gives a deIuzziIied output to quantiIy the pollution level in the atmosphere in
the presence oI green house gases. This output in turn is used to train an ArtiIicial Neural Network (ANN) along
with other input Iactors like average temperature, average dew point etc. which inIluence the rainIall. In this
92 Elsevier Publications, 2013

proposed work two diIIerent techniques, Radial Basis Function (RBF) Network and Feed Forward Network with
Back Propagation Algorithm (BPA) have been used to train the ANN. BrieI details oI these two techniques have
been introduced below;
4.2.1. Radial Basis Function Network:
RBF is derived the theory oI Function Approximation. Radial basis neural network is example oI nonlinear
Ieed Iorward network. RBF have three layers: Iirst is input layer, second is hidden layer with nonlinear RBF
activation Iunction, and third is linear output layer. Input is taken as a vector oI real numbers and output is scalar
Iunction oI input vector.RBF has only single hidden layer. In RBF there are 2 steps oI learning; Iirst is centre and
spread learning and second is output layer weight learning.
Radial basis Iunction has 3 layers:
Input layer: Input layer is made up oI nodes that hook up the network to its environment. It is basically a Ian
out layer and does no processing on data.
Hidden layer: Radial basis Iunction network perIorm the non linear transIormation mapping Irom the input
layer to the hidden layer. This mapping is done Irom input space to the high dimensional space which helps in
making the complex patterns linearly separable.
Output layer: Output oI RBF is linear, transIerring the response to the activation pattern applied to input layer.
Basically this layer perIorms the weighted sum or also known as linear combinations oI hidden Iunctions.
Where, Cj is the centre oI region. Rj is the width oI receptive Iield. h
j
is any input vector and w
j
is the weight.
Fig.4.3. RBF Network
Fig. 4.3. gives a graphical representation oI an RBF network. Radial Basis Iunction oI neural network tool oI
MATLAB is used to increase the eIIiciency oI data and Iurther implementation.
( ) ( )
j j
x w h x =

2 2
( ) exp( ( ) / )
j j j
h x x C R =
(1)
(2)
93 Elsevier Publications, 2013
Manfushri Pathania Gour Sundar Mitra Thakur and Chandra Prakash
Neuro-Fuzzy inference system for rainfall prediction over Northern India

4.2.2 Feed Forward Network with Back Propagation Algorithm:
Back propagation as the name suggests itselI 'propagating the errors in backward direction. It is a common
used method to train the artiIicial neural network. BPA is based upon supervised learning method and goal oI
supervised learning method is to maps the input dataset to get the desired output. In BPA we train the neural
network with the help oI training data set and check Ior desired output. II the actual output obtained Irom network
is deviated Irom the desired output, then the diIIerence between desired output and the actual output is called
error. In this, diIIerence between desired output and the actual output is that is error is propagated Irom the output
node to the inner nodes. Then BPA calculates the Gradient oI the error oI the network. This gradient oI the error
modiIy the weight or we can say update the weight to minimize the error.
BPA has basically two passes:
Forward pass
First step in Iorward pass is to give the input.
Then hidden nodes evaluate the data and give to output nodes.
Output nodes evaluate the data.
Backward pass
Check the diIIerence oI desired output and the target output and this diIIerence is known as error.
Evaluate delta Ior each output node.
With the help oI gradient descent train each output.
For every hidden unit, calculate delta.
For every hidden unit, use the delta to train as gradient descent.
Algorithm is repeated until it meets its stopping criteria: Time constraint, Goal, Epochs and Validation.
5. Results Analysis
In the initial step oI proposed Neuro Fuzzy Model that is Fuzzy inIerence system, Iuzzy inIerence system
takes the real time data oI all the Iour greenhouse and gets the output according to the Iuzzy rules or membership
Iunctions.
Output evaluated Irom Fuzzy InIerence system with the help oI the Fuzzy Rule Base is combined with other
parameters oI atmospheric conditions that are Temperature, Humidity, Dew Point, Wind Speed, Sea Level
Pressure and RainIall Amount and all the data related to these parameters is trained in Neural Network with the
help oI Back Propagation algorithm and Radial Basis Function Network. AIter training all the data with Back
Propagation Neural network and Radial Basis Function network, testing is done on data oI some random years
and comparison is done between results oI both the algorithms. Fig. 5.1. depicts the training perIormance oI the
proposed ANN and Fig 5.2. shows training error histogram oI the ANN when trained with BPA.
Fig. 5.1. ANN Training perIormance using BPA
94 Elsevier Publications, 2013

Fig. 5.2. ANN Error Histogram
Table 3. Comparison oI rainIall amount by RBF and BPA
Table 3 shows the random comparison between actual rainIall and the predicted rainIall using our proposed
ANN with RBF and BPA techniques. Table shows that deviations are in the tolerable range in relevance to the
rainIall amount and this shows the rigidity oI the proposed model.
Sl
No.
Actual Rainfall
Data taken randomly
(in mm)
Rainfall amount by
RBF (in mm)
Rainfall Amount by BPA (in
mm)
1. 0.3 24.7955 79.8306
2. 7.2 8.9369 -1.3953
3. 24 12.0708 3.8766
4. 6.7 7.3625 13.9739
5. 126.5 155.4746 95.8948
6. 100.8 101.6756 137.0011
7. 0 31.2471 66.5393
8. 1.8 11.4426 37.0514
9. 3.2 14.339 2.3704
95 Elsevier Publications, 2013
Manfushri Pathania Gour Sundar Mitra Thakur and Chandra Prakash
Neuro-Fuzzy inference system for rainfall prediction over Northern India

6. Conclusions
An accurate rainIall prediction is crucial Ior Disaster Management and water reservoirs and Ilood prevention.
Many prediction models are applied to predict the rainIall with more accuracy. This study investigates the use oI
Neuro-Fuzzy inIerence system Ior rainIall prediction. For rainIall Prediction, Iuzzy inIerence system and artiIicial
neural network is applied to predict the rainIall amount Ior Amritsar region in Punjab. Also including the data
regarding the greenhouse gases will help in Iinding any changes in pattern oI rainIall as greenhouse gases are
responsible Ior global warming which cause severe weather changes like storms, drought conditions and heavy
rainIall etc. According to the experimental results Radial Basis Function Network is more suitable than Back
Propagation Algorithm. PerIormance oI the proposed model can be Iurther improve by using more high
deIinition data like data collected Irom diIIerent radar and satellites. ReIlectivity images can also help in Iinding
more accuracy in rainIall prediction. Even by adding more data, it will increase the accuracy as it will reduce the
chances oI extrapolating and help in predicting the rainIall amount with greater accuracy. Adding more Iactors
which aIIect the weather conditions can help in enhancing the accuracy in prediction. This model can be used to
predict rainIall over any region around the world.
References
|1| Lee, S., Sungzoon, C., and Patrick M. W. (1998). RainIall prediction using artiIicial neural networks. Journal of Geographic
Information and Decision Analysis , 2(2), 233-242.
|2| Bjarne, K. H. and Denis, R. Weather prediction using case-based reasoning and Iuzzy set theory. PhD dissertation., DalTech, 2000.
|3| Hulme, M., Doherty, R., Ngara, T., New, M. and David Lister. (2001). AIrican climate change: 1900-2100. Climate research. 17( 2),
145-168.
|4| Baboo, S. S., and ShereeI, I. K. (2010). An eIIicient weather Iorecasting system using artiIicial neural network. International journal of
environmental science and development. 1(4), 2010-0264.
|5| Chantasut, N., Charoen, C., and Chularat, T. (2004). Predictive mining oI rainIall predictions using artiIicial neural networks Ior Chao
Phraya River. In AFITA/WCCA Joint congress on it in agriculture, Thailand.
|6| Kumarasiri, A. D., and Sonnadara, D. U. J. (2006).RainIall Iorecasting: an artiIicial neural network approach. Proc Tech Sess, 22 , 1-13.
|7| Remesan, R., Shamim, M.A. Han, D. and Mathew, J. (2008). ANFIS and NNARX based rainIall-runoII modeling. In Systems, Man and
Cybernetics, 2008. SMC 2008. IEEE International Conference on, pp. 1454-1459. IEEE, 2008.
|8| Wint, T. Z., Naing, T. (2008). Empirical Statistical Modeling oI RainIall, World Academy of Science,Engineering and Technology.
|9| Vamsidhar, E., Sankra Rao, P., Satapati, P. (2010). Prediction oI RainIall Using Back propagation Model, International Journal on
Computer Science and Engineering, 2(2),1119-1121.
|10| Geetha, G., and Selvaraj, R. S. (2011). Prediction oI monthly rainIall in Chennai using back propagation neural network
model. International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology. 3(1), 211-213.
|11| Deepashree, R. and Mujumdar, P.P. (2011). A comparison oI three methods Ior downscaling daily precipitation in the Punjab
region. Hydrological Processes. 25(23), 3575-3589.
|12| Olaiya, F., and Adesesan B. A. (2012).Application oI Data Mining Techniques in Weather Prediction and Climate Change Studies.
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|13| Andrew, K., Wei, X., Verma, A. P. Roz, E. (2011), Modeling and Prediction oI RainIall Using Radar reIlectivity data, IEEE
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|14| Kajornrit, J., Wong, K.W., Chun, F.C. (2012), RainIall Prediction in the Northeast Region oI Thailand, WCCI IEEE World Congress on
Computational Intelligence , June,10-15
96 Elsevier Publications, 2013
Index

A
Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), 89
ANFIS. see Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS)
ANN. see Artificial neural network (ANN)
Artificial neural network (ANN), 89, 92
error histogram, 95
feed forward network with back propagation algorithm, 94
RBF, 93
training performance using BPA, 94

B
Back propagation algorithm (BPA), 89, 93
ANN training performance, 94
rainfall amount, comparison of, 95
BPA. see Back propagation algorithm (BPA)

E
Empirical statistical modelling
for rainfall prediction, 89

F
Fuzzy Inference System, 91

G
Greenhouse gases, 8889

N
Neural Network Auto Regressive (NNARX), 89
Neuro-fuzzy Model
artificial neural network, 9294
Fuzzy Inference System, 91
greenhouse gases, ranges of, 91
membership function for, 92
real time data of green house gases, 91
surface viewer for, 92
NNARX. see Neural Network Auto Regressive (NNARX)

R
Radial basis function (RBF), 93
rainfall amount, comparison of, 95
Rainfall prediction
data collection, 90
empirical statistical modelling, 89
RBF. see Radial basis function (RBF)

W
Warmer surface temperature, 89
Weather prediction, 88