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)
where A is typically 10
4
10
5
, and the two inputs are known as the non-inverting (v
+
)
and inverting (v
)
= A(v
+
v
out
)
=
A
1 +A
v
+
and if as noted above A is typically 10
4
or much higher we may simply say
v
out
= v
+
The unity gain amplier is used commonly to minimize loading on a circuit because it draws
no current yet provides a low output resistance output.
The Non-Inverting amplier with gain: The above circuit may be modied to feed
back only a fraction of the output voltage by including a two resistor voltage divider.
2
In this case R
1
and R
2
act as a voltage divider, and
v
=
R
2
R
1
+R
2
v
out
Then
v
out
= A(v
+
v
in
)
= A
v
in
R
2
R
1
+R
2
v
out
=
A(R
1
+R
2
)
R
1
+R
2
+AR
2
v
in
and when A 1
v
out
=
R
1
+R
2
R
2
v
in
For example if R
1
= 47 k, and R
2
= 10 k, the amplier voltage gain will be 5.7.
The Voltage-Controlled Current-Source: The above circuit can be modied to pro-
duce a current source.
Assume that the op-amp drives a load of unknown resistance. A small resistor R is placed
in series with the load. Then the inverting input is v
)
= A(v
in
iR)
Then
i =
1
R
v
in
1
A
v
out
and i A 1
i =
1
R
v
in
3
which is independent of the load.
Inverting Congurations
The Inverting Amplier: The inverting amplier has a conguration as shown below:
The non-inverting input is connected to ground and a pair of resistors, R
in
and R
f
(the
feedback resistor) is used to dene the gain. To simplify the analysis we make the following
assumptions:
(a) The gain A is very high and we let it tend to innity. Because v
out
= A(v
+
v
) and
v
+
= 0, this means that v
= lim
A
v
out
/A = 0. In other words, the inverting input
voltage is so small (volts) that we declare it to be a virtual ground, that is in our
simplied analysis we assume v
= 0.
(b) No current ows into the inputs. This allows us to apply Kirchos current law at the
junction of the resistors.
Apply Kirchos current law at the junction of the resistors:
i
in
+i
f
= 0
Since the junction is at the virtual ground we can simply use Ohms law:
v
in
R
in
+
V
out
R
f
= 0
or
v
out
=
R
f
R
in
v
in
In other words the voltage gain is dened by the ratio of the two resistors.
The Inverting Summer: The inverting amplier may be extended to include multiple
inputs:
4
As before we assume that the inverting input is at a virtual ground and apply Kirchos
current law at the summing junction
i
1
+i
2
+i
f
= 0
v
1
R
1
+
v
2
R
2
+
V
out
R
f
= 0
or
v
out
=
R
f
R
1
v
1
R
f
R
2
v
2
which is a weighted sum of the inputs. If R
1
= R
2
= R
in
the output is a pure sum
v
out
=
R
f
R
in
(v
1
+v
2
)
The summer may be extended to many inputs by simply adding input resistors R
i
v
out
=
n
i=1
R
f
R
i
v
i
If all of the input resistors are equal (R
i
= R
in
)
v
out
=
R
f
R
in
n
i=1
v
i
5
The Integrator: If the feedback resistor in the inverting amplier is replaced by a capac-
itor C the amplier becomes an integrator.
At the summing junction we apply Kirchos current law as before but the feedback current
is now dened by the elemental relationship for the capacitor:
i
in
+i
f
= 0
v
in
R
in
+C
dv
out
dt
= 0
Then
dv
out
dt
=
1
R
in
C
v
in
or
v
out
=
1
R
in
C
t
0
v
in
dt +v
out
(0)
As above, the integrator may be extended to a summing conguration by simply adding
extra input resistors:
v
out
=
1
C
t
0
i=1
v
i
R
i
dt +v
out
(0)
and if all input resistors have the same value R
v
out
=
1
RC
t
0
i=1
v
i
dt +v
out
(0)
The Dierentiator: If the input resistor R
in
in the inverting amplier is replaced by a
capacitor, the circuit becomes a dierentiator:
6
At the summing junction we apply Kirchos current law as before but the input current is
now dened by the elemental relationship for the capacitor:
i
in
+i
f
= 0
C
dv
in
dt
+
v
out
R
f
+ = 0
Then
v
out
=
1
R
in
C
dv
in
dt
As we have noted in class, pure dierentiators are rarely used because of their susceptibility
to noise. In practice it is common to put a resistor in series with the capacitor. (See Home-
work 3).
A General Linear Transfer Function: The inverting conguration may be extended to
synthesize many general linear transfer functions by including appropriate networks in the
feedback and input paths. Consider the general circuit shown below with elements described
by impedances Z
in
(s) and Z
f
(s) in the input and output paths:
At the summing junction
i
in
+i
f
= 0
V
in
(s)
Z
in
(s)
+
V
out
(s)
Z
f
(s)
+ = 0
so that the amplier becomes a linear system with a transfer function
H(s) =
V
out
(s)
V
in
(s)
=
Z
f
(s)
Z
in
(s)
7
This conguration may be used to synthesize lead-lag compensators for control, active lters
for signal processing, and many other functions.
The Dierential Amplier
A dierential amplier produces an output that is proportional to the dierence between
two inputs.
At the non-inverting input
v
+
=
R
2
R
1
+R
2
v
1
If the op-amp gain is assumed to be innite, v
= v
+
. The input current at the inverting
amplier is:
i
in
=
v
2
v
R
1
=
v
2
v
+
R
1
=
1
R
1
v
2
R
2
R
1
(R
1
+R
2
)
v
1
Similarly the feedback current is
i
f
=
v
out
v
R
2
=
v
out
v
+
R
2
=
1
R
2
v
out
1
(R
1
+R
2
)
v
1
Applying Kirchos current law at the summinig junction i
in
+i
f
= 0, then yields
v
out
=
R
2
R
1
(v
1
v
2
)
so that the output is proportional to the dierence between the two inputs.
8