Cave and Rock-Cut Architecture Found in India! Before the Gupta period the chief architectural remains, other than stupas and their surrounding gateways and railings, are artificial caves, excavated for religious purposes. Early cave specimens were excavated on wooden modelsstandardised religious meeting places consisting of thatched huts. The early cavestwo at Barabar (near Gaya) and Nagarjuni Hills are quite unadorned. The inner walls of the caves are finely polished, no doubt by workmen of the school responsible for the polish of the Ashokan pillars. Later cave temples and monasteries are to be found in many parts of India, but it was in the Western Deccan, under the Satavahana rulers and their successors, that the largest and most famous artificial caves were excavated. The earliest rock-cut caves in India are attributed to Ashoka (273-232 BC) and his grandson Dasaratha. Eventually this rock- cut architecture developed into a powerful and popular architectural style and gave the country nearly 1,200 excavations which are scattered in many parts. This architecture had three definite phases: the earliest dating from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD, the second from the 5th to the 7th century and the last from the 7th to the 10th century. These developments took place primarily in the Western Ghats and only secondarily in other parts of the country. The rock architecture was suited to India, for the country had plenty of Rocky Mountains, and structures excavated in stone were the most durable. The early Buddhist architecture covers the period from the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. The first phase of excavations in Western India was related exclusively to early Buddhism, which meant the worship of the Buddha represented symbolically. The excavations took the shape of (i) the chaitya or prayer hall and (ii) the vihara or monastery. Both initiated in rock the structural forms practised in less permanent materials like wood. The characteristic features of these early temples were two establishments, each self-contained and consisting of a prayer hall (chaitya) and a monastery (vihara) which contained accommodation for monks. The square central hall was approached through a verandah or portico, and doorways led into cells for members of the brotherhood. Examples of the early Buddhist architecture can still be seen at Karla, Kanheri, Nasik, Bhaja and Bedsa and at Ajanta. The second phase began in the 5th century AD. This phase was characterised by the virtual elimination of timber and by the introduction of the image of the Buddha as a dominant feature of the architectural design. Nevertheless, the plan of the excavations, particularly of the chaitya, remained essentially the same as that of similar constructions of the earlier phase. The statue of the Buddha sometimes assumed gigantic proportions. The vihara also underwent a slight change: the inner cells, formerly inhabited by the monks alone, now housed the image of the Buddha as well. Buddhists of the Mahayana School followed the broad architectural principles of their predecessors, the Hinayana Buddhists, and their architecture consisted, as hitherto, of the chaitya and the vihara. Later, the Hindus and Jains extended the Buddhist architectural tradition but with certain modifications, designed to suit their own rituals. The dominant features of the Dravidian rock-cut style are the mandapa and the ratha. The mandapa is an open pavillion excavated out of a rock. It takes the form of a simple columned hall with two or more cells (compartments for the deity) in the back wall. The ratha (literally chariot) is a monolithic shrine carved out of a single rock. Kanheri Caves: These caves near Mumbai (in Thane district of Maharashtra) belong to the Hinayana phase of Buddhist architecture, while the 5th century image of the Buddha in the chaitya hall suggests later additions. Altogether there are more than 100 caves here. Their main features are flights of connecting steps and stone seats provided for the monks to rest on. Although many of the caves are not of great artistic merit, they have some archaeological interest inasmuch as they cover the period from the 2nd to the 9th century AD. Joyeshwari Caves: These caves are within the island of Salsette which comprised the original Bombay island. Although greatly defaced, they are of interest as they belong to the last stages of the Mahayana Buddhist architecture. Brahmanical influence is evident for the shrines are isolated and stand in the centre of a cruciform hall with more than one entrance. The caves belong to the second half of the 8th century. Montpezir (Mandapeswar): These caves are of particular interest as they are probably the only Brahmanical caves to be converted into a Christian shrine. Even today, there is a Christian orphanage, the ruins of an old Portuguese church, and a Franciscan monastery nearby. The three caves date from the 8th century. Karle, Bhaja and Bedsa Caves: The Karle Caves on Banaghata Hills (near Mumbai) belong to the Hinayana period of Buddhist architecture. The main feature of this group is the chaitya which is amongst the largest and the best-preserved in India. Its entrance, which is extremely imposing, is a kind of massive vestibule to the arcaded screen in its rear. The two giant pillars have a group of lions supporting a large wheel and though partly covered by debris they must once have been about 50 feet in height. They are somewhat peculiar, being detached from the main structure. The decorative railings and supporting elephants (half life-size and originally with ivory tusks) at each end indicate an advanced stage of ornamental work in which symbols were used repeatedly and alternately. The interior or the chaitya hall consists of a colonnade, vaulting and sun-window. The sun-window, a wonderful arrangement for the diffusion of light, deflected the rays of the sun in such a manner that soft light fell in the stupa and the screen, half-tones on the pillars and gloom in the aisles. The 18 Bhaja caves (near Pune) are supposed to have been built for Buddhist nuns. They were excavated in the 2nd century BC. Owing to the ravages of time, the face and entrance of the main cave (No. 12) are now open and provide us with an unrestricted view of the hall. The pillars are sloping, but the stilted vault is a fine piece of work. The stupa is very plain and in two parts, probably relieved, when originally built, by frescoes of which there is now little trace. The last cave to the south has some fine sculpture, including a prince seated on an elephant, a prince in a chariot and three armed figures. The dancing couple is a justly famous piece of sculpture. The caves at Bedsa (near Pune) belong to a slightly later period than those at Bhaja. The chaitya resembles the great hall at Karle but is smaller. It has four pillars with carvings of horses, bulls and elephants mounted by male and female riders. Its ribbed roof is supported by 26 octagonal pillars, 10 feet high. Eladipattam: To the south at Sittanavasal, on the top of the hill there is a natural shelter known as Eladipattam (also Ezhadippattam). It served as a Jain shelter since 1st century BC. Eladipattam is supposed to have got its name from seven holes cut in the rockthey serve as steps to ascend the shelter. Inside this cave there are seventeen polished stone berths aligned into rows, each with a raised partmost likely these were beds for Jains with stone pillows. The largest of these ascetic beds contains inscription in Brahmi script, in Tamil language from 1st century BC. Some more inscriptions in Tamil language are from much later time8th century AD. These inscriptions name mendicants-monks who, most likely, spent their lives in isolation in this hill. Eladipattam served as a site for very severe penance: kayotsarga (meditation in standing posture until salvation) and sallekhana (fasting until death). Udayagiri caves: At Udayagiri, 20 rock-cut chambers were excavated during the Gupta period, two of which bear inscriptions from the reign of Chandra Gupta II. These caves are vital documents since they constitute the earliest intact body of Hindu art in India, and demonstrate that by the early fifth century, many Hindu iconographic formulas were already well established. One of the most important caves at Udayagiri is Cave 5, the Varaha Cave (or niche). Its main feature is a colossal rock-cut relief of the boar-incarnation (Varaha) of God Vishnu rescuing the Earth Goddess from chaos in the presence of adoring gods and saints. The massive dynamism of the Varaha-god rises into gigantic appearance and is free from any restraint. The power of the Indian artist reaches its peak in the well balanced composition of forceful energy combined with cosmic majesty, working for good against chaos and destruction. Nasik Caves: To the south-west of Nasik, on the main Mumbai road, is an important group of 23 Buddhist caves belonging to the Hinayana period of Buddhist architecture, and dating back to the 1st century AD. When the Buddha was not represented anthropomorphically, his spiritual presence was denoted by a throne, a footstool, or footprints. This group of caves, called Pandu Lena, is on the easternmost side of the three conical peaks at the extreme and of the Trimbak range of hills. They consist of three large halls and one fine chapel. Junagadh Caves: Uparkot (meaning citadel) is an ancient fortress which was the scene of historic sieges between the middle of the 14th and end of the 16th century AD. Its entrance, in the form of an archway, is a fine specimen of the Hindu torana. Uparkot has many interesting Buddhist caves and was evidently the site of a Buddhist monastery in ancient times. Some of the caves, apparently, were two or three storeys high. Belonging to about AD 300, their outstanding features are the halls, connected by winding staircases. In the upper chamber is a small refractory and a tank surrounded by a corridor, all supported by six richly carved columns indicative of fine craftsmanship. Bagh: In Bagh, Madhya Pradesh, there are nine sandstone Buddhist caves with beautiful frescoes and sculptured stonework. A tentative dating assigns them to 6th century AD but they may have predated the Ajanta frescoes. Undavaili: The Undavalli caves near Vijayawada (Andhra Pradesh) are 7th century Hindu cave temples cut into five tiers along the slope of a back granite hill. The main attraction is a reclining statue of Vishnu, sculpted from a single block of granite. The Buddha is given pride of place. Elephant: Caves On the island of Elephant off the Mumbai harbour are the Elephant caves of the 8th century AD. The islands derive their name from the giant carving of an elephant which used to stand at the old landing stage. The Ganesh Gumpha is one of the earliest examples of the Brahmanical temple and has been excavated in a rocky terrace, the outside consisting of a columned verandah, and approached by steps flanked by sculptured elephants. At each end of the facade is a pilaster (square pillar projecting from a wall) carved in the shape of a dvarapala (door-keeper) with a huge spear. The masterpiece is a three-faced image (Trimurti) representing the Maheswara aspect of Shiva. The left face presents the fierce male aspect of Shiva and the face on the right the gentle, feminine qualities of his all-transcending nature. The other view is that the Trimurti represents Brahma (creator), Vishnu (preserver) and Shiva (destroyer). Other interesting sculptures in the cave show the marriage of Shiva with Parvati; Bhairava; Shiva in the tandava dance; Ravana, the demon king shaking Kailasa; Ardhanariswara the Lord who is both male and female.
Rock Cut Architecture by Ashish Nangia
Rock-cut architecture occupies a very important place in the history of Indian Architecture. This differs from 'building up' in many important ways. Firstly, the art is more akin to sculpture than architecture, in that a solid body of material (rock) is taken, the final product visualized and cutting/carving starts. Secondly, the mason is not overly concerned with spans, forces, beams, columns, and all the other architectural features - these can be carved, but are seldom playing any structural role.
In this article, we shall cover a wide chronological range, from the earliest primitive caves of Buddhist monks, to the crowning glory of the art, namely the Kailash temple at Ellora. All of these have some common features, yet it can be clearly seen that the rock-cutter improved all the time, gaining confidence and mastery over the material, until the final culmination at the 'White Temple' of Ellora. Buddhist Caves and Chaityas
The ascetic nature of early Buddhism and Jainism was well suited to living a life away from the cities, in natural caves and grottoes in the hillsides. In a circle of two hundred miles around modern Nasik, the rugged hills of the Western Ghats are naturally suited to the creation of living space in the hillside - with steep cliffs providing an ideal surface for carving in.
The architecture here is divided into distinct groups - each having its own version of the prayer-hall, or chaitya and a monastery, or a vihara. The most significant of these are the examples at Karle, with magnificent chaityas cut deep into the hillside.
The most remarkable aspect of the rock cut architecture at Karle and other sites is its close similarity to wood construction. This went as far as imitating every detail of wood, down to the joints and fastenings, in rock. This is by itself an impressive feat, but betrays the fact that as far as the physical properties and potential of stone was concerned, the masons had much to learn. The Rathas of Mahabalipuram
The next notable development occurs much later chronologically (c.600 - 900 AD), as well as much further south, at Mahabalipuram, under the reign of the Pallavas. They were the founders of what later became known as the Dravidian Style, which became the style prevalent all over South India during mediaeval times.
The town of Mahabalipuram is home to a curious experiment: to determine which form of temple is best. This led to the sculpting, out of monolithic rock, scaled-down replicas of actual temples, which are now known as the Rathas of Mahabalipuram or the 'Seven Pagodas'. The rathas are not very large, the biggest measuring 42 feet by 35 feet, and the tallest is 40 feet high. With one exception, all the rathas are modeled on two types of structure: the Buddhist vihara and chaitya.
The rathas are today half-buried in the sand, silent monuments to the age of kings gone by, their silhouettes and graceful surface sculpture exact, in every detail, to the great temples of the south that would follow. Kailash Nath Temple, Ellora
The final example of this type is the Kailash Nath Temple, also at Ellora. This is indeed unique. Instead of carving down into the face of a cliff and creating underground halls which had been the practice, the sculptors/architects set aside all convention and created a full temple, identical in every detail to a structural, 'built- up' example, by carving vertically down into the living rock. When we consider that the plan of the Kailash temple is fully equal in area to the Parthenon at Athens, and that it is one and a half times as high, some idea of the magnitude of the achievement comes through.
The scheme of the Kailash temple is basically divided into four main parts: the body of the temple itself, the entrance gateway, an intermediate nandi shrine and the cloisters surrounding the courtyard. Much of the imposing character of the main shrine is due to its substantial plinth, which on first examination seems to be a floor by itself. Above and below this, the sub-structure is heavily molded, while the central space is occupied by a frieze of elephants and lions.
The Kailash temple is not only the single largest work of art executed in India, but as an example of rock-cut architecture it stands unrivalled. One gradually becomes aware of the stupendous labor that it involved (over a hundred years), and finally, the sculpture that adorns it. Standing within its walls, one cannot help but be aware of the spiritual energy that went into its creation - a jewel hewn out of the rock itself. 1-Mar-2001 - See more at: http://www.boloji.com/index.cfm?md=Content&sd=Articles&ArticleID=902#sthash.WnD3EKi q.dpuf
The First Classical Age Art and Architecture of the Guptas by Ashish Nangia
Who were the Guptas? Was the period of this dynasty really a symbol of an Indian classical age? What were its accomplishments in terms of art and architecture? How did it carry on the heritage of the Buddhist era in India?
The first question is easy to answer. Though historical records in ancient and medieval India are not easy to discern the main question being linear time as evidenced in the Judaeo- Christian tradition and the concept of cyclical time as is usual for Indian historical records yet there are enough archaeological and numismatic traces to construct a fairly accurate record of the age that was said to be of the Guptas.
While this period is justly famous for the flowering of what is called core Hindu culture, after the Vedic and Buddhist age, yet architectural temples had not as such coalesced into their final form as would be evidenced some 200 years hence, as well as with experiments with rock cut architecture and the free standing temples further south.
At its height, which extended from approximately the 4th century to the 6th century AD, the Gupta Empire included much of north India, with zones of influences extending further south down to modern day Chennai and Pondicherry. It was natural that such an uninterrupted age of relative peace and prosperity brought with it ancillary development in the sciences, astronomy, literature, the lively arts and what is today called Indian philosophy. Some of the greatest pre-medieval Indian poets and writers, among them being Kalidasa, lived and worked during the Gupta age. ; Perhaps the most durable contribution in terms of art and architecture during the Gupta period is the series of monasteries and caves at Ajanta and Ellora. Cut above the natural bed of a river through living rock, the Ajanta Caves are close to Aurangabad and were discovered by a British officer in 1818. The caves were dug out through an iterative process roughly contemporaneous with the Gupta Empire, i.e. from the 2nd to the 6th century AD. There are a total of approximately 30 caves, with a substantial number being chaitya halls and viharas (discussed in an earlier piece).
Famous for their paintings, the cave art depicts tales from the Jatakas in a range of styles and forms, though as time goes by an increasing lack of quality is shown ranging from inferior materials to dull, lifeless forms. The earliest caves date from the 1 st century BC, with a second phase beginning in the 5 th century AD, which is when the art of painting during the Gupta era really comes into its own. Apart from its art, the Ajanta and Ellora caves are significant works of architecture, even though rock cut, in their own right. Most of the monasteries, which take the form of vihara interiors, are rectangular in shape and surrounded by monks cells. Later viharas also have place for a small stupa at the end, which doubles as a sanctuary containing a graven image of the Buddha. The viharas are complemented, as in caves 9, 10, 19 and 26 by chaitya halls with a central space leading to the culminating stupa. The use of timber forms as inspiration continues in both viharas and chaityas. Temple Forms As has been mentioned, the Gupta Empire was responsible, apart from the continuing tradition of Buddhism, for the initial development of Hinduism. The architecture of Hinduism demanded a different approach to its form than earlier Buddhist architecture. For one, the temple or place of worship was said to be in direct communion with the gods, and so an open place away from the cloistered existence of monkish life was required. Secondly, great emphasis was placed on the square and its permutations as far as formal vocabulary was concerned. This lead to early temples, though being simple in their interior plan, to have a form that reflected both: openness to the air as well as being open to the four cardinal directions. In addition, there was a requirement for height, with the main objective being to provide to the worshiper a sense of power as well as closeness to the heavens. A superb early example of this philosophic typology is the Vishnu temple at Deogarh, as well as the brick temple at Bhitargaon.
Constructed on a high pedestal of steps, the Vishnu temple suffers much from deterioration through age and exposure to the elements. However, there is enough of its form left to appreciate the new winds of change and the prelude to the architectural renaissance that would take place in the aftermath and late years of the Gupta Empire. With four entrances or possible doorways, and a space to perambulate around the structure, the Vishnu temple is among the earlier examples to contain within itself the feature of a pradakshina path, or circumferential passage, which embodies the symbolism and the ritualism of making ones way across the cosmos. There is also evidence of a rudimentary shikhara, or spire, constructed of stone laid on top of one another. Structurally speaking, the Vishnu temple is rudimentary, but it does contain within its form powerful early Hindu symbolism. A miracle of survival, the brick temple at Bhitargaon is one of the oldest surviving terracotta/brick buildings from the late Gupta age. Here too a square plan provides the base for a brick spire or shikhara. A possibly new innovation in this temple is found at its entrance, with a vaulted arch being constructed out of brick to mark the entry.
To conclude, while the Gupta Empire was more and justly so known for its achievements other than architecture, yet it marks the break between the dominance of Buddhism in north India and the emergence of a full-fledged Hindu culture in the subcontinent. Much of the cultural foundation in arts, literature and science which would go on to become the pillars of the Hindu tradition was laid during this period. However, architecture too contributed with the first temples and temple forms taking shape. The few examples that survive from this period testify to the legacy of the Gupta monarchs and the cultural phenomena of Hinduism that would dominate the subcontinent for a good few centuries to come. - See more at: http://www.boloji.com/index.cfm?md=Content&sd=Articles&ArticleID=15112#sthash.8wfXDa zf.dpuf
Rajput Architecture: The Beginning of a National Identity by Ashish Nangia
Time : The 14th and 15th Centuries A political vacuum exists in India. The infighting among the various nobles of the Delhi Sultanate has caused many kingdoms and provincial governors to assert their freedom. From this vacuum come the kingdoms of Vijayanagara, Golconda and Bijapur in the south. In the north, in Rajasthan and Gujarat, the proud fighting clans of the Rajputs too seize this opportunity. This will be the time of chivalry, of great forts under the hot sun, of pomp and splendor, the making of a warrior tradition which will provide eventual stiff resistance to the Mughal onslaught.
However, a break in building tradition caused by the Delhi Sultanate in the preceding years means that the science of architecture is no longer the same the ancient texts which were followed in early temple building have either been lost, or forgotten, or need to be modified in response to changing needs. The craftsmen, too, have now practiced on Islamic buildings, and bring with them the tradition of Islam.
The current of cultural exchange now flows both ways earlier it was Islam which had to forcedly borrow indigenous craftsmen for its architecture and now it is these very same guilds who return to the service of Hindu kings. Architecture will now be truly a fusion, and will be one of the first, and among the most prominent, tools of a sub-continental identity, a true Indo-Islamic culture.
Meanwhile the principal players in this drama are of course a little less aware of their eventual place in history, and are more occupied by the more mundane aspects in life. This is the old story of kingdoms waging war against each other and rulers erecting palaces and monuments to their glory, and fortresses to preserve their rule. The Legend of Chittor The Sisodias of Chittor and Rana Kumbha (1433- 68) were among the most active patrons of building. The Jayastambha (Tower of Victory) is an odd structure, combining as it does the urge to commemorate a victory (that over Malwa in 1458), with the principles of temple building. The structure thus becomes quasi-religious, a sort of vertical temple.
Chittorgarh today is a sleepy little town, much like many others in semi-rural India. The youth all want to leave, the cows blink stupidly in the ferocious heat of the mid-day sun, and the halwai is the main cultural centre, where politics is discussed over chai. It doesnt even have a proper train line, the only connection is by an old metre-gauge to Delhi and Ahmedabad.
Nothing spectacular, one would say. Except for the low plateau in the near horizon, and the massive slumbering walls around its top. This is the fort of Chittor, once home to kings and nobles, of beautiful queens and princesses, of stirring tales of manhood and valor, of noble but futile chivalry, and of eventual, glorious death.
Chittor fort, along with Mandu and Chanderi, represent the start of the tradition of synthesis between native and imported ideas, which was to be carried on with increasing skill in the forts of Gwalior, Orchcha and finally Fatehpur Sikri. Gwalior The strategically located Gwalior fort was fair game, in its position as the gateway to central India, for all would-be potentates. The climb up to Gwalior plateau is tortuous and not easily accomplished even by a motor vehicle. This no doubt contributed to its fine system of defences designed to slow down and eventually stop any attacker.
Among its many remarkable buildings, its greatest is perhaps the palace of Man Singh Tomar built in the 15th century.
Unlike even its successors, Man Singhs palace is in an excellent state of preservation, with even the blue and yellow tile work on the faade still visible. Orchha
At Orchha there are three palaces of note the Ramji Mandir of Raja Rudra Pratap (1501- 31), the Raj Mahal of Madhukar (1554-91), and the Jahangir Mahal of Bir Singh Deo. These last two were built on an island in the river Betwa.
Raj Mahal
Jahangir Mahal
All three palaces, built in the time when the Mughal influence had begun, have square courts - like most Muslim buildings surrounded by living quarters. Arches and domes mingle with beams and columns.
The fusion experiment at Orchha culminated in Bir Singhs Govind Mahal at Datia. In plan the Govind Mahal distinctly follows the Muslim concept of a central court, with a symmetrical disposition of elements around it. The four corners culminate in domes which set off the larger one crowning the central royal quarters.
However, perhaps the most surprising creation at Orchha is the giant Chaturbhuja temple. More than its size, the architectural plan is surprising, resembling more a cathedral, being a cross in plan. The other astonishing thing is the large interior space, quite unusual for a temple where the interiors tend to be closed and cramped.
This trend of fusion was to be evident in Muslim architecture of the period as well.
The history of the Indian subcontinent is best studied in this way as a product of diverse influences, each of which leaves its own mark, rather than a narrow division into Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, Muslim etc. For none of these developed in isolation, but were rather a product of the volatile political process around them.
So if architecture can define a nation, it is at this period in history that we witness a remarkable change a sort of rapprochement between Hindu and Muslim at least in the domain of architecture. For craftsmen do not know any religion except for what feels good to build, and what pleases the eye. - See more at: http://www.boloji.com/index.cfm?md=Content&sd=Articles&ArticleID=977#sthash.DlyTJ7Wq .dpuf
The Temple Cities of the South by Ashish Nangia
In our last article, we explained how the typical south Indian city came to be surrounded by a ring of walls because of the need for defense, and then population growth. This led to a number of interesting solutions in city planning and the most visible architectural feature of this expansion was the Gopuram.
Gopurams
The Gopuram (literally Cow-Gate), was erected primarily to emphasize the importance of the temple within the city precincts without in any way altering the form of the temple itself. The formal aspects of the Gopuram were evolved slowly over time. It had to be towering, massive and impressive. But it was not felt necessary to repeat verbatim the square-based form of the temple Vimana. This could be due to the fact that the square was a essentially a static form, signifying calm and rest, while the entrance gateway needed to have some dynamism. Elongating the square and converting into a rectangle with an open entrance in the middle solved this problem. Above this base could be raised tier upon tier of a pyramidal structure comprised of brick and plaster with the topmost tier also a rectangle, albeit much smaller.
This rectangular top was crowned by a barrel-vaulted shape of Buddhist origin, crowned with a row of finials.
As time went by, cities all over South India could be discerned from afar by the distinctive shape of their Gopurams dominating the skyline.
The temple-city had evolved from a place of pilgrimage to the hub of political, cultural, social and secular activity of the region.
The 'Annular' Growth of Cities
Such an increase in importance of the city led to a natural population increase as well as demands for more resources. But growth was also constrained by the huge battlements thrown up around, punctuated by the massive Gopurams. The only viable solution was to erect yet another wall around the existing one. The new wall, too, had its own huge Gopurams. In this way the city grew much like the annular rings of a tree, with successive perimeters being added as population growth dictated. Thus, the great temple of Srirangam at Tiruchirapalli acquired several concentric rings of growth over a period of 500 years. Ultimately, the concentric city and Gopurams, which evolved out of necessity rather than conscious design, came to be accepted as the standard 'form' of temple construction in the south.
The Meenakshi Temple at Madurai
Thus it came to pass that the Meenakshi temple was designed as a series of concentric courtyards, or parikramas. The spaces around the shrine became hierarchical, diminishing in religious value; the further one went from the main shrine. The outermost ring had buildings of a more practical nature - accounts, dormitories, kitchens, shops selling items for rituals, maintenance areas and 'parking' for the increasing number of chariots.
The inner circles contained parikramas for singing and religious tales, bathing tanks and guest houses. And in the innermost courts were the pavilions for the dancing girls and the treasury - both jealously guarded by the priests! Admittance was restricted to the upper castes only. And finally, the holiest of holies, the Cella containing the idol of the deity was open only to the head pujari and out of bounds for even the king of the land.
The Hall of a Thousand Pillars
With temple building losing its architectural challenge and becoming more and more a town planning exercise, the craftsman was restricted to working on pavilions, halls and Gopurams, the last of which grew ever larger and imposing. The huge hall in the Meenakshi temple needed 985 pillars to support its roof. This is the famous 'Hall of a Thousand Pillars'. Unfortunately its size cannot compensate for its architectural mediocrity, and according to Satish Grover: ...the hall, surely one of the more arid products of Indian craftsmanship is a museum of drawings and photographs of the entire gamut of the 1200 years of temple architecture of the South.* The Corridors of Rameswaram
Rameswaram, on a tip of land jutting out into the sea, is a maze of huge pillared verandahs. Not only is the temple surrounded by corridors, but it is also linked to the entrances by covered passages. Rameswaram thus has the distinction of possessing the longest corridors in the world.
However, in spite of their huge proportions, the Gopurams and pillared corridors were the last gasp of conceptually revolutionary Hindu architecture in the country. The invasion of Islam had already resulted in the North being a bustling hive of mosque and tomb building. The Hindu stonecutter proved to be equally adept at carving Islamic masterpieces as sculpting nubile forms on the surface of temples. This will form the subject of a later article. - See more at: http://www.boloji.com/index.cfm?md=Content&sd=Articles&ArticleID=919#sthash.eczhMdUF .dpuf
Painting as an art form has flourished in India from very early periods as is evident from literary sources and also from the remnants that have been discovered. Indian Paintings can be broadly classified as the murals & miniatures. Murals are huge works executed on the walls of solid structures. Classic examples are the paintings in Ajantha & Kailasantaha temple. Miniature paintings are those executed on a very small scale on perishable material such as paper, cloth, etc., Though this style had been perfected by artisans under the various rules, not many remain today. Prime examples are the Rajasthani & Mughal miniatures. Contemporary artists have kept up to the times & excel in their modern works, giving free expression to their imagination & artistic liberty. Information
Apr 2006 Ajanta murals
Sep 2007 the many-splendoured delights of Ajanta, compiled by Swaminathan
http://ajantacaves.com
Jun 2009 - last updated Apr 2013 Kerala murals
Sep 2007 Temple murals
Brihadeeswarar Koil - Thanjavur, Tamilnadu
Thyagarajaswamy temple - Thiruvarur, Tamilnadu
Panchanadeeswarar temple - Thiruvarur, Tamilnadu
Swamimalai temple near Kumbakonam, Tamilnadu
Ekambareshwarar temple - Kancheepuram, Tamilnadu
last update Mar 2011 Tanjore Painting
last update Apr 2013 Creating a tanjavur painting - Step by step instructions
Tanjore paintings gallery at Government Museum, Chennai http://www.chennaimuseum.org/draft/gallery/03/01/012/tanjore1.htm
Apr 2006 - last update Sep 2007 Raja Ravi Varma's paintings
Apr 2006 Miniature Paintings
Apr 2006 Madhubani Painting - Bihar
Link to website on Madhubani paintings http://www.southasianist.info/india/mithila/index.html