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Cave and Rock-Cut Architecture Found in India

by : Baivab Ghosh | category : History


Cave and Rock-Cut Architecture Found in India!
Before the Gupta period the chief architectural remains, other than stupas and their surrounding gateways
and railings, are artificial caves, excavated for religious purposes. Early cave specimens were excavated on
wooden modelsstandardised religious meeting places consisting of thatched huts.
The early cavestwo at Barabar (near Gaya) and Nagarjuni Hills are quite unadorned. The inner walls of
the caves are finely polished, no doubt by workmen of the school responsible for the polish of the Ashokan
pillars.
Later cave temples and monasteries are to be found in many parts of India, but it was in the Western Deccan,
under the Satavahana rulers and their successors, that the largest and most famous artificial caves were
excavated.
The earliest rock-cut caves in India are attributed to Ashoka (273-232 BC) and his grandson Dasaratha.
Eventually this rock- cut architecture developed into a powerful and popular architectural style and gave the
country nearly 1,200 excavations which are scattered in many parts.
This architecture had three definite phases: the earliest dating from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century
AD, the second from the 5th to the 7th century and the last from the 7th to the 10th century.
These developments took place primarily in the Western Ghats and only secondarily in other parts of the
country. The rock architecture was suited to India, for the country had plenty of Rocky Mountains, and
structures excavated in stone were the most durable.
The early Buddhist architecture covers the period from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. The first
phase of excavations in Western India was related exclusively to early Buddhism, which meant the worship
of the Buddha represented symbolically.
The excavations took the shape of (i) the chaitya or prayer hall and (ii) the vihara or monastery. Both
initiated in rock the structural forms practised in less permanent materials like wood.
The characteristic features of these early temples were two establishments, each self-contained and
consisting of a prayer hall (chaitya) and a monastery (vihara) which contained accommodation for monks.
The square central hall was approached through a verandah or portico, and doorways led into cells for
members of the brotherhood. Examples of the early Buddhist architecture can still be seen at Karla, Kanheri,
Nasik, Bhaja and Bedsa and at Ajanta.
The second phase began in the 5th century AD. This phase was characterised by the virtual elimination of
timber and by the introduction of the image of the Buddha as a dominant feature of the architectural design.
Nevertheless, the plan of the excavations, particularly of the chaitya, remained essentially the same as that of
similar constructions of the earlier phase. The statue of the Buddha sometimes assumed gigantic proportions.
The vihara also underwent a slight change: the inner cells, formerly inhabited by the monks alone, now
housed the image of the Buddha as well. Buddhists of the Mahayana School followed the broad architectural
principles of their predecessors, the Hinayana Buddhists, and their architecture consisted, as hitherto, of the
chaitya and the vihara.
Later, the Hindus and Jains extended the Buddhist architectural tradition but with certain modifications,
designed to suit their own rituals. The dominant features of the Dravidian rock-cut style are the mandapa and
the ratha. The mandapa is an open pavillion excavated out of a rock. It takes the form of a simple columned
hall with two or more cells (compartments for the deity) in the back wall. The ratha (literally chariot) is a
monolithic shrine carved out of a single rock.
Kanheri Caves:
These caves near Mumbai (in Thane district of Maharashtra) belong to the Hinayana phase of Buddhist
architecture, while the 5th century image of the Buddha in the chaitya hall suggests later additions.
Altogether there are more than 100 caves here. Their main features are flights of connecting steps and stone
seats provided for the monks to rest on. Although many of the caves are not of great artistic merit, they have
some archaeological interest inasmuch as they cover the period from the 2nd to the 9th century AD.
Joyeshwari Caves:
These caves are within the island of Salsette which comprised the original Bombay island. Although
greatly defaced, they are of interest as they belong to the last stages of the Mahayana Buddhist architecture.
Brahmanical influence is evident for the shrines are isolated and stand in the centre of a cruciform hall with
more than one entrance. The caves belong to the second half of the 8th century.
Montpezir (Mandapeswar):
These caves are of particular interest as they are probably the only Brahmanical caves to be converted into a
Christian shrine. Even today, there is a Christian orphanage, the ruins of an old Portuguese church, and a
Franciscan monastery nearby. The three caves date from the 8th century.
Karle, Bhaja and Bedsa Caves:
The Karle Caves on Banaghata Hills (near Mumbai) belong to the Hinayana period of Buddhist architecture.
The main feature of this group is the chaitya which is amongst the largest and the best-preserved in India. Its
entrance, which is extremely imposing, is a kind of massive vestibule to the arcaded screen in its rear.
The two giant pillars have a group of lions supporting a large wheel and though partly covered by debris
they must once have been about 50 feet in height. They are somewhat peculiar, being detached from the
main structure.
The decorative railings and supporting elephants (half life-size and originally with ivory tusks) at each end
indicate an advanced stage of ornamental work in which symbols were used repeatedly and alternately. The
interior or the chaitya hall consists of a colonnade, vaulting and sun-window.
The sun-window, a wonderful arrangement for the diffusion of light, deflected the rays of the sun in such a
manner that soft light fell in the stupa and the screen, half-tones on the pillars and gloom in the aisles.
The 18 Bhaja caves (near Pune) are supposed to have been built for Buddhist nuns. They were excavated in
the 2nd century BC. Owing to the ravages of time, the face and entrance of the main cave (No. 12) are now
open and provide us with an unrestricted view of the hall.
The pillars are sloping, but the stilted vault is a fine piece of work. The stupa is very plain and in two parts,
probably relieved, when originally built, by frescoes of which there is now little trace. The last cave to the
south has some fine sculpture, including a prince seated on an elephant, a prince in a chariot and three armed
figures. The dancing couple is a justly famous piece of sculpture.
The caves at Bedsa (near Pune) belong to a slightly later period than those at Bhaja. The chaitya resembles
the great hall at Karle but is smaller. It has four pillars with carvings of horses, bulls and elephants mounted
by male and female riders. Its ribbed roof is supported by 26 octagonal pillars, 10 feet high.
Eladipattam:
To the south at Sittanavasal, on the top of the hill there is a natural shelter known as Eladipattam (also
Ezhadippattam). It served as a Jain shelter since 1st century BC. Eladipattam is supposed to have got its
name from seven holes cut in the rockthey serve as steps to ascend the shelter.
Inside this cave there are seventeen polished stone berths aligned into rows, each with a raised partmost
likely these were beds for Jains with stone pillows. The largest of these ascetic beds contains inscription in
Brahmi script, in Tamil language from 1st century BC. Some more inscriptions in Tamil language are from
much later time8th century AD.
These inscriptions name mendicants-monks who, most likely, spent their lives in isolation in this hill.
Eladipattam served as a site for very severe penance: kayotsarga (meditation in standing posture until
salvation) and sallekhana (fasting until death).
Udayagiri caves:
At Udayagiri, 20 rock-cut chambers were excavated during the Gupta period, two of which bear inscriptions
from the reign of Chandra Gupta II. These caves are vital documents since they constitute the earliest intact
body of Hindu art in India, and demonstrate that by the early fifth century, many Hindu iconographic
formulas were already well established. One of the most important caves at Udayagiri is Cave 5, the Varaha
Cave (or niche). Its main feature is a colossal rock-cut relief of the boar-incarnation (Varaha) of God Vishnu
rescuing the Earth Goddess from chaos in the presence of adoring gods and saints.
The massive dynamism of the Varaha-god rises into gigantic appearance and is free from any restraint. The
power of the Indian artist reaches its peak in the well balanced composition of forceful energy combined
with cosmic majesty, working for good against chaos and destruction.
Nasik Caves:
To the south-west of Nasik, on the main Mumbai road, is an important group of 23 Buddhist caves
belonging to the Hinayana period of Buddhist architecture, and dating back to the 1st century AD. When the
Buddha was not represented anthropomorphically, his spiritual presence was denoted by a throne, a
footstool, or footprints. This group of caves, called Pandu Lena, is on the easternmost side of the three
conical peaks at the extreme and of the Trimbak range of hills. They consist of three large halls and one fine
chapel.
Junagadh Caves:
Uparkot (meaning citadel) is an ancient fortress which was the scene of historic sieges between the middle
of the 14th and end of the 16th century AD. Its entrance, in the form of an archway, is a fine specimen of the
Hindu torana.
Uparkot has many interesting Buddhist caves and was evidently the site of a Buddhist monastery in ancient
times. Some of the caves, apparently, were two or three storeys high. Belonging to about AD 300, their
outstanding features are the halls, connected by winding staircases. In the upper chamber is a small
refractory and a tank surrounded by a corridor, all supported by six richly carved columns indicative of fine
craftsmanship.
Bagh:
In Bagh, Madhya Pradesh, there are nine sandstone Buddhist caves with beautiful frescoes and sculptured
stonework. A tentative dating assigns them to 6th century AD but they may have predated the Ajanta
frescoes.
Undavaili:
The Undavalli caves near Vijayawada (Andhra Pradesh) are 7th century Hindu cave temples cut into five
tiers along the slope of a back granite hill. The main attraction is a reclining statue of Vishnu, sculpted from
a single block of granite. The Buddha is given pride of place.
Elephant:
Caves On the island of Elephant off the Mumbai harbour are the Elephant caves of the 8th century AD. The
islands derive their name from the giant carving of an elephant which used to stand at the old landing stage.
The Ganesh Gumpha is one of the earliest examples of the Brahmanical temple and has been excavated in a
rocky terrace, the outside consisting of a columned verandah, and approached by steps flanked by sculptured
elephants.
At each end of the facade is a pilaster (square pillar projecting from a wall) carved in the shape of a
dvarapala (door-keeper) with a huge spear. The masterpiece is a three-faced image (Trimurti) representing
the Maheswara aspect of Shiva. The left face presents the fierce male aspect of Shiva and the face on the
right the gentle, feminine qualities of his all-transcending nature.
The other view is that the Trimurti represents Brahma (creator), Vishnu (preserver) and Shiva (destroyer).
Other interesting sculptures in the cave show the marriage of Shiva with Parvati; Bhairava; Shiva in the
tandava dance; Ravana, the demon king shaking Kailasa; Ardhanariswara the Lord who is both male and
female.


Rock Cut Architecture
by Ashish Nangia

Rock-cut architecture occupies a very important place in the history of Indian Architecture.
This differs from 'building up' in many important ways. Firstly, the art is more akin to
sculpture than architecture, in that a solid body of material (rock) is taken, the final product
visualized and cutting/carving starts. Secondly, the mason is not overly concerned with
spans, forces, beams, columns, and all the other architectural features - these can be carved,
but are seldom playing any structural role.



In this article, we shall cover a wide chronological range, from the earliest primitive caves
of Buddhist monks, to the crowning glory of the art, namely the Kailash temple at Ellora.
All of these have some common features, yet it can be clearly seen that the rock-cutter
improved all the time, gaining confidence and mastery over the material, until the final
culmination at the 'White Temple' of Ellora.
Buddhist Caves and Chaityas

The ascetic nature of early Buddhism and Jainism was well suited to living a life away from
the cities, in natural caves and grottoes in the hillsides. In a circle of two hundred miles
around modern Nasik, the rugged hills of the Western Ghats are naturally suited to the
creation of living space in the hillside - with steep cliffs providing an ideal surface for
carving in.

The architecture here is divided into distinct groups - each having its own
version of the prayer-hall, or chaitya and a monastery, or a vihara. The
most significant of these are the examples at Karle, with magnificent
chaityas cut deep into the hillside.

The most remarkable aspect of the rock cut architecture at Karle and
other sites is its close similarity to wood construction. This went as far as
imitating every detail of wood, down to the joints and fastenings, in rock. This is by itself an
impressive feat, but betrays the fact that as far as the physical properties and potential of
stone was concerned, the masons had much to learn.
The Rathas of Mahabalipuram


The next notable development occurs much
later chronologically (c.600 - 900 AD), as well as much further south, at Mahabalipuram,
under the reign of the Pallavas. They were the founders of what later became known as the
Dravidian Style, which became the style prevalent all over South India during mediaeval
times.

The town of Mahabalipuram is home to a curious experiment: to determine which form of
temple is best. This led to the sculpting, out of monolithic rock, scaled-down replicas of
actual temples, which are now known as the Rathas of Mahabalipuram or the 'Seven
Pagodas'. The rathas are not very large, the biggest measuring 42 feet by 35 feet, and the
tallest is 40 feet high. With one exception, all the rathas are modeled on two types of
structure: the Buddhist vihara and chaitya.

The rathas are today half-buried in the sand, silent monuments to the age of kings gone by,
their silhouettes and graceful surface sculpture exact, in every detail, to the great temples of
the south that would follow.
Kailash Nath Temple, Ellora


The final example of this type is the Kailash
Nath Temple, also at Ellora. This is indeed unique. Instead of carving down into the face of a
cliff and creating underground halls which had been the practice, the sculptors/architects set
aside all convention and created a full temple, identical in every detail to a structural, 'built-
up' example, by carving vertically down into the living rock. When we consider that the plan
of the Kailash temple is fully equal in area to the Parthenon at Athens, and that it is one and a
half times as high, some idea of the magnitude of the achievement comes through.

The scheme of the Kailash temple is basically divided into four main parts: the body of the
temple itself, the entrance gateway, an intermediate nandi shrine and the cloisters
surrounding the courtyard. Much of the imposing character of the main shrine is due to its
substantial plinth, which on first examination seems to be a floor by itself. Above and below
this, the sub-structure is heavily molded, while the central space is occupied by a frieze of
elephants and lions.

The Kailash temple is not only the single largest work of art executed in India, but as an
example of rock-cut architecture it stands unrivalled. One gradually becomes aware of the
stupendous labor that it involved (over a hundred years), and finally, the sculpture that
adorns it. Standing within its walls, one cannot help but be aware of the spiritual energy that
went into its creation - a jewel hewn out of the rock itself.
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The First Classical Age
Art and Architecture of the Guptas by Ashish Nangia

Who were the Guptas? Was the period of this dynasty really a symbol of an Indian classical
age? What were its accomplishments in terms of art and architecture? How did it carry on
the heritage of the Buddhist era in India?

The first question is easy to answer. Though historical records in ancient and medieval India
are not easy to discern the main question being linear time as evidenced in the Judaeo-
Christian tradition and the concept of cyclical time as is usual for Indian historical records
yet there are enough archaeological and numismatic traces to construct a fairly accurate
record of the age that was said to be of the Guptas.

While this period is justly famous for the flowering of what is called core Hindu culture,
after the Vedic and Buddhist age, yet architectural temples had not as such coalesced into
their final form as would be evidenced some 200 years hence, as well as with experiments
with rock cut architecture and the free standing temples further south.

At its height, which extended from approximately the 4th century to the 6th century AD, the
Gupta Empire included much of north India, with zones of influences extending further
south down to modern day Chennai and Pondicherry. It was natural that such an
uninterrupted age of relative peace and prosperity brought with it ancillary development in
the sciences, astronomy, literature, the lively arts and what is today called Indian
philosophy. Some of the greatest pre-medieval Indian poets and writers, among them being
Kalidasa, lived and worked during the Gupta age.
;
Perhaps the most durable contribution in terms of art and architecture during the Gupta
period is the series of monasteries and caves at Ajanta and Ellora. Cut above the natural bed
of a river through living rock, the Ajanta Caves are close to Aurangabad and were
discovered by a British officer in 1818. The caves were dug out through an iterative
process roughly contemporaneous with the Gupta Empire, i.e. from the 2nd to the 6th
century AD. There are a total of approximately 30 caves, with a substantial number
being chaitya halls and viharas (discussed in an earlier piece).

Famous for their paintings, the cave art depicts tales
from the Jatakas in a range of styles and forms, though as time goes by an increasing lack of
quality is shown ranging from inferior materials to dull, lifeless forms. The earliest caves
date from the 1 st century BC, with a second phase beginning in the 5 th century AD, which
is when the art of painting during the Gupta era really comes into its own.
Apart from its art, the Ajanta and Ellora caves are significant works of architecture, even
though rock cut, in their own right. Most of the monasteries, which take the form
of vihara interiors, are rectangular in shape and surrounded by monks cells.
Later viharas also have place for a small stupa at the end, which doubles as a sanctuary
containing a graven image of the Buddha. The viharas are complemented, as in caves 9, 10,
19 and 26 by chaitya halls with a central space leading to the culminating stupa. The use of
timber forms as inspiration continues in both viharas and chaityas.
Temple Forms
As has been mentioned, the Gupta Empire was responsible, apart from the continuing
tradition of Buddhism, for the initial development of Hinduism. The architecture of
Hinduism demanded a different approach to its form than earlier Buddhist architecture. For
one, the temple or place of worship was said to be in direct communion with the gods, and
so an open place away from the cloistered existence of monkish life was required. Secondly,
great emphasis was placed on the square and its permutations as far as formal vocabulary
was concerned. This lead to early temples, though being simple in their interior plan, to
have a form that reflected both: openness to the air as well as being open to the four cardinal
directions. In addition, there was a requirement for height, with the main objective being to
provide to the worshiper a sense of power as well as closeness to the heavens. A superb
early example of this philosophic typology is the Vishnu temple at Deogarh, as well as the
brick temple at Bhitargaon.

Constructed on a high pedestal of steps, the Vishnu temple suffers much from deterioration
through age and exposure to the elements. However, there is enough of its form left to
appreciate the new winds of change and the prelude to the architectural renaissance that
would take place in the aftermath and late years of the Gupta Empire. With four entrances or
possible doorways, and a space to perambulate around the structure, the Vishnu temple is
among the earlier examples to contain within itself the feature of a pradakshina path, or
circumferential passage, which embodies the symbolism and the ritualism of making ones
way across the cosmos. There is also evidence of a rudimentary shikhara, or spire,
constructed of stone laid on top of one another. Structurally speaking, the Vishnu temple is
rudimentary, but it does contain within its form powerful early Hindu symbolism.
A miracle of survival, the brick temple at
Bhitargaon is one of the oldest surviving terracotta/brick buildings from the late Gupta age.
Here too a square plan provides the base for a brick spire or shikhara. A possibly new
innovation in this temple is found at its entrance, with a vaulted arch being constructed out
of brick to mark the entry.

To conclude, while the Gupta Empire was more and justly so known for its
achievements other than architecture, yet it marks the break between the dominance of
Buddhism in north India and the emergence of a full-fledged Hindu culture in the
subcontinent. Much of the cultural foundation in arts, literature and science which would go
on to become the pillars of the Hindu tradition was laid during this period. However,
architecture too contributed with the first temples and temple forms taking shape. The few
examples that survive from this period testify to the legacy of the Gupta monarchs and the
cultural phenomena of Hinduism that would dominate the subcontinent for a good few
centuries to come.
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Rajput Architecture: The Beginning of a National Identity
by Ashish Nangia

Time : The 14th and 15th Centuries
A political vacuum exists in India. The infighting among the various nobles of the Delhi
Sultanate has caused many kingdoms and provincial governors to assert their freedom. From
this vacuum come the kingdoms of Vijayanagara, Golconda and Bijapur in the south. In the
north, in Rajasthan and Gujarat, the proud fighting clans of the Rajputs too seize this
opportunity. This will be the time of chivalry, of great forts under the hot sun, of pomp and
splendor, the making of a warrior tradition which will provide eventual stiff resistance to the
Mughal onslaught.

However, a break in building tradition caused by the Delhi Sultanate in the preceding
years means that the science of architecture is no longer the same the ancient texts which
were followed in early temple building have either been lost, or forgotten, or need to be
modified in response to changing needs. The craftsmen, too, have now practiced on Islamic
buildings, and bring with them the tradition of Islam.

The current of cultural exchange now flows both ways earlier it was Islam which had to
forcedly borrow indigenous craftsmen for its architecture and now it is these very same
guilds who return to the service of Hindu kings. Architecture will now be truly a fusion, and
will be one of the first, and among the most prominent, tools of a sub-continental identity, a
true Indo-Islamic culture.

Meanwhile the principal players in this drama are of course a little less aware of their
eventual place in history, and are more occupied by the more mundane aspects in life. This
is the old story of kingdoms waging war against each other and rulers erecting palaces and
monuments to their glory, and fortresses to preserve their rule.
The Legend of Chittor
The Sisodias of Chittor and Rana Kumbha (1433-
68) were among the most active patrons of building. The Jayastambha (Tower of Victory) is
an odd structure, combining as it does the urge to commemorate a victory (that over Malwa
in 1458), with the principles of temple building. The structure thus becomes quasi-religious,
a sort of vertical temple.

Chittorgarh today is a sleepy little town, much like many others in semi-rural India. The
youth all want to leave, the cows blink stupidly in the ferocious heat of the mid-day sun, and
the halwai is the main cultural centre, where politics is discussed over chai. It doesnt even
have a proper train line, the only connection is by an old metre-gauge to Delhi and
Ahmedabad.

Nothing spectacular, one would say. Except for the low plateau in the near horizon, and the
massive slumbering walls around its top. This is the fort of Chittor, once home to kings and
nobles, of beautiful queens and princesses, of stirring tales of manhood and valor, of noble
but futile chivalry, and of eventual, glorious death.

Chittor fort, along with Mandu and Chanderi, represent the start of the tradition of synthesis
between native and imported ideas, which was to be carried on with increasing skill in the
forts of Gwalior, Orchcha and finally Fatehpur Sikri.
Gwalior
The strategically located Gwalior fort was fair game, in its position as the gateway to central
India, for all would-be potentates. The climb up to Gwalior plateau is tortuous and not easily
accomplished even by a motor vehicle. This no doubt contributed to its fine system of
defences designed to slow down and eventually stop any attacker.


Among its many remarkable buildings, its greatest is perhaps the palace of Man Singh
Tomar built in the 15th century.

Unlike even its successors, Man Singhs palace is in an excellent state of preservation, with
even the blue and yellow tile work on the faade still visible.
Orchha

At Orchha there are three palaces of note the Ramji Mandir of Raja Rudra Pratap (1501-
31), the Raj Mahal of Madhukar (1554-91), and the Jahangir Mahal of Bir Singh Deo.
These last two were built on an island in the river Betwa.

Raj Mahal

Jahangir Mahal






All three palaces, built in the time when the Mughal influence
had begun, have square courts - like most Muslim buildings
surrounded by living quarters. Arches and domes mingle with
beams and columns.

The fusion experiment at Orchha culminated in Bir
Singhs Govind Mahal at Datia. In plan the Govind Mahal
distinctly follows the Muslim concept of a central court, with a
symmetrical disposition of elements around it. The four corners
culminate in domes
which set off the larger one crowning the central royal quarters.

However, perhaps the most surprising creation at Orchha is the giant Chaturbhuja temple.
More than its size, the architectural plan is surprising, resembling more a cathedral, being a
cross in plan. The other astonishing thing is the large interior space, quite unusual for a
temple where the interiors tend to be closed and cramped.

This trend of fusion was to be evident in Muslim architecture of the period as well.

The history of the Indian subcontinent is best studied in this way as a product of diverse
influences, each of which leaves its own mark, rather than a narrow division into Hindu,
Buddhist, Jain, Muslim etc. For none of these developed in isolation, but were rather a
product of the volatile political process around them.

So if architecture can define a nation, it is at this period in history that we witness a
remarkable change a sort of rapprochement between Hindu and Muslim at least in the
domain of architecture. For craftsmen do not know any religion except for what feels good to
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The Temple Cities of the South
by Ashish Nangia

In our last article, we explained how the typical south Indian city came to be
surrounded by a ring of walls because of the need for defense, and then
population growth. This led to a number of interesting solutions in city
planning and the most visible architectural feature of this expansion was the
Gopuram.

Gopurams

The Gopuram (literally Cow-Gate), was erected primarily to emphasize the
importance of the temple within the city precincts without in any way
altering the form of the temple itself. The formal aspects of the Gopuram
were evolved slowly over time. It had to be towering, massive and
impressive. But it was not felt necessary to repeat verbatim the square-based
form of the temple Vimana. This could be due to the fact that the square was
a essentially a static form, signifying calm and rest, while the entrance
gateway needed to have some dynamism. Elongating the square and
converting into a rectangle with an open entrance in the middle solved this
problem. Above this base could be raised tier upon tier of a pyramidal structure comprised
of brick and plaster with the topmost tier also a rectangle, albeit much smaller.

This rectangular top was crowned by a barrel-vaulted shape of Buddhist origin, crowned
with a row of finials.

As time went by, cities all over South India could be discerned from afar by the distinctive
shape of their Gopurams dominating the skyline.

The temple-city had evolved from a place of pilgrimage to the hub of political, cultural,
social and secular activity of the region.

The 'Annular' Growth of Cities

Such an increase in importance of the city led to a natural population increase as well as
demands for more resources. But growth was also constrained by the huge battlements
thrown up around, punctuated by the massive Gopurams. The only viable solution was to
erect yet another wall around the existing one. The new wall, too, had its own huge
Gopurams. In this way the city grew much like the annular rings of a tree, with successive
perimeters being added as population growth dictated. Thus, the great temple of Srirangam
at Tiruchirapalli acquired several concentric rings of growth over a period of 500 years.
Ultimately, the concentric city and Gopurams, which evolved out of necessity rather than
conscious design, came to be accepted as the standard 'form' of temple construction in the
south.



The Meenakshi Temple at Madurai

Thus it came to pass that the Meenakshi
temple was designed as a series of concentric courtyards, or parikramas. The spaces around
the shrine became hierarchical, diminishing in religious value; the further one went from the
main shrine. The outermost ring had buildings of a more practical nature - accounts,
dormitories, kitchens, shops selling items for rituals, maintenance areas and 'parking' for the
increasing number of chariots.

The inner circles contained parikramas for singing and religious tales, bathing tanks and
guest houses. And in the innermost courts were the pavilions for the dancing girls and the
treasury - both jealously guarded by the priests! Admittance was restricted to the upper
castes only. And finally, the holiest of holies, the Cella containing the idol of the deity was
open only to the head pujari and out of bounds for even the king of the land.

The Hall of a Thousand Pillars

With temple building losing its architectural challenge and becoming more and more a town
planning exercise, the craftsman was restricted to working on pavilions, halls and
Gopurams, the last of which grew ever larger and imposing. The huge hall in the Meenakshi
temple needed 985 pillars to support its roof. This is the famous 'Hall of a Thousand Pillars'.
Unfortunately its size cannot compensate for its architectural mediocrity, and according to
Satish Grover:
...the hall, surely one of the more arid products of Indian craftsmanship is a
museum of drawings and photographs of the entire gamut of the 1200 years of
temple architecture of the South.*
The Corridors of Rameswaram

Rameswaram, on a tip of land jutting out into the sea, is a maze of huge pillared verandahs.
Not only is the temple surrounded by corridors, but it is also linked to the entrances by
covered passages. Rameswaram thus has the distinction of possessing the longest corridors
in the world.

However, in spite of their huge proportions, the Gopurams and pillared corridors were the
last gasp of conceptually revolutionary Hindu architecture in the country. The invasion of
Islam had already resulted in the North being a bustling hive of mosque and tomb building.
The Hindu stonecutter proved to be equally adept at carving Islamic masterpieces as
sculpting nubile forms on the surface of temples. This will form the subject of a later article.
- See more at:
http://www.boloji.com/index.cfm?md=Content&sd=Articles&ArticleID=919#sthash.eczhMdUF
.dpuf



Painting as an art form has flourished in India from very early periods as is evident from literary sources and also from the remnants that have been
discovered.
Indian Paintings can be broadly classified as the murals & miniatures. Murals are huge works executed on the walls of solid structures. Classic examples are
the paintings in Ajantha & Kailasantaha temple.
Miniature paintings are those executed on a very small scale on perishable material such as paper, cloth, etc., Though this style had been perfected by
artisans under the various rules, not many remain today. Prime examples are the Rajasthani & Mughal miniatures.
Contemporary artists have kept up to the times & excel in their modern works, giving free expression to their imagination & artistic liberty.
Information

Apr 2006
Ajanta murals

Sep 2007
the many-splendoured delights of Ajanta, compiled by Swaminathan


http://ajantacaves.com


Jun 2009 - last updated Apr 2013
Kerala murals

Sep 2007
Temple murals

Brihadeeswarar Koil - Thanjavur, Tamilnadu

Thyagarajaswamy temple - Thiruvarur, Tamilnadu

Panchanadeeswarar temple - Thiruvarur, Tamilnadu

Swamimalai temple near Kumbakonam, Tamilnadu

Ekambareshwarar temple - Kancheepuram, Tamilnadu


last update Mar 2011
Tanjore Painting

last update Apr 2013
Creating a tanjavur painting - Step by step instructions

Tanjore paintings gallery at Government Museum, Chennai
http://www.chennaimuseum.org/draft/gallery/03/01/012/tanjore1.htm

Apr 2006 - last update Sep 2007
Raja Ravi Varma's paintings

Apr 2006
Miniature Paintings

Apr 2006
Madhubani Painting - Bihar

Link to website on Madhubani paintings
http://www.southasianist.info/india/mithila/index.html

Apr 2006
Kalamkari Painting - Kalahasti, Masulipatnam, Andhra Pradesh

Kalamkari Unit in Kalakshetra


Apr 2006
Pithoro Painting - Gujarat

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