AS Physics

Unit 1
Particles, Quantum Phenomena and
Electricity
1 Constituents of the Atom
2 Particles and Antiparticles
3 Quarks
4 Hadrons
5 Leptons
!orces and "#chan$e Particles
% &he Stron$ 'nteraction
( &he )eak 'nteraction
* !eynman +ia$rams
1, &he Photoelectric "-ect
11 "#citation. 'onisation and "ner$y Le/els
12 )a/e Particle +uality
13 Q0'1t
14 2hm3s La4 and '50 6raphs
15 1esisti/ity and Superconducti/ity
1 Series and Parallel Circuits
1% "ner$y and Po4er
1( "7! and 'nternal 1esistance
1* 8irchho- and Potential +i/iders
2, Alternatin$ Current
21 &he 2scilloscope
Unit 2
Mechanics, Materials and Waves
1 Scalars and 0ectors
2 1esol/in$ 0ectors
3 7oments
4 0elocity and Acceleration
5 7otion 6raphs
"9uations of 7otion
% &erminal 0elocity and Pro:ectiles
( ;e4ton3s La4s
* )ork. "ner$y and Po4er
1, Conser/ation of "ner$y
11 Hooke3s La4
12 Stress and Strain
13 <ulk Properties of Solids
14 =oun$3s 7odulus
15 Pro$ressi/e )a/es
1 Lon$itudinal and &rans/erse )a/es
1% Superposition and Standin$ )a/es
1( 1efraction
1* &otal 'nternal 1e>ection
2, 'nterference
21 +i-raction
?nit 1
Constituents of the Atom
Lesson 1
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e kno4 the constituents of the atom 4ith their masses and char$es
&o @e a@le to calculate the speciAc char$e of the constituents
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat isotopes and ions are ;B +)="1
The Nuclear Model (Also seen in GCSE
Physics 1 and 2)
)e kno4 from 1utherford3s e#periment that the
structure of an atom consists of positi/ely
char$ed protons and neutral neutrons in one
place called the nucleusB &he nucleus sits in the
middle of the atom and has ne$ati/ely char$ed
electrons or@itin$ itB At 6CS" 4e used char$es
and masses for the constituents relati/e to each
other. the ta@le a@o/e sho4s the actual char$es and massesB
Almost all of the mass of the atom is in the tiny nucleus 4hich takes up practically no
space 4hen compared to the siCe of the atomB 'f 4e shrunk the Solar System so that the
Sun 4as the siCe of a $old nucleus the furthest electron 4ould @e t4ice the distance to
PlutoB
'f the nucleus 4as a full stop it 4ould @e 25 m to the Arst electron shell. 1,, to the second
and 225 to the thirdB
Notation (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
)e can represent an atom of element D in the follo4in$ 4ayE X
A
Z
F is the proton num@erB &his is the num@er of protons in the nucleusB 'n an unchar$ed
atom the num@er of electrons or@itin$ the nucleus is e9ual to the num@er of protonsB
In Chemistry it is called the atomic number
A is the nucleon num@erB &his is the total num@er of nucleons in the nucleus Gprotons H
neutronsI 4hich can @e 4ritten as A J F H ;B
In Chemistry it is called the atomic mass number
; is the neutron num@erB &his is the num@er of neutrons in the nucleusB
Isotopes (Also seen in GCSE Physics 1 and 2)
'sotopes are di-erent forms of an elementB &hey al4ays ha/e the same num@er of protons
@ut ha/e a di-erent num@er of neutronsB Since they ha/e the same num@er of protons
Gand electronsI they @eha/e in the same 4ay chemicallyB
Chlorine 'f 4e look at Chlorine in the periodic ta@le 4e see that it is represented @y Cl
5 . 35
17
B
Ho4 can it ha/e 1(B5 neutronsK 't can3tL &here are t4o sta@le isotopes of Chlorine. Cl
35
17
4hich accounts for M%5N and Cl
37
17
4hich accounts for M25NB So the a/era$e of a lar$e
amount of Chlorine atoms is Cl
5 . 35
17
B
Specifc Charge
SpeciAc char$e is another title for the char$e5mass ratioB &his is a measure of the char$e
per unit mass and is simply 4orked out @y 4orked out @y di/idin$ the char$e of a particle
@y its massB
=ou can think of it as a ho4 much char$e Gin Coulom@sI you $et per kilo$ram of the Ostu-3B
Constituent Charge (C) Mass (kg) ChargeMass !atio (C kg
1
) or (C"kg)
Proton 1B # 1,
51*
1B%3 # 1,
52%
1B # 1,
51*
P 1B%3 #
1,
52%
*B5( # 1,
%
;eutron , 1B%5 # 1,
52%
, P 1B%5
# 1,
52%
,
"lectron G5I 1B # 1,
5
1*
*B1 # 1,
531
1B # 1,
51*
P *B11 #
1,
531
G5I 1B% #
1,
11
)e can see that the electron has the hi$hest char$e5mass ratio and the neutron has the
lo4estB
Constitue
nt
Charge
(C)
Mass (kg)
Proton 1B # 1,
51*
1B%3 #
1,
52%
;eutron , 1B%5 #
1,
52%
"lectron 5 1B # 1,
5
1*
*B1 # 1,
531

Ions (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
An atom may $ain or lose electronsB )hen this happens the atoms @ecomes electrically
char$ed Gpositi/ely or ne$ati/elyIB )e call this an ionB
'f the atom $ains an electron there are more ne$ati/e char$es than positi/e. so the atom
is a ne$ati/e ionB
6ainin$ one electron 4ould mean it has an o/erall char$e of 51. 4hich actually means
51B # 1,
51*
CB
6ainin$ t4o electrons 4ould mean it has an o/erall char$e of 52. 4hich actually means
53B2 # 1,
51*
CB
'f the atom loses an electron there are more positi/e char$es than ne$ati/e. so the atom
is a positi/e ionB
Losin$ one electron 4ould mean it has an o/erall char$e of H1. 4hich actually means
H1B # 1,
51*
CB
Losin$ t4o electrons 4ould mean it has an o/erall char$e of H2. 4hich actually means
H3B2 # 1,
51*
CB
?nit 1
Particles and Antiparticles
Lesson 2
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat is the di-erence @et4een particles and antiparticles
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat annihilation is
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat pair production is ;B +)="1
Antimatter
<ritish Physicist Paul +irac predicted a particle of e9ual mass to an electron @ut of
opposite char$e Gpositi/eIB &his particle is called a positron and is the electron3s
antiparticleB
"/ery particles has its o4n antiparticleB An antiparticle has the same mass as the particle
/ersion @ut has opposite char$eB An antiproton has a ne$ati/e char$e. an antielectron has
a positi/e char$e @ut an antineutron is also unchar$ed like the particle /ersionB
American Physicist Carl Anderson o@ser/ed the positron in a cloud cham@er. @ackin$ up
+irac3s theoryB
Anti particles have opposite Charge !aryon "umber #epton "umber and Strangeness$
I% they are made %rom &uar's the antiparticle is made %rom anti&uar's
Annihilation
)hene/er a particle and its antiparticle meet they
annihilate each otherB Annihilation is the process @y 4hich
mass is con/erted into ener$y. particle and antiparticle are
transformed into t4o photons of ener$yB
7ass and ener$y are interchan$ea@le and can @e con/erted
from one to the otherB "instein linked ener$y and mass 4ith
the e9uationE
2
mc E =
=ou can think of it like moneyQ 4hether you ha/e dollars or pounds you 4ould still ha/e
the same amount of moneyB So 4hether you ha/e mass or ener$y you still ha/e the same
amountB
&he la4 of conser/ation of ener$y can no4 @e referred to as the conser/ation of mass5
ener$yB
(he total mass)energy be%ore is e&ual to the total mass)energy a%terB
Photon
7a# Planck had the idea that li$ht could @e released in Ochunks3 or packets of ener$yB
"instein named these 4a/e5packets photonsB &he ener$y carried @y a photon is $i/en @y
the e9uationE
hf E =
Since
f c =
4e can also 4rite this asE

hc
E =
How is there anything at all?
)hen the <i$ <an$ happened matter and antimatter 4as produced and sent out
e#pandin$ in all directionsB A short time after this there 4as an im@alance in the amount
of matter and antimatterB Since there 4as more matter all the antimatter 4as annihilated
lea/in$ matter to form protons. atoms and e/erythin$ around usB
Pair Production
Pair production is the opposite process to annihilation.
ener$y is con/erted into massB A sin$le photon of ener$y is
con/erted into a particle5antiparticle pairB G&his happens to
o@ey the conser/ation la4sI
&his can only happen if the photon has enou$h mass5ener$y to Rpay for the massSB
Let us ima$e mass and ener$y as the same thin$. if t4o particles needed 1, R@itsS and
the photon had ( @its there is not enou$h for pair production to occurB
'f t4o particles needed 1, @its to make and the photon had 1 @its the
particle5antiparticle pair is made and the left o/er is con/erted into their
kinetic ener$yB
'f pair production occurs in a ma$netic Aeld the particle and antiparticle 4ill
mo/e in circles of opposite direction @ut only if they are char$edB G&he
de>ection of char$es in ma$netic Aelds 4ill @e co/ered in ?nit 4E !orce on a
Char$ed ParticleI
Pair production can occur spontaneously @ut must occur near a nucleus 4hich recoils to
help conser/e momentumB 't can also @e made to happen @y collidin$ particlesB At C"1;
protons are accelerated and Ared into each otherB 'f they ha/e enou$h kinetic ener$y
4hen they collide particle5antiparticle pair may @e created from the ener$yB
&he follo4in$ are e#amples of the reactions that ha/e occurredE
p p p p p p + + + +
+
+ + + + p p p p n n p p p p + + + +
'n all 4e can see that the conser/ation la4s of particle physics are o@eyedB
?nit 1
Quarks
Lesson 3
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat 9uarks are and 4here they are found
&o @e a@le to e#plain ho4 they 4ere disco/ered
&o kno4 the properties of each type of 9uark ;B +)="1
Rutherord Also seen in GCSE Physics 2
1utherford Ared a @eam of alpha particles at a thin $old foilB 'f the atom had no inner
structure the alpha particles 4ould only @e de>ected @y /ery small an$lesB Some of the
alpha particles 4ere scattered at lar$e an$les @y the nuclei of the atomsB !rom this
1utherford deduced that the atom 4as mostly empty space 4ith the ma:ority of the mass
situated in the centreB Atoms 4ere made from smaller particlesB
Smaller Scattering
'n 1*( Physicists conducted a similar e#periment to
1utherford3s @ut they Ared a @eam of hi$h ener$y electrons at
nucleons Gprotons and neutronsIB &he results they o@tained 4ere
/ery similar to 1utherford3sQ some of the electrons 4ere
de>ected @y lar$e an$lesB 'f the nucleons had no inner structure
the electrons 4ould only @e de>ected @y small an$lesB &hese
results sho4ed that protons and neutrons 4ere made of three
smaller particles. each 4ith a fractional char$eB
!uar"s
&hese smaller particles 4ere named 9uarks and are thou$ht to @e fundamental particles
Gnot made of anythin$ smallerIB &here are si# di-erent 9uarks and each one has its o4n
antiparticleB
)e need to kno4 a@out the three @elo4 as 4e 4ill @e lookin$ at ho4 lar$er particles are
made from di-erent com@inations of 9uarks and anti9uarksB
Quark Charge
(Q)
#aryon
$um%er
(#)
&trangen
ess
(&)
'nti
Quark
Charge
(Q)
#aryon
$um%er
(#)
&trangene
ss
(&)
d 5T HT , d
U
HT 5T ,
u HV HT , W 5V 5T ,
s 5T HT 51 sU HT 5T H1
&he other three are Charm. <ottom and &opB =ou 4ill not @e asked a@out these three
Quark Charge
#aryon
$o(
&trangene
ss
Charmnes
s
#ottomness )o*ness
d 5T HT ,
, , ,
u HV HT ,
, , ,
s 5T HT 51
, , ,
c HV HT , H1 , ,
@ 5T HT , , 51 ,
t HV HT , , , H1
The #one !uar"?
;e/erL Quarks ne/er appear on their o4nB &he ener$y re9uired to
pull t4o 9uarks apart is so massi/e that it is enou$h to make t4o
ne4 particlesB A 9uark and an anti9uark are created. another
e#ample of pair productionB
A particle called a neutral pion is made from an up 9uark and an
antiup 9uarkB 7o/in$ these apart creates another up 9uark
and an antiup 9uarkB )e no4 ha/e t4o pairs of 9uarksB
&ryin$ to separate t4o 9uarks made t4o more 9uarksB
Particle Classifcation
;o4 that 4e kno4 that 9uarks are the smallest @uildin$
@locks 4e can separate all other particles into t4o $roups.
those made from 9uarks and those that aren3t made from
9uarksB
Hadrons X Hea/y and made from smaller particles
Leptons X Li$ht and not made from smaller particles
?nit 1
Hadrons
Lesson 4
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat a hadron is and the di-erence @et4een the t4o types
&o kno4 the properties common to all hadrons
&o kno4 the structure of the common hadrons and 4hich is the most
sta@le
;B +)="1
Made rom Smaller Stu$
Hadrons. the 6reek for Ohea/y3 are not fundamental particles they are all made from
smaller particles. 9uarksB
&he properties of a hadron are due to the com@ined properties of the 9uarks that it is
made fromB
&here are t4o cate$ories of HadronsE <aryons and 7esonsB
%aryons *ade %rom three &uar's
Proto
n
Charge
(Q)
#aryon
$um%er
(#)
&trangen
ess
(&)
$eutr
on
Charge
(Q)
#aryon
$um%er
(#)
&trangene
ss
(&)
u HV HT , d 5T HT ,
u HV HT , u HV HT ,
d 5T HT , d 5T HT ,
* +1 +1 , n , +1 ,
&he proton is the only sta@le hadron. all others e/entually decay into a protonB
Mesons *ade %rom a &uar' and an anti&uar'
Pion
Plus
Charge
(Q)
#aryon
$um%er
(#)
&trangen
ess
(&)
Pion
Minus
Charge
(Q)
#aryon
$um%er
(#)
&trangene
ss
(&)
u HV HT , W 5V 5T ,
d
U
HT 5T , d 5T HT ,
-
+
+1 , , -

1 , ,
Pion
.ero
Charge
(Q)
#aryon
$um%er
(#)
&trangen
ess
(&)
Pion
.ero
Charge
(Q)
#aryon
$um%er
(#)
&trangene
ss
(&)
u HV HT , d 5T HT ,
W 5V 5T , d
U
HT 5T ,
-
,
, , , -
,
, , ,
/aon
Plus
Charge
(Q)
#aryon
$um%er
(#)
&trangen
ess
(&)
/aon
Minus
Charge
(Q)
#aryon
$um%er
(#)
&trangene
ss
(&)
u HV HT , W 5V 5T ,
sU HT 5T H1 s 5T HT 51
/
+
+1 , +1 /

1 , 1
/aon
.ero
Charge
(Q)
#aryon
$um%er
(#)
&trangen
ess
(&)
'nti/ao
n
.ero
Charge
(Q)
#aryon
$um%er
(#)
&trangene
ss
(&)
d 5T HT , d
U
HT 5T ,
sU HT 5T H1 s 5T HT 51
/
,
, , +1 /
0
,
, , 1
Anti Hadrons
Anti hadrons are made from the opposite 9uarks as their Hadron counterparts. for
e#ample a proton is made from the 9uark com@ination uud and an antiproton is made
from the com@ination WWd
U
)e can see that a Y
H
and a Y
5
are particle and antiparticle of each otherB
'nti
Proto
n
Charge
(Q)
#aryon
$um%er
(#)
&trangen
ess
(&)
'nti
$eutr
on
Charge
(Q)
#aryon
$um%er
(#)
&trangene
ss
(&)
W 5V 5T , d
U
HT 5T ,
W 5V 5T , W 5V 5T ,
d
U
HT 5T , d
U
HT 5T ,
*00 1 1 , n0 , 1 ,
=ou need to kno4 all the 9uark com@ination sho4n on this pa$e as they may ask you to recite
any of themB
?nit 1
Leptons
Lesson 5
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat a lepton is
&o kno4 the properties common to all leptons
&o @e a@le to e#plain the conser/ation la4s and @e a@le to use them ;B +)="1
&undamental Particles
A fundamental particle is a particle 4hich is not made of anythin$ smallerB <aryons and
7esons are made from 9uarks so they are not fundamental. @ut 9uarks themsel/es areB
&he only other kno4n fundamental particles are <osons Gsee Lesson E !orces and
"#chan$e ParticlesI and LeptonsB
#eptons
Leptons are a family of particles that are much li$hter than <aryons and 7esons and are
not su@:ect to the stron$ interactionB &here are si# leptons in total. three of them are
char$ed and three are unchar$edB
&he char$ed particles are electrons. muons and tauonsB &he muon and tauon are similar
to the electron @ut @i$$erB &he muon is rou$hly 2,, times @i$$er and the tauon is 35,,
times @i$$er Gt4ice the siCe of a protonIB
"ach of the char$ed leptons has its o4n neutrinoB 'f a decay in/ol/es a neutrino and a
muon. it 4ill @e a muon neutrino. not a tauon neutrino or electron neutrinoB
&he neutrino is a char$eless. almost massless particleB 't isn3t a-ected @y the stron$
interaction or "7 force and @arely @y $ra/ityB 't is almost impossi@le to detectB
1e*ton
Charg
e
(Q)
1e*ton
$um%er
(1)
'nti 1e*ton
Charge
(Q)
1e*ton
$um%er
(1)
"lectron e
5
51 H1 Anti "lectron e
H
H1 51
"lectron
;eutrino Z
e
, H1
Anti "lectron
;eutrino ZU
e
, 51
7uon [
5
51 H1 Anti 7uon [
H
H1 51
7uon ;eutrino Z
[
, H1 Anti 7uon ;eutrino ZU
[
, 51
&auon \
5
51 H1 Anti &auon \
H
H1 51
&auon
;eutrino Z
\
, H1 Anti &auon ;eutrino ZU
\
, 51
Conser'ation #aws
!or a particle interaction to occur the follo4in$ la4s must @e o@eyed. if either is /iolated
the reaction 4ill ne/er @e o@ser/ed G4ill ne/er happenIE
ChargeE 7ust @e conser/ed Gsame total /alue @efore as the total /alue afterI
!aryon "umberE 7ust @e conser/ed
#epton "umberE 7ust @e conser/ed
StrangenessE Conser/ed in "7 and Stron$ 'nteractionB +oesn3t ha/e to @e conser/ed in
)eak 'nteraction
()amples
'n pair production a photon of ener$y is con/erted into a particle and its antiparticle
] ^ e
5
H e
H
Q , ^ 51 H H1 , ^ , Conser/ed
< , ^ , H , , ^ , Conser/ed
L , ^ H1 H 51 , ^ , Conser/ed
S , ^ , H , , ^ , Conser/ed
Let us look at @eta plus decay as 4e kne4 it at 6CS"B A neutron decays into a proton and
releases an electronB
n ^ p H e
5
Q , ^ H1 H 51 , ^ , Conser/ed
< H1 ^ H1 H , H1 ^ H1 Conser/ed
L , ^ , H H1 , ^ H1
;ot
Conser/ed
S , ^ , H , , ^ , Conser/ed
&his contri@uted to the search for and disco/ery of the neutrinoB
Num*er Reminders
&here may @e a clue to the char$e of a particleQ Y
H
. 8
H
and e
H
ha/e a positi/e char$eB
't 4ill only ha/e a @aryon num@er if it 2& a @aryonB 7esons and Leptons ha/e a <aryon
;um@er of CeroB
't 4ill only ha/e a lepton num@er if it 2& a leptonB <aryons and 7esons ha/e a Lepton
;um@er of CeroB
't 4ill only ha/e a stran$eness if it is made from a stran$e 9uarkB Leptons ha/e a
stran$eness of CeroB
?nit 1
!orces and "#chan$e
Particles
Lesson
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 the four fundamental forces. their ran$es and relati/e stren$ths
&o kno4 4hat each force does and 4hat it acts on
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat e#chan$e particles are ;B +)="1
The &our Interactions
&here are four forces in the uni/erse. some you 4ill ha/e come across already and some
4ill @e ne4E
&he electroma$netic interaction causes an attracti/e or repulsi/e force @et4een char$esB
&he $ra/itational interaction causes an attracti/e force @et4een massesB
&he stron$ nuclear interaction causes an attracti/e Gor repulsi/eI force @et4een 9uarks
Gand so hadronsIB
&he 4eak nuclear interaction does not cause a physical force. it makes particles decayB
O)eak3 means there is a lo4 pro@a@ility that it 4ill happenB
2nteraction"3orce !ange !elative &trength
Stron$ ;uclear M1,
515
m 1 G1I
"lectroma$netic _ M1,
X2
G,B,1I
)eak ;uclear M1,
51(
m M1,
X%
G,B,,,,,,1I
6ra/itational _ M1,
X3
G,B,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
,,,,,1I
()change Particles
'n 1*35 `apanese physicist Hideki =uka4a put for4ard the idea that the interactionsaforces
@et4een t4o particles 4ere caused @y O/irtual particles3 @ein$ e#chan$ed @et4een the
t4o particlesB
He 4as 4orkin$ on the stron$ nuclear force 4hich keeps protons and neutrons to$ether
and theorised that they 4ere e#chan$in$ a particle @ack and forth that Ocarried3 the force
and kept them to$etherB &his is true of all the fundamental interactionsB
&he $eneral term for e#chan$e particles is bosons and they are fundamental particles like
9uarks and leptonsB
Ice S"ating Analogy
'ma$ine t4o people on ice skates that 4ill represent the t4o @odies e#periencin$ a forceB
'f A thro4s a @o4lin$ @all to <. A slides @ack 4hen they release it and < mo/es @ack 4hen
they catch itB 1epeatedly thro4in$ the @all @ack and forth mo/es A and < a4ay from each
other. the force causes repulsionB
&he analo$y falls a little short 4hen thinkin$ of attraction. @ut @ear 4ith itB
;o4 ima$ine that A and < are e#chan$in$ a @oomeran$ G@ear 4ith itI. thro4in$ it @ehind
them pushes A to4ards <. < catches it from @ehind and mo/es to4ards AB &he force
causes attractionB
+hich Particle or +hat &orce
"ach of the interactionsaforces has its o4n e#chan$e particlesB
2nteraction"3orc
e
E4change Particle What is acts u*on
Stron$ ;uclear
6luons @et4een
9uarks
Pions @et4een
<aryons
;ucleons GHadronsI
"lectroma$netic 0irtual Photon Char$ed particles
)eak ;uclear )
H
)
X
F
,
All particles
6ra/itational 6ra/iton Particles 4ith masses
%orrowing (nergy to Ma"e Particles
&he e#chan$e particles are made from O@orro4ed3 ener$y. @orro4ed from 4hereK !rom
no4hereL =uka4a used the Heisen@er$ ?ncertainty Principle to esta@lish that a particle of
mass5ener$y E could e#ist for a time t as lon$ as h t E . 4here h is Planck3s
constantB &his means that a hea/y particle can only e#ist for a short time 4hile a li$hter
particle may e#ist for lon$erB
h is Planck5s Constant, h 6 7(78 4 1,
89
: s(
'n 1*4% the e#chan$e particle of the stron$ nuclear interaction 4ere o@ser/ed in a cloud
cham@erB
#ending Money Analogy
&hink of makin$ e#chan$e particles in terms of lendin$ some@ody some moneyB
'f you lend some@ody b5, you 4ould 4ant it paid @ack fairly soonB
'f you lend some@ody 5,p you 4ould let them ha/e it for lon$er @efore payin$ you @ackB
?nit 1
&he Stron$ 'nteraction
Lesson %
&o kno4 4hy a nucleus doesn3t tear itself apart
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hy a nucleus doesn3t collapse in on itself
&o kno4 4hy the neutron e#ists in the nucleus ;B +)="1
The Strong Interaction
&he stron$ nuclear force acts @et4een 9uarksB Since Hadrons are the only
particles made of 9uarks only they e#perience the stron$ nuclear forceB
'n @oth <aryons and 7esons the 9uarks are attracted to each other @y
e#chan$in$ /irtual particles called O$luons3B
2n a lar$er scale the stron$ nuclear force acts @et4een the
Hadrons themsel/es. keepin$ them to$etherB A pi5meson or
pion GYI is e#chan$ed @et4een the hadronsB &his is called the
residual stron$ nuclear forceB
&orce ,raphs
Neutron-Neutron or Neutron-Proton
Here is the $raph of ho4 the force /aries @et4een t4o
neutrons or a proton and a neutron as the distance @et4een
them is increasedB
)e can see that the force is /ery stron$ly repulsi/e at
separations of less than ,B% fm G # 1,
X15
mIB &his pre/ents all
the nucleons from crushin$ into each otherB
A@o/e this separation the force is stron$ly attracti/e 4ith a
peak around 1B3 fmB )hen the nucleons are separated @y
more than 5 fm they no lon$er e#perience the S;!B
Proton-Proton
&he force5separation $raphs for t4o protons is di-erentB &hey @oth attract each other due
to the S;! @ut they also repel each other due to the electroma$netic force 4hich causes
t4o like char$es to repelB

6raph A 6raph < 6raph C
6raph A sho4s ho4 the stron$ nuclear force /aries 4ith the separation of the protons
6raph < sho4s ho4 the electroma$netic force /aries 4ith the separation of the protons
6raph C sho4s the resultant of these t4o forcesE repulsi/e at separations less than ,B% fm.
attracti/e up to 2 fm 4hen the force @ecomes repulsi/e a$ainB
Neutrons . Nuclear Cement
'n the li$hter elements the num@er of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is the sameB As
the nucleus $ets @i$$er more neutrons are needed to keep it to$etherB
Addin$ another proton
means that all the other
nucleons feel the S;!
attractionB 't also means
that all the other protons
feel the "7 repulsionB
Addin$ another neutron
adds to the S;! attraction
@et4een the nucleons @ut. since it is
unchar$ed. it does not contri@ute to the "7
repulsionB
?nit 1
&he )eak 'nteraction
Lesson (
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to 4rite the e9uation for alpha and @eta decay
&o kno4 4hat a neutrino is and 4hy is must e#ist
&o @e a@le to state the chan$es in 9uarks durin$ @eta plus and @eta
minus decay
;B +)="1
Alpha /ecay
)hen a nucleus decays in this 4ay an alpha particle Ga helium nucleusI is e:ected from
the nucleusB

4
2
4
2
+

Y X
A
Z
A
Z
or He Y X
A
Z
A
Z
4
2
4
2
+

All the emitted alpha particles tra/elled at the same speed. meanin$ they had the same
amount of ener$yB &he la4 of conser/ation of mass5ener$y is met. the ener$y of the
nucleus @efore the decay is the same as the ener$y of the nucleus and alpha particle after
the decayB
Alpha decay is ;2& due to the 4eak interaction @ut <eta decay 'S
%eta /ecay and the Neutrino
'n @eta decay a neutron in the nucleus chan$es to a proton and releases a @eta particle
Gan electronIB
&he pro@lem 4ith @eta decay 4as that the electrons had a ran$e of ener$ies so the la4 of
conser/ation of mass5ener$y is /iolated. ener$y disappearsB &here must @e another
particle @ein$ made 4ith Cero mass @ut /aria@le speeds. the neutrinoB
)e can also see from the particle conser/ation la4s that this is a for@idden interactionE

+ e p n
Char$e QE ,H1X1 ,, Char$e is conser/ed
<aryon ;um@er <E H1H1H, 11 <aryon num@er is conser/ed
Lepton ;um@er LE ,,H1 ,1 Lepton num@er is ;2& conser/ed
%eta Minus 01
.
2 /ecay
'n neutron rich nuclei a neutron may decay into a proton. electron and an anti electron
neutrinoB
e
e p n + +

Char$e QE ,H1X1H, ,, Char$e is conser/ed
<aryon ;um@er <E H1H1H,H, 11 <aryon num@er is conser/ed
Lepton ;um@er LE ,,H1X1 ,, Lepton num@er is conser/ed
'n terms of 9uarks @eta minus decay looks like thisE
e
e uud dud + +

4hich simpliAes toE
e
e u d + +

Char$e QE X THVX1H, X TX T Char$e is conser/ed
<aryon ;um@er <E HTHTH,H, TT <aryon num@er is
conser/ed
Lepton ;um@er LE ,,H1X1 ,, Lepton num@er is conser/ed
%eta Plus 01
3
2 /ecay
'n proton rich nuclei a proton may decay into a neutron. positron and an electron neutrinoB
e
e n p + +
+
Char$e QE H1,H1H, 11 Char$e is conser/ed
<aryon ;um@er <E H1H1H,H, 11 <aryon num@er is conser/ed
Lepton ;um@er LE ,,X1H1 ,, Lepton num@er is conser/ed
'n terms of 9uarks @eta plus decay looks like thisE
e
e dud uud + +
+
4hich simpliAes toE
e
e d u + +
+
Char$e QE HVXTH1H, VV Char$e is conser/ed
<aryon ;um@er <E HTHTH,H, TT <aryon num@er is
conser/ed
Lepton ;um@er LE ,,X1H1 ,, Lepton num@er is conser/ed
Strangeness
&he 4eak interaction is the only interaction that causes a 9uark to chan$e into a di-erent
type of 9uarkB 'n @eta decay up 9uarks and do4n 9uarks are chan$ed into one anotherB 'n
some reactions an up or do4n 9uark can chan$e into a stran$e 9uark meanin$
stran$eness is not conser/edB
+urin$ the 4eak interaction there can @e a chan$e in stran$eness of c1B
?nit 1
!eynman +ia$rams
Lesson *
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat a !eynman dia$ram sho4s us
&o @e a@le to dra4 !eynman dia$rams to represent interactions and decays
&o @e a@le to state the correct e#chan$e particle ;B +)="1
&eynman /iagrams
An American Physicist called 1ichard !eynman came up 4ith a 4ay of /isualisin$ forces
and e#chan$e particlesB <elo4 are some e#amples of ho4 !eynman dia$rams can
represent particle interactionsB
&he most important thin$s to note 4hen dealin$ 4ith !eynman dia$rams are the arro4s
and the e#chan$e particles. the lines do not sho4 us the path that the particles take only
4hich come in and 4hich $o outB
(he arro+s tell us +hich particles are present be%ore the interaction and +hich are
present a%ter the interaction$
(he +ave represents the interaction ta'ing place +ith the appropriate e,change particle
labelledB
()amples
+ia$ram 1 represents the stron$ interactionB A proton and neutron are attracted to$ether
@y the e#chan$e of a neutral pionB
+ia$ram 2 represents the electroma$netic interactionB &4o electrons repel each other @y
the e#chan$e of a /irtual photonB
+ia$ram 3 represents @eta minus decayB A neutron decays due to the 4eak interaction
into a proton. an electron and an anti electron neutrino
+ia$ram 4 represents @eta plus decayB A proton decays into a neutron. a positron and an
electron neutrinoB
+ia$ram 5 represents electron captureB A proton captures an electron and @ecomes a
neutron and an electron neutrinoB
+ia$ram represents a neutrino5neutron collisionB A neutron a@sor@s a neutrino and
forms a proton and an electronB
+ia$ram % represents an antineutrino5proton collisionB A proton a@sor@s an antineutrino
and emits a neutron and an electronB
+ia$ram ( represents an electron5proton collisionB &hey collide and emit a neutron and an
electron neutrinoB
,etting the ()change Particle
&he aspect of !eynman dia$rams that students often stru$$le 4ith is la@ellin$ the
e#chan$e particle and the direction to dra4 itB Look at 4hat you start 4ithE
'f it is positi/e and @ecomes neutral you can think of it as thro4in$ a4ay its positi/e
char$e so the @oson 4ill @e positi/eB &his is the case in electron captureB
'f it is positi/e and @ecomes neutral you can think of it as $ainin$ ne$ati/e to neutralise it
so the @oson 4ill @e ne$ati/eB &his is the case in electron5proton collisionsB
'f it is neutral and @ecomes positi/e 4e can think of it either as $ainin$ positi/e G)H
@osonI or losin$ ne$ati/e G)X @oson in the opposite directionIB
-or' out +here the charge is going and label it$
?nit 1
&he Photoelectric "-ect
Lesson 1,
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat the photoelectric e-ect is and ho4 fre9uency and intensity a-ect it
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat photon. photoelectron. 4ork function and threshold
fre9uency are
&o @e a@le to calculate the kinetic ener$y of a photoelectron ;B +)="1
4*ser'ations
)hen li$ht fell onto a metal plate it released electrons from the surface strai$ht a4ayB
'ncreasin$ the intensity increased the num@er of electrons emittedB 'f the fre9uency of the
li$ht 4as lo4ered. no electrons 4ere emitted at allB 'ncreasin$ the intensity and $i/in$ it
more time did nothin$. no electrons 4ere emittedB
I #ight was a +a'e5
'ncreasin$ the intensity 4ould increase the ener$y of the li$htB &he ener$y from the li$ht
4ould @e e/enly spread o/er the metal and each electron 4ould @e $i/en a small amount
of ener$yB "/entually the electron 4ould ha/e enou$h ener$y to @e remo/ed from the
metalB
Photon
7a# Planck had the idea that li$ht could @e released in Ochunks3 or packets of ener$yB
"instein named these 4a/e5packets photonsB &he ener$y carried @y a photon is $i/en @y
the e9uationE
hf E =
Since
f c =
4e can also 4rite this asE

hc
E =
()plaining the Photoelectric ($ect
"instein su$$ested that one photon collides 4ith one electron in the metal. $i/in$ it
enou$h ener$y to @e remo/ed from the metal and then >y o- some4hereB Some of the
ener$y of the photon is used to @reak the @onds holdin$ the electron in the metal and the
rest of the ener$y is used @y the electron to mo/e a4ay Gkinetic ener$yIB He represented
this 4ith the e9uationE
K
E hf + =
hf represents the ener$y of the photon. is the 4ork function and E
K
is the kinetic ener$yB
+or" &unction6
&he 4ork function is the amount of ener$y the electron re9uires to @e completely
remo/ed from the surface of the metalB &his is the ener$y :ust to remo/e it. not to mo/e
a4ayB
Threshold &re7uency6
8
&he threshold fre9uency is the minimum fre9uency that 4ould release an electron from
the surface of a metal. any less and nothin$ 4ill happenB
Since
K
E hf + = . the minimum fre9uency releases an
electron that is not mo/in$. so E
K
J ,
=
0
hf
4hich can @e rearran$ed to $i/eE
h
f

=
0

'ncreasin$ the intensity increases the num@er of photons the li$ht sources $i/es out each
secondB
'f the photon has less ener$y than the 4ork function an electron can not @e remo/edB
'ncreasin$ the intensity :ust sends out more photons. all of 4hich 4ould still not ha/e
enou$h ener$y to release an electronB
,raph
'f 4e plot a $raph of the kinetic ener$y of the electrons
a$ainst fre9uency 4e $et a $raph that looks like thisE
Start 4ith
K
E hf + = and transform into
c mx y + =
B
E
K
is the y5a#is and f is the #5 a#isB
&his makes the e9uation @ecomeE = hf E
K
So the gradient re*resents Planck5s constant
and the yinterce*t re*resents (;) the <ork =unctionB
Nightclu* Analogy
)e can think of the photoelectric e-ect in terms of a full ni$htclu@Q let the people $oin$
into the clu@ represent the photons. the people lea/in$ the clu@ represent the electrons
and money represent the ener$yB
&he clu@ is full so it is one in and one outB &he 4ork function e9uals the entrance fee and
is b5E
'f you ha/e b3 you don3t ha/e enou$h to $et in so noone is kicked outB
'f 5, people arri/e 4ith b3 no one has enou$h. so one $ets in and noone is kicked outB
'f you ha/e b5 you ha/e enou$h to $et in so someone is kicked out. @ut you ha/e no
money for @ooCeB
'f 5, people arri/e 4ith b5 you all $et in so 5, people are kicked out. @ut you ha/e no
money for @ooCeB
'f you ha/e b2, you ha/e enou$h to $et in so someone is kicked out and you ha/e b15 to
spend on @ooCeB
'f 5, people arri/e 4ith b2, you all $et in so 5, people are kicked out and you ha/e b15
each to spend on @ooCeB
?nit 1
"#citation. 'onisation and
"ner$y Le/els
Lesson 11
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 ho4 <ohr sol/ed the fallin$ electron pro@lem
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat e#citation. de5e#citation and ionisation are
&o @e a@le to calculate the fre9uency needed for e#citation to a
certain le/el
;B +)="1
The (lectron'olt6 e9
&he `oule is too @i$ use on an atomic and nuclear scale so 4e 4ill no4 use the
electron/olt. represented @y e0B
2ne electron/olt is e9ual to the ener$y $ained @y an electron of char$e e. 4hen it is
accelerated throu$h a potential di-erence of 1 /oltB 1e0 J 1B # 1,
51*
` 1`
J B25 # 1,
1(
e0
e0 ` multiply @y e ` e0 di/ide @y e
The Pro*lem with Atoms
1utherford3s nuclear model of the atom lea/es us 4ith
a pro@lemE a char$ed particle emits radiation 4hen it
acceleratesB &his 4ould mean that the electrons 4ould
fall into the nucleusB
%ohr to the Rescue
;iels <ohr sol/ed this pro@lem @y su$$estin$ that the
electrons could only or@it the nucleus in certain
Oallo4ed3 ener$y le/elsB He su$$ested that an electron
may only transfer ener$y 4hen it mo/es from one
ener$y le/el to anotherB A chan$e from one le/el to
another is called a Otransition3B
&o mo/e up and ener$y le/el the electron must
$ain the e#act amount of ener$y to make the
transitionB
't can do this @y another electron collidin$
4ith it or @y a@sor@in$ a photon of the
e#act ener$yB
)hen mo/in$ do4n a le/el the electron must
lose the e#act amount of ener$y 4hen makin$
the transitionB
't releases this ener$y as a photon of
ener$y e9ual to the ener$y it losesB
2 1
E E hf E = =
E
1
is the ener$y of the le/el the electron starts at and E
2
is the ener$y of the le/el the
electron ends at
()citation
)hen an electron $ains the e#act amount of ener$y to mo/e up one or more ener$y
le/els
/e-e)citation
)hen an electron $i/es out the e#act amount of ener$y to mo/e @ack do4n to its ori$inal
ener$y le/el
Ionisation
An electron can $ain enou$h ener$y to @e completely remo/ed from the atomB
&he $round state and the ener$y le/els leadin$ up to ionisation ha/e ne$ati/e /alues of
ener$y. this is @ecause they are compared to the ionisation le/elB 1emem@er that ener$y
must @e $i/en to the electrons to mo/e up a le/el
and is lost Gor $i/en outI 4hen it mo/es do4n a le/elB
#ine Spectra
Atoms of the same element ha/e same ener$y le/elsB
"ach transition releases a photon 4ith a set amount
of ener$y meanin$ the fre9uency and 4a/elen$th are
also setB &he 4a/elen$th of li$ht is responsi@le for
colour it isB )e can analyse the li$ht @y usin$ a
di-raction $ratin$ to
separate li$ht into the
colours that makes it up.
called its line spectraB "ach element has its o4n line spectra like
a @arcodeB
&o the a@o/e ri$ht are the line spectra of Hydro$en and HeliumB
)e can calculate the ener$y di-erence that created the colourB
'f 4e kno4 the ener$y di-erences for each element 4e can 4ork
out 4hich element is responsi@le for the li$ht and hence deduce
4hich elements are presentB
)e can see that there are possi@le transitions in the dia$ram to the left. A to !B
+ has an ener$y di-erence of 1B* e0 or 3B,4 # 1,
51*
` 4hich corresponds to a fre9uency of
4B5* # 1,
14
HC and a 4a/elen$th of 54 nm X redB
?nit 1
)a/e5Particle +uality
Lesson 12
&o kno4 ho4 to calculate the de <ro$lie 4a/elen$th and 4hat is it
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat electron di-raction sho4s us
&o kno4 4hat 4a/e5particle duality is ;B +)="1
/e %roglie
'n 1*23 Louis de <ro$lie put for4ard the idea that Oall particles ha/e a 4a/e nature3
meanin$ that particles can @eha/e like 4a/esB
&his doesn3t sound too far fetched after "instein pro/ed that a 4a/e can @eha/e like a
particleB
+e <ro$lie said that all particles could ha/e a 4a/elen$thB A particle of mass. m. that is
tra/ellin$ at /elocity. v. 4ould ha/e a 4a/elen$th $i/en @yE
mv
h
= 4hich is sometime 4ritten as
p
h
=
4here p is momentum
&his 4a/elen$th is called the de <ro$lie 4a/elen$thB &he modern /ie4 is that the de
<ro$lie 4a/elen$th is linked to the pro@a@ility of Andin$ the particle at a certain point in
spaceB
>e #roglie <avelength is measured in metres, m
(lectron /i$raction
&4o years after de <ro$lie came up
4ith his particle 4a/elen$ths and
idea that electrons could di-ract.
+a/isson and 6ermer pro/ed this to
happenB
&hey Ared electrons into a crystal
structure 4hich acted as a
di-raction $ratin$B &his produced
areas of electrons and no electrons
on the screen @ehind it. :ust like the
pattern you $et 4hen li$ht di-ractsB
(lectron +a'elength
)e can calculate the de <ro$lie 4a/elen$th of an electron from
the potential di-erence. V. that accelerated itB
Chan$e in electric potential ener$y $ained J eV
&his is e9ual to the kinetic ener$y of the electron
2
2
1
mv eV =
&he /elocity is therefore $i/en @yE v
m
eV
=
2
)e can su@stitute this into
mv
h
= to $etE
meV
h
2
=
Sand Analogy
'f 4e compare a dou@le slit electron di-raction to sand fallin$ from containers 4e can see
ho4 craCy electron di-raction isB 'ma$ine t4o
holes a@out 3,cm apart that sand is droppin$
fromB )e 4ould e#pect to And a ma#imum amount
of sand under each hole. ri$htK &his is not 4hat 4e
AndL )e And a ma#imum in @et4een the t4o
holesB &he electrons are actin$ like a 4a/eB
+a'e-Particle /uality
)a/e5particle duality means that 4a/es sometimes @eha/e like particles and particles
sometimes @eha/e like 4a/esB Some e#amples of these are sho4n @elo4E
#ight as a +a'e
+i-raction. interference. polarisation and refraction all pro/e that li$ht is a 4a/e and 4ill
@e co/ered in ?nit 2B
#ight as a Particle
)e ha/e seen that the photoelectric e-ect sho4s that li$ht can @eha/e as a particle
called a photonB
(lectron as a Particle
&he de>ection @y an electroma$netic Aeld and collisions 4ith other particles sho4 its
particle natureB
(lectron as a +a'e
"lectron di-raction pro/es that a particle can sho4 4a/e @eha/iour B
?nit 1
Q0'1t
Lesson 13
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat current. char$e. /olta$eapotential di-erence and
resistance are
&o kno4 the e9uations that link these
&o kno4 the correct units to @e use in each ;B +)="1
/efnitions (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
Current6 I
"lectrical current is the rate of >o4 of char$e in a circuitB "lectrons are char$ed particles
that mo/e around the circuitB So 4e can think of the electrical current is the rate of the
>o4 of electrons. not so much the speed @ut the num@er of electrons mo/in$ in the
circuitB 'f 4e ima$ine that electrons are =ear % students and a 4ire of a circuit is a corridor.
the current is ho4 many students passin$ in a set timeB
Current is measured in 'm*eres (or 'm*s), '
Charge6 !
&he amount of electrical char$e is a fundamental unit. similar to mass and len$th and
timeB !rom the data sheet 4e can see that the char$e on one electron is actually 51B, #
1,
51*
CB &his means that it takes B25 # 1,
1(
electrons to transfer 1C of char$eB
Charge is measured in Coulom%s, C
9oltage:Potential /i$erence6 9
0olta$e. or potential di-erence. is the 4ork done per unit char$eB
1 unit of char$e is B25 # 1,
1(
electrons. so 4e can think of potential di-erence as the
ener$y $i/en to each of the electrons. or the pushin$ force on the electronsB 't is the pBdB
that causes a current to >o4 and 4e can think of it like 4ater >o4in$ in a pipeB 'f 4e make
one end hi$her than the other end. 4ater 4ill >o4 do4n in. if 4e increase the hei$ht
Gincrease the pBdBI 4e $et more >o4in$B 'f 4e think of current as =ear %s 4alkin$ do4n a
corridor. the harder 4e push them do4n the corridor the more 4e $et >o4in$B
?oltage and *(d( are measured in ?olts, ?
Resistance6 R
&he resistance of a material tells us ho4 easy or didcult it is to make a current >o4
throu$h itB 'f 4e think of current as =ear %s 4alkin$ do4n a corridor. it 4ould @e harder to
make the =ear %s >o4 if 4e added some =ear 11 ru$@y players into the corridorB 'ncreasin$
resistance lo4ers the currentB
!esistance is measured in @hms, A
Time6 t
=ou kno4. timeL Ho4 lon$ stu- takes and thatB
)ime is measured in seconds, s
(7uations
&here are three e9uations that 4e need to @e a@le to e#plain and su@stitute num@ers intoB
;
t
Q
I

=
&his says that the current is the rate of chan$e of char$e per second and @acks up or idea
of current as the rate at 4hich electrons Gand char$eI >o4B
&his can @e rearran$ed into
t I Q =
4hich means that the char$e is e9ual to ho4 much is >o4in$ multiplied @y ho4 lon$ it
>o4s forB
<
Q
E
V =
&his says that the /olta$eapBdB is e9ual to the ener$y per char$eB (he .push/ o% the
electrons is e&ual to the energy given to each charge (electron)$
=
IR V =
&his says that increasin$ the pBdB increases the currentB Increasing the .push/ o% the
electrons ma'es more 0o+$
't also sho4s us that for constant 0. if 1 increases ' $ets smallerB Pushing the same
strength i% there is more bloc'ing %orce less current +ill 0o+$
?nit 1
2hm3s La4s and '50 6raphs
Lesson 14
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to sketch and e#plain the '50 $raphs of a diode. Alament lamp and
resistor
&o @e a@le to descri@e the e#perimental set up and measurements re9uired to
o@tain these $raphs
&o kno4 ho4 the resistance of an L+1 and &hermistor /aries ;B +)="1
4hm>s #aw (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
After the last lesson 4e kne4 that a /olta$e Gor potential di-erenceI causes a current to
>o4 and that the siCe of the current depends on the siCe of the pBdB
!or somethin$ to o@ey 2hm3s la4 the current >o4in$ is proportional to the pBdB pushin$ itB
VJIR so this means the resistance is constantB 2n a $raph of current a$ainst pBdB this
appears as a strai$ht lineB
Ta"ing Measurements
&o And ho4 the current throu$h a component
/aries 4ith the potential di-erence across it
4e must take readin$sB &o measure the
potential di-erence 4e use a /oltmeter
connected in parallel and to measure the
current 4e use an ammeter connected in
seriesB
'f 4e connect the component to a @attery 4e
4ould no4 ha/e one readin$ for the pBdB and
one for the currentB <ut 4hat 4e re9uire is a range of readin$sB 2ne 4ay around this
4ould @e to use a ran$e of @atteries to $i/e di-erent pBdBsB A @etter 4ay is to add a
/aria@le resistor to the circuit. this allo4s us to use one @attery and
$et a ran$e of readin$s for current and pBdB &o o@tain /alues for current
in the ne$ati/e direction 4e can re/erse either the @attery or the
componentB
I-9 ,raphs (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
Resistor
&his sho4s that 4hen pBdB is Cero so is the currentB )hen 4e increase
the pBdB in one direction the current increases in that directionB 'f 4e
apply a pBdB in the re/erse direction a current >o4s in the re/erse
directionB &he strai$ht line sho4s that current is proportional to pBdB
and it o@eys 2hm3s la4B 6raph a has a lo4er resistance than $raph %
@ecause for the same pBdB less current >o4s throu$h %B
&ilament #amp
At lo4 /alues the current is proportional to pBdB and so. o@eys 2hm3s
la4B
As the potential di-erence and current increase so does the
temperatureB &his increases the resistance and the $raph cur/es. since
resistance chan$es it no lon$er o@eys 2hm3s la4B
/iode
&his sho4s us that in one direction increasin$ the pBdB increases the
current @ut in the re/erse direction the pBdB does not make a current
>o4B )e say that it is for4ard @iasedB Since resistance chan$es it does not o@ey 2hm3s
la4B
Three Special Resistors (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
9aria*le Resistor
A /aria@le resistor is a resistor 4hose /alue can @e chan$edB
Thermistor
&he resistance of a thermistor /aried 4ith
temperatureB At lo4 temperatures the
resistance is hi$h. at hi$h temperatures the
resistance is lo4B
#ight /ependant Resistor 0#?/?R2
&he resistance of a thermistor /aried 4ith li$ht intensityB 'n dim li$ht the resistance is
hi$h and in @ri$ht li$ht the resistance is lo4B
?nit 1
1esisti/ity and
Superconducti/ity
Lesson 15
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to state 4hat a-ects resistance of a 4ire and e#plain ho4 they a-ect
it
&o @e a@le to descri@e the e#perimental set up re9uired to calculate resisti/ity
and deAne it
&o @e a@le to e#plain superconducti/ity and state its uses ;B +)="1
Resistance
&he resistance of a 4ire is caused @y free electrons collidin$ 4ith the positi/e ions that
make up the structure of the metalB &he resistance depends upon se/eral factorsE
#ength6 l 1ength increases ; resistance
increases
&he lon$er the piece of 4ire the more collisions the electrons 4ill ha/eB
Area6 A 'rea increases ; resistance
decreases
&he 4ider the piece of 4ire the more $aps there are @et4een the ionsB
Temperature )em*erature increases ;
resistance increases
As temperature increases the ions are $i/en more ener$y and /i@rate more. the electrons
are more likely to collide 4ith the ionsB
Material
&he structure of any t4o metals is similar @ut not the same. some metal ions are closer
to$ether. others ha/e @i$$er ionsB
Resisti'ity6 @
&he resistance of a material can @e calculate usin$
A
l
R = 4here 1 is the resisti/ity
of the materialB
1esisti/ity is a factor that accounts for the structure of the metal and the temperatureB
"ach metal has its o4n /alue of resisiti/ity for each temperatureB !or e#ample. the
resisti/ity of copper is 1B%#1,
5(
em and car@on is 3#1,
55
em at room temperatureB )hen
@oth are heated to 1,,fC their resisti/ities increaseB
!esistivity is measured in @hm metres , Am
Measuring Resisti'ity
'n order to measure resisti/ity of a 4ire 4e need to
measure the len$th. cross5sectional area Gusin$ Area J
Yr
2
I and resistanceB
1emem@er. to measure the resistance 4e need to
measure /alues of current and potential di-erence usin$
the set up sho4n on the ri$ht
)e then rearran$e the e9uation to
l
RA
= and su@stitute /alues in
Superconducti'ity
&he resisti/ity Gand so resistanceI of metals
increases 4ith the temperatureB &he re/erse is also
true that. lo4erin$ the temperature lo4ers the
resisti/ityB
)hen certain metals are cooled @elo4 a critical
temperature their resisti/ity drops to CeroB &he
metal no4 has Cero resistance and allo4s massi/e
currents to >o4 4ithout losin$ any ener$y as heatB
&hese metals are called superconductorsB )hen a
superconductor is heated a@o/e it3s critical
temperature it loses its superconducti/ity and
@eha/es like other metalsB
&he hi$hest recorded temperature to date is X
1*fC. lar$e amounts of ener$y are re9uired to
cool the metal to @elo4 this temperatureB
Ases o Superconductors
Hi$h5po4er electroma$nets
Po4er ca@les
7a$netic 1esonance 'ma$in$ G71'I scanners
?nit 1
Series and Parallel Circuits
Lesson 1
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate total current in series and parallel circuits
&o @e a@le to calculate total potential di-erence in series and parallel circuits
&o @e a@le to calculate total resistance in series and parallel circuits ;B +)="1
Series Circuits (Also seen in GCSE
Physics 2)
'n a series circuit all the
components are in one circuit or
loopB 'f resistor 1 in the dia$ram 4as
remo/ed this 4ould @reak the 4hole
circuitB
&he total current of the circuit is the same at each point in the circuitB
3 2 1
I I I I
TOTAL
= = =
&he total /olta$e of the circuit is e9ual to the sum of the pBdBs across each resistorB
3 2 1
V V V V
TOTAL
+ + =
&he total resistance of the circuit is e9ual to the sum of the resistance of each resistorB
3 2 1
R R R R
TOTAL
+ + =
Parallel Circuits (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
Components in parallel ha/e their o4n separate circuit or
loopB 'f resistor 1 in the dia$ram 4as remo/ed this 4ould only
@reak that circuit. a current 4ould still >o4 throu$h resistors
2 and 3B
&he total current is e9ual to the sum of the currents throu$h
each resistorB
3 2 1
I I I I
TOTAL
+ + =
&he total potential di-erence is e9ual to the pBdBs across each
resistorB
3 2 1
V V V V
TOTAL
= = =
&he total resistance can @e calculated usin$ the e9uationE
3 2 1
1 1 1 1
R R R R
TOTAL
+ + =
+ater Slide Analogy
'ma$ine instead of $ettin$ a potential di-erence 4e $et a hei$ht
di-erence @y reachin$ the top of a slideB &his series circuit has three
connected slides and the parallel circuit @elo4 has three separate slides
that reach the @ottomB
9oltages:P?/?s
'n series 4e can see that the total hei$ht loss is e9ual to ho4 much you
fall on slide 1. slide 2 and slide 3 added to$etherB &his means that the
total pBdB lost must @e the pBdB $i/en @y the @atteryB 'f the resistors ha/e
e9ual /alues this drop in potential di-erence 4ill @e e9ualB
'n parallel 4e see each slide 4ill drop @y the same hei$ht meanin$ the potential di-erence
is e9ual to the total potential di-erence of the @atteryB
Currents
'f 4e ima$ine 1,, people on the 4ater slide. in series 4e
can see that 1,, people $et to the topB All 1,, must $o
do4n slide 1 then slide 2 and Anal slide 3. there is no other
optionB So the current in a series circuit is the same
e/ery4hereB
'n parallel 4e see there is a choice in the slide 4e takeB 1,,
people $et to the top of the slide @ut some may $o do4n
slide 1. some do4n slide 2 and some do4n slide 3B &he total
num@er of people is e9ual to the num@er of people $oin$
do4n each slide added to$ether. and the total current is
e9ual to the currents in each circuitaloopB
?nit 1
"ner$y and Po4er
Lesson 1%
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat po4er is and ho4 to calculate the po4er of an electrical circuit
&o kno4 ho4 to calculate the ener$y transferred in an electrical circuit
&o @e a@le to deri/e further e9uations or use a series of e9uations to
And the ans4er
;B +)="1
Power (Also seen in GCSE Physics 1)
Po4er is a measure of ho4 9uickly somethin$ can transfer ener$yB Po4er is linked to
ener$y @y the e9uationE
Po<er
is measured in Watts, W
Energy is measured in :oules, :
)ime is measured in seconds, s
New (7uations
'f 4e look at the e9uations from the Q0'1t lesson 4e can deri/e some ne4 e9uations for
ener$y and po4erB
(nergy
Q
E
V =
can @e rearran$ed into
VQ E =
and 4e kno4 that
It Q =
so com@inin$ these
e9uations 4e $et a ne4 one to calculate the ener$y in an electric circuitE
VQ E =
g5555555555555555555555
It Q =
so VIt E = G1I
Power
'f 4e look at the top e9uation. to 4ork out po4er 4e di/ide ener$y @y timeE
t
VIt
t
E
= 4hich cancels out to @ecome VI P = G2I
'f 4e su@stitute IR V = into the last e9uation 4e $et another e9uation for po4erE
IV P = g5555555555555555555555 IR V = so
R I P
2
=
G3I
time
Ene!y
P"#e =
)e can also rearran$e IR V = into
R
V
I = and su@stitute this into VI P = to $et our last
e9uation for po4erE
VI P = g5555555555555555555555
R
V
I = so
R
V
P
2
= G4I
(nergy again
&4o more e9uations for ener$y can @e deri/ed from the e9uation at the top and e9uations
3 and 4
"ner$y J Po4er # time
Rt I Pt
2
= "9uation 3 @ecomes Rt I E
2
= G5I
t
R
V
Pt
2
= "9uation 4 @ecomes t
R
V
E
2
= GI
&uses (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
"lectrical de/ices connected to the 7ains supply @y a three5pin plu$ ha/e a fuse as part of
their circuitB &his is a thin piece of 4ire that melts if the current throu$h it e#ceeds its
ma#imum toleranceB &he common fuses used are 3A. 5A and 13AB A 1,,) li$ht @ul@
connected to the ?8 7ains 4ould ha/e a 24,0 potential di-erence across itB ?sin$ IV P =
4e can see that the current 4ould @e ,B42A so a 2A fuse 4ould @e the @est to useB
Applications
&he starter motor of a motor car needs to transfer a lot of ener$y /ery 9uickly. meanin$
its needs a hi$h po4erB 7illions of `oules are re9uired in secondsQ since the /olta$e of the
@attery is unchan$in$ 4e need current in the re$ion of 1,A 4hich is enormousB
&he po4er lines that are held @y pylons and form part of the ;ational 6rid are /ery thick
and carry electricity that has a /ery hi$h /olta$eB 'ncreasin$ the /olta$e lo4ers the
current so if 4e look at the e9uation
Rt I E
2
=
4e can see that this lo4ers the ener$y
transferred to the surroundin$sB
?nit 1
"7! and 'nternal 1esistance
Lesson 1(
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat emf and internal resistance are
&o kno4 ho4 to measure internal resistance
&o @e a@le sketch and interpret a 05' $raph. la@ellin$ the $radient
and y5intercept
;B +)="1
(nergy in Circuits
'n circuits there are t4o fundamental types of componentE ener$y givers and ener$y
ta'ersB
(lectromoti'e &orce 0em26 B
"ner$y $i/ers pro/ide an electromoti/e force. they force electrons around the circuit
4hich transfer ener$yB
&he siCe of the emf can @e calculate usin$E
Q
E
=

&his is similar to the e9uation 4e use to And /olta$eapotential di-erence and means the
ener$y $i/en to each unit of char$eB )e can think of this as the ener$y $i/en to each
electronB
(he em% o% a supply is the p$d$ across its terminals +hen no current 0o+s
EM3 is measured in :oules *er Coulom%, :C
1
or ?olts, ?
"ner$y takers ha/e a potential di-erence across them. transferrin$ ener$y from the circuit
to the componentB
emf J ener$y $i/er pBdB J ener$y taker
"ner$y is conser/ed in a circuit so ener$y in J ener$y out. orE
The t"t%l "f the emf& ' The t"t%l "f the p"tenti%l diffeence& %"und the #h"le cicuit
Internal Resistance6 r
&he chemicals inside a cell o-er a resistance to the >o4 of current. this is the internal
resistance on the cellB
2nternal !esistance is measured in @hms, A
#in"ing em and r
'f 4e look at the statement in the @o# a@o/e and apply it to the circuit @elo4. 4e can
reach an e9uation that links emf and B
&otal emfs J total potential di-erences
2 J GpBdB across rI H GpBdB across 1I
h1emem@er that 0J'1i
2 J G' # rI H G' # 1I
2 J 'r H '1
( ' I)*R+
(he terminal p$d$ is the p$d$ across the terminals o% the cell
+hen a current is 0o+ing
2 J internal pBd H terminal pBdB
So the a@o/e e9uation can @e 4ritten as ( ' I * V 4here V is the
terminal pBdB
Measuring em and r
)e can measure the emf and internal resistance of a cell @y
measurin$ the current and /olta$e as sho4n on the ri$ht. the
/aria@le resistor allo4s us to $et a ran$e of /aluesB 'f 4e plot the
results onto a $raph of /oltmeter readin$ a$ainst ammeter
readin$ 4e $et a $raph that looks like the one @elo4B

6raphs ha/e the $eneral e9uation of y J m#Hc. 4here y is the
/ertical Gup4ardsI a#is. # is the horiContal GacrossI a#is. m is the
$radient of the line and c is 4here
the line intercepts GcutsI the y a#isB
'f 4e take ( ' I * V and arran$e it into yJ m# H c
y a#is J V and # a#is J I
( ' I * V V ' ,I * ( V ' , I * (
y Jm #
Hc
So 4e can see that theE
yinterce*t re*resents the em=
and
gradient re*resents (;)internal resistance
?nit 1
8irchho- and Potential
+i/iders
Lesson 1*
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 8irchho-3s la4s and @e a@le to apply them to 9uestions
&o kno4 4hat a potential di/iders is and @e a@le to calculate the output /olta$e
&o @e a@le to e#plain an application of a potential di/ider ;B +)="1
Circhho$>s #aws
8irchho- came up 4ith t4o Gsome may say rather o@/iousI la4s
concernin$ conser/ation in electrical circuitsB
Captain 4*'ious> &irst #aw
"lectric char$e is conser/ed in all circuits. all the char$e that
arri/es at a point must lea/e itB
Current $oin$ in J current $oin$
outB
'n the dia$ram 4e can say thatE I
1
' I
2
* I
3
* I
4
Captain 4*'ious> Second #aw
"ner$y is conser/ed in all circuits. for any complete circuit the sum of the emfs is e9ual to
the sum of the potential di-erencesB
"ner$y $i/ers J ener$y takersB
'n the dia$ram 4e can say thatE 2 J pd
1
H pd
2
H pd
3
H pd
4
B

Potential /i'iders
A potential di/ider is used to produce a desired
potential di-erence. it can @e thou$ht of as a potential
selectorB
A typical potential di/ider consists of t4o or more
resistors that share the emf from the @atteryacellB
&he pBdBs across R
1
and R
2
can @e calculated usin$ the
follo4in$ e9uationsE
2 1
1
0 1
R R
R
V V
+
=

2 1
2
0 2
R R
R
V V
+
=
&his actually sho4s us that the siCe of the potential di-erence is e9ual to the input
potential multiplied @y 4hat proportion of R
1
is of the total resistanceB
'f R
1
is 1, e and R
2
is *, e. R
1
contri@utes a tenth of the total resistance so R
1
has a tenth
of the a/aila@le potentialB &his can @e represented usin$E
2
1
2
1
V
V
R
R
=
&he ratio of the resistances is e9ual to the ratio of the output /olta$esB
Ases
'n this potential di/ider the second resistor is a thermistorB )hen
the
temperature is lo4 the resistance GR
2
I is hi$h. this makes the
output /olta$e
hi$hB )hen the temperature is hi$h the resistance GR
2
I is lo4. this
makes the
output /olta$e lo4B A use of this 4ould @e a coolin$ fan that
4orks harder
4hen it is 4armB
'n the second potential di/ider the second resistor is a Li$ht
+ependant 1esisitorB
)hen the li$ht le/els are lo4 the resistance GR
2
I is hi$h.
makin$ the output /olta$e
hi$hB )hen the li$ht le/els increase the resistance GR
2
I
decreases. this makes the
output /olta$e decreaseB A use of this could @e a street li$ht
sensor that li$hts up
4hen the surroundin$ are darkB
?nit 1
Alternatin$ Current
Lesson 2,
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat peak currenta/olta$e is and to @e a@le to identify it
&o kno4 4hat peak5to5peak currenta/olta$e is and to @e a@le to identify it
&o kno4 4hat rBmBsB /alues are and to @e a@le to calculate them ;B +)="1
AC/C /efnitions (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
/irect Current
Cells and @atteries are suppliers of direct currentQ they supply an emf in one directionB
'n the $raph @elo4 4e can see that the current and /olta$e are constantB &he @ottom line
sho4s that 4hen the @attery or cell is re/ersed the /olta$e and current are constants in
the other direction
Alternating Current
&he 7ains electricity supplies an alternatin$ currentQ it supplies an emf that alternates
from ma#imum in one direction to ma#imum in the other directionB
'n the $raph @elo4 4e see the /olta$e and current start at Cero. increase to a ma#imum in
the positi/e direction. then fall to Cero. reach a ma#imum in the ne$ati/e direction and
return to CeroB &his is one cycleB
Alternating Current /efnitions
Pea" 9alue
&he peak /alue of either the
current or the potential di-erence
is the ma#imum in either
directionB 't can @e measured
from the 4a/e as the amplitude.
the distance from , to the top Gor
@ottomI of the 4a/eB )e denote
peak current 4ith I
,
and peak pBdB
4ith V
,
B
Pea"-to-Pea" 9alue
&he peak5to5peak /alue of either
the current or potential di-erence
is the ran$e of the /aluesB &his is literally the distance from the peak a@o/e the Cero line
to the peak @elo4 the lineB
Time Period
'n an aBcB current or pBdB this is the time taken for one complete cycle Gor 4a/eIB
&re7uency
As 4ith its use at 6CS". fre9uency is a measure of ho4 many complete cycles that occur
per secondB
3reBuency is measured in CertD, CD(
Root Mean S7uared6 r?m?s?
Since the current and pBdB is constantly chan$in$ it is impossi@le to assi$n them a A#ed
/alue o/er a period of time. the a/era$e 4ould @e CeroB &he rBmBsB current produces the
same heatin$ e-ect in a resistor as the e9ui/alent dBcB for e#ample 120 dc J 120rms ac
2
0
I
I
m&
=
4hich can @e rearran$ed to $i/e 2
0 m&
I I =
2
0
V
V
m&
=
4hich can also @e rearran$ed to $i/e 2
0 m&
V V =
?nit 1
&he 2scilloscope
Lesson 21
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat are the main controls of the oscilloscope
&o @e a@le to determine the /olta$e and current usin$ an oscilloscope
&o @e a@le to determine the time period and fre9uency usin$ an
oscilloscope
;B +)="1
The
4scilloscope
An oscilloscope
can @e used to
sho4 the siCes of
/olta$es and
currents in @oth
dBcB and aBcB
circuitsB &his is
4hat a typical
oscilloscope
looks likeB A
trace 4ould @e
seen on the $rid displayB
/?C? Traces (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
'f 4e connected a @attery or cell to an oscilloscope. 4e 4ould see a
trace similar to the one sho4n hereB &he current of a dBcB supply is
constant. this means the /olta$e is constantB
)e see a strai$ht lineB
A?C? Traces (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
'f 4e connect anythin$ that dra4s po4er from the 7ains to an
oscilloscope 4e 4ill see a similar trace to the one sho4n hereB &he
current is constantly chan$in$ from ma#imum >o4 in one
direction to ma#imum >o4 in the other directionQ this means
the /olta$e is doin$ the sameB
)e see a 4a/eB
Controls
&here are t4o main controls that 4e use are the /oltsadi/ and time @ase dialsE
&he /oltsadi/ G/olts per di/isionI dial allo4s you to chan$e ho4 much each /ertical s9uare
is 4orthB
&he time @ase dial allo4s you to chan$e ho4 much each horiContal s9uare is 4orthB
9oltage
)e can measure the /olta$e of a dBcB supply @y countin$ the num@er or /ertical s9uares
from the ori$in to the line and then multiplyin$ it @y the /oltsadi/B 'n the trace the line is
2B5 s9uares a@o/e ,. if each s9uare is 4orth 5 /olts the /olta$e is G2B5 # 5I 12B5 /oltsB
)e can measure the peak /olta$e of an aBcB supply @y countin$ ho4 many /ertical
s9uares from the centre of the 4a/e to the top and then multiplyin$ it @y the /oltsadi/
Gho4 much /olta$e each s9uare is 4orthIB 'n the trace the peak /olta$e is 4 s9uares hi$h.
if each s9uare is 4orth 5 /olts the /olta$e is G4 # 5I 2, /oltsB
Time and &re7uency
)e can measure the time for one period G4a/eI @y countin$ ho4 many horiContal s9uares
one 4a/elen$th is and then multiplyin$ it @y the time @ase Gho4 much time each s9uare
is 4orthIB
'n the trace a@o/e one 4a/e is s9uares lon$. if each s9uare is 4orth ,B,2 seconds the
time for one 4a/e is ,B12 secondsB
)e can calculate the fre9uency Gho4 many 4a/es or many times this happens per
secondI usin$ the e9uationE
T
f
1
= and
f
T
1
=
'f the time period is ,B12 seconds. the fre9uency is (B33HC
3reBuency is measured in CertD, CD
?nit 2
Scalars and 0ectors
Lesson 1
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 the di-erence @et4een scalars and /ectors and @e a@le to list some
e#amples of each
&o @e a@le to add /ectors @y scale dra4in$
&o @e a@le to add ne$ati/e /ectors @y scale dra4in$ ;B +)="1
+hat is a 9ector?
A /ector is a physical 9uantity that has @oth ma$nitude GsiCeI and directionB
()amples o 9ectorsD +isplacement. /elocity. force. acceleration and momentumB
+hat is a Scalar?
A scalar is a physical 9uantity that has ma$nitude only Git doesn3t act in a certain
directionIB
()amples o ScalarsD +istance. speed. ener$y. po4er. pressure.
temperature and massB
9ector /iagrams
A /ector can @e represented @y a /ector dia$ram as 4ell as numericallyE
&he len$th of the line represents the ma$nitude of the /ectorB
&he direction of the line represents the direction of the /ectorB
)e can see that /ector a has a $reater ma$nitude than /ector % @ut acts
in a di-erent directionB
A ne$ati/e /ector means a /ector of e9ual ma$nitude @ut opposite
directionB
Adding 9ectors
)e can add /ectors to$ether to And the a-ect that t4o or more 4ould ha/e if actin$ at
the same timeB &his is called the resultant /ectorB )e can And the resultant /ector in four
4aysE Scale dra4in$. Pytha$oras. the Sine and
Cosine rules and 1esol/in$ /ectors Gne#t lessonIB
Scale /rawing
&o And the resultant /ector of a H % 4e dra4
/ector a then dra4 /ector % from the end of aB
&he resultant is the line that connects the start
and Anish pointsB
&he resultants of a H %, % X a, a X %, X a X % and
4ould look like thisE
'f the /ectors 4ere dra4n to scale 4e can And
the resultant @y measurin$ the len$th of the line
and the an$leB
Pythagoras
'f t4o /ectors are perpendicular to each other the
resultant can @e found usin$ Pytha$orasE
0ector D is the resultant of /ectors 4 and yB
Since 4 and y are perpendicular
2 2 2
y x - + =
2 2
y x - + =
)e can also use this in re/erse to And 4 or yE
2 2 2
y x - + =
2 2 2
x y - = x y - =
2 2
2 2 2
y x - + =
2 2 2
y x - = y x - =
2 2
Sine and Cosine Rules
&he sine rule relates the an$les and len$ths usin$ this
e9uationE
c
C
.
/
%
A sin sin sin
= =
&he Cosine rule relates them usin$ these e9uationsE
A .c c . % cos 2
2 2 2
+ =
/ %c c % . cos 2
2 2 2
+ =
C %. . % c cos 2
2 2 2
+ =
?nit 2
1esol/in$ 0ectors
Lesson 2
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to resol/e /ectors into their /ertical and horiContal components
&o @e a@le to add /ectors and And the resultant @y resol/in$ them
&o kno4 4hat e9uili@rium is and ho4 it is achie/ed ;B +)="1
'n the last lesson 4e looked at ho4 4e could add /ectors to$ether and And the resultantB
'n this lesson 4e 4ill Arst look at O@reakin$ do4n3 the /ectors and then Andin$ the
e9uili@riumB
Resol'ing 9ectors
A /ector can @e O@roken do4n3 or resolved into its /ertical and horiContal componentsB
)e can see that this /ector can @e resol/ed
into t4o perpendicular components. in this
case t4o to the ri$ht and three upB
&his is o@/ious 4hen it is dra4n on $raph
paper @ut @ecomes trickier 4hen there isn3t
a $rid and still re9uires an element of scale
dra4in$B
)e can calculate the /ertical and horiContal components if 4e kno4 the ma$nitude and
direction of the /ectorB 'n other 4ordsQ 4e can 4ork out the across and up4ards @its of the
/ector if 4e kno4 the len$th of the line and the an$le @et4een it and the horiContal or
/ertical a#isB
Adding Resol'ed 9ectors
;o4 that 4e can resol/e /ectors into the /ertical and horiContal components it is made
from 4e can add them to$etherB Look at this e#ample of multiple /ectors actin$ G'IB
' # C > E
'f 4e resol/e the /ector c 4e $et G#IB )e can no4 And the resultant of the horiContal
components and the resultant of the /ertical components GCIB )e can then add these
to$ether to And the resultant /ector G>I and the an$le can @e found usin$ tri$onometry GEI
(7uili*rium
)hen all the forces actin$ on a @ody cancel out e9uili@rium is
reached and the o@:ect does not mo/eB As you sit and read this
the do4n4ards forces actin$ on you are e9ually @alanced @y
the up4ards forces. the resultant it that you do not mo/eB
)ith scale dra4in$ 4e can dra4 the /ectors. one after the otherB 'f 4e end up in the same
position 4e started at then e9uili@rium is achie/edB
)ith resol/in$ /ectors 4e can resol/e all /ectors into their /ertical and horiContal
componentsB 'f the components up and do4n are e9ual and the components left and ri$ht
are e9ual e9uili@rium has @een reachedB
?nit 2
7oments
Lesson 3
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate the moment of a sin$le and a pair of forces
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat the centre of mass and $ra/ity are
&o @e a@le to e#plain ho4 somethin$ @alances and @ecomes sta@le ;B +)="1
Moments (Also seen in GCSE Physics 3)
&he moment of a force is its turnin$ a-ect a@out a A#ed point
Gpi/otIB
&he ma$nitude of the moment is $i/en @yE
moment J force # perpendicular distance from force to the pi/ot
0& m"ment =
'n this dia$ram 4e can see that the force is not actin$
perpendicularly to the pi/otB )e must And the perpendicular or
closest distance. this is & cos1.
&he moment in this case is $i/en asE cos 0& m"ment =
)e could ha/e also used the /alue of & @ut multiplied it @y the
/ertical component of the forceB &his 4ould $i/e us the same
e9uationB & 0 m"ment . cos =
Moments are measured in $e<ton metres, $m
Couples
A couple is a pair of e9ual forces actin$ in opposite directionsB 'f a couple acts on an o@:ect it
rotates in positionB &he moment of a couple is called the
tor9ueB
&he tor9ue is calculated asE tor9ue J force #
perpendicular distance

@et4een forces

0& t"2ue =
'n the dia$ram to the ri$ht 4e need to calculate the
perpendicular distance. & cos1B
So in this caseE
cos 0& t"2ue =

)orBue is measured in $e<ton metres, $m
Centre o Mass (Also seen in GCSE Physics 3)
'f 4e look at the ruler to the ri$ht. e/ery part of it has a massB &o make
tacklin$ 9uestions easier 4e can assume that all the mass is
concentrated in a sin$le pointB
Centre o ,ra'ity
&he centre of $ra/ity of an o@:ect is the point 4here all the 4ei$ht of
the o@:ect appears to actB 't is in the same position as the centre of
massB
)e can represent the 4ei$ht of an o@:ect as a do4n4ard arro4 actin$
from the centre of mass or $ra/ityB &his can also @e called the line of
action of the 4ei$htB
%alancing (Also seen in GCSE Physics 3)
)hen an o@:ect is @alancedE
the t"t%l m"ment& %ctin! cl"c3#i&e ' the t"t%l m"ment& %ctin! %nticl"c3#i&e
An o@:ect suspended from a point GeB$B a pinI 4ill come to rest 4ith the centre of mass
directly @elo4 the point of suspensionB
'f the seesa4 to the left is @alanced then the clock4ise moments must @e e9ual to the
anticlock4ise momentsB
Clock4ise moment due to 3 and 4

4 4 3 3
& 0 & 0 m"ment + =
Anticlock4ise moments due to 1 and 2

2 2 1 1
& 0 & 0 m"ment + =
So
2 2 1 1 4 4 3 3
& 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 + = +
Sta*ility (Also seen in GCSE Physics 3)
&he sta@ility of an o@:ect can @e increased @y lo4erin$ the centre of mass and @y
4idenin$ the @aseB
An o@:ect 4ill topple o/er if the line of action of the 4ei$ht falls outside of the @aseB
?nit 2
0elocity and Acceleration
Lesson 4
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate distance and displacement and e#plain 4hat they are
&o @e a@le to calculate speed and /elocity and e#plain 4hat they are
&o @e a@le to calculate acceleration and e#plain uniform and non5
uniform cases
;B +)="1
/istance (Also seen in Physics 2)
+istance is a scalar 9uantityB 't is a
measure of the total len$th you ha/e
mo/edB
/isplacement (Also seen in
Physics 2)
+isplacement is a /ector 9uantityB 't is a
measure of ho4 far you are from the
startin$ positionB
'f you complete a lap of an athletics trackE distance tra/elled J 4,,m
displacement J ,
>istance and >is*lacement are measured in metres, m
Speed (Also seen in Physics 2)
Speed is a measure of ho4 the distance
chan$es 4ith timeB Since it is
dependent on speed it too is a scalarB
t
d
&peed

=
9elocity (Also seen in Physics 2)
0elocity is measure of ho4 the
displacement chan$es 4ith timeB Since
it depends on displacement it is a
/ector tooB
t
&
v

=
&*eed and ?elocity are is measured in metres *er second, m"s
)ime is measured in seconds, s
Acceleration (Also seen in Physics 2)
Acceleration is the rate at 4hich the /elocity chan$esB Since /elocity is a /ector 9uantity.
so is accelerationB
)ith all /ectors. the direction is importantB 'n 9uestions 4e decide 4hich direction is
positi/e GeB$B H/eI
'f a mo/in$ o@:ect has a positi/e /elocityE j a positi/e acceleration means an increase in
the /elocity
j a ne$ati/e acceleration means a decrease in the
/elocity
Git @e$ins the Ospeed up3 in the other directionI
'f a mo/in$ o@:ect has a ne$ati/e /elocityE j a positi/e acceleration means an
increase in the /elocity
Git @e$ins the Ospeed up3 in the other directionI
j a ne$ati/e acceleration means a increase in the
/elocity
'f an o@:ect accelerates from a /elocity of u to a /elocity of v. and it takes t seconds to do it
then 4e can 4rite the e9uations as
t
u v
%
) (
= it may also look like this
t
v
%

= 4here
means the Ochan$e in3
'cceleration is measured in metres *er second sBuared, m"s
2
Aniorm Acceleration
'n this situation the acceleration is constant X the /elocity chan$es @y the same amount
each unit of timeB
!or e#ampleE 'f acceleration is 2mas
2
. this means the /elocity increases @y 2mas e/ery
secondB
&ime GsI , 1 2 3 4 5 %
0elocity GmasI , 2 4 ( 1, 12 14
Acceleration
Gmas
2
I
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Non-Aniorm Acceleration
'n this situation the acceleration is chan$in$ X the /elocity chan$es @y a di-erent amount
each unit of timeB
!or e#ampleE
&ime GsI , 1 2 3 4 5 %
0elocity GmasI , 2 1, 1( 2( 3, 44
Acceleration
Gmas
2
I
2 4 ( 1, 12 14
?nit 2
7otion 6raphs
Lesson 5
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to interpret displacement5time and /elocity5time $raphs
&o @e a@le to represent motion 4ith displacement5time and /elocity5time $raphs
&o kno4 the si$niAcance of the $radient of a line and the area under
it
;B +)="1
<efore 4e look at the t4o types of $raphs 4e use to represent motion. 4e must make sure 4e
kno4 ho4 to calculate the $radient of a line and the area under itB
,radient
)e calculate the $radient @y choosin$ t4o points on the line and calculatin$ the chan$e in
the y a#is Gupado4nI and the chan$e in the # a#is GacrossIB
Area Ander ,raph
At this le/el 4e 4ill not @e asked to calculate the area under cur/es. only strai$ht linesB
)e do this @e @reakin$ the area into rectan$les G@ase # hei$htI and trian$les Gk @ase #
hei$htIB
/isplacement-Time ,raphs (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
A % C
6raph A sho4s that the displacement stays at 3m. it is stationaryB
6raph < sho4s that the displacement increases @y the same amount each second. it is
tra/ellin$ 4ith constant /elocityB
6raph C sho4s that the displacement co/ered each second increases each second. it is
acceleratin$B
Since
x
y
!%dient

= and y J displacement and x J time

t
&
!%dient

=
vel"city !%dient =
9elocity- Time ,raphs (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
A % C
6raph A sho4s that the /elocity stays at 4mas. it is mo/in$ 4ith constant /elocityB
6raph < sho4s that the /elocity increases @y the same amount each second. it is
acceleratin$ @y the same amount each second Guniform accelerationIB
6raph C sho4s that the /elocity increases @y a lar$er amount each second. the
acceleration is increasin$ Gnon5uniform accelerationIB
Since
x
y
!%dient

= and y J /elocity and # J time

t
v
!%dient

=
"n %ccele%ti !%dient =
area J @ase # hei$ht area J time # /elocity %e% ' di&pl%cement
x
y
!%dient

=
&his $raph sho4 the /elocity decreasin$ in one
direction and increasin$ in the opposite directionB
'f 4e decide that is ne$ati/e and is positi/e then
the $raph tells usE
&he o@:ect is initially tra/els at 5 mas
't slo4s do4n @y 1mas e/ery second
After 5 seconds the o@:ect has stopped
't then @e$ins to mo/e
't $ains 1mas e/ery second until it is tra/ellin$ at 5mas

?nit 2
"9uations of 7otion
Lesson
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to use the four e9uations of motion
&o kno4 the correct units to @e used
&o @e a@le to And the missin$ /aria@leE. s u / a or t ;B +)="1
/efning Sym*ols
<efore 4e look at the e9uations 4e need to assi$n letters to represent each /aria@le
+isplacement J s m metres
'nitial 0elocity J u mas metres per second
!inal 0elocity J v mas metres per second
Acceleration J a mas
2
metres per second per
second
&ime J t s seconds
(7uations o Motion
(7uation ;
'f 4e start 4ith the e9uation for acceleration
t
u v
%
) (
= 4e can rearran$e this to $i/e us
an e9uation 1
) ( u v %t =
v u %t = + %t u v + =
(7uation <
)e start 4ith the deAnition of /elocity and rearran$e for
displacement
/elocity J displacement a time displacement J /elocity #
time
'n situations like the $raph to the ri$ht the /elocity is
constantly chan$in$. 4e need to use the a/era$e /elocityB
displacement J a/era$e /elocity # time
&he a/era$e /elocity is $i/e @yE a/era$e /elocity J
2
) ( v u +
)e no4 su@stitute this into the e9uation a@o/e for displacement
displacement J
2
) ( v u +
# time t
v u
&
2
) ( +
= t v u & ) (
2
1
+ =
(7uation =
)ith "9uations 1 and 2 4e can deri/e an e9uation 4hich eliminated vB &o do this 4e
simply su@stitute %t u v + = into t v u & ) (
2
1
+ =
t %t u u & )) ( (
2
1
+ + = t %t u & ) 2 (
2
1
+ = ) 2 (
2
2
1
%t ut & + =
2
2
1
%t ut & + =
&his can also @e found if 4e remem@er that the area under a /elocity5time $raph
represents the distance tra/elledadisplacementB &he area under the line e9uals the area of
rectan$le A H the area of trian$le <B
Area J +isplacement J & J t u v ut ) (
2
1
+ since
t
u v
%
) (
= then
) ( u v %t =
so the
e9uation @ecomes t %t ut & ) (
2
1
+ = 4hich then @ecomes e9uation 3
(7uation E
'f 4e rearran$e e9uation 1 into
%
u v
t
) (
= 4hich 4e 4ill then su@stitute into e9uation 2E
t v u & ) (
2
1
+ =
%
u v
v u &
) (
) (
2
1

+ = ) )( (
2
1
u v v u %& + =
) ( 2
2 2
u uv uv v %& + =
2 2
2 u v %& =
%& u v 2
2 2
+ =
Any &uestion can be solved as long as three o% the variables are given in the &uestion$
-rite do+n all the variables you have and the one you are as'ed to 4nd then see +hich
e&uation you can use$
(hese e&uations can only be used %or motion +ith 5"I678* ACCE#E8A(I7"B
?nit 2
&erminal 0elocity and
Pro:ectiles
Lesson %
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat terminal /elocity is and ho4 it occurs
&o @e kno4 ho4 /ertical and horiContal motion are connected
&o @e a@le to calculate the horiContal and /ertical distance tra/elled
@y a pro:ectile
;B +)="1
Acceleration /ue To ,ra'ity (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
An o@:ect that falls freely 4ill accelerate to4ards the "arth @ecause of the force of $ra/ity
actin$ on itB
&he siCe of this acceleration does not depend mass. so a feather and a @o4lin$ @all
accelerate at the same rateB 2n the 7oon they hit the $round at the same time. on "arth
the resistance of the air slo4s the feather more than the @o4lin$ @allB
&he siCe of the $ra/itational Aeld a-ects the ma$nitude of the accelerationB ;ear the
surface of the "arth the $ra/itational Aeld stren$th is *B(1 ;ak$B &his is also the
acceleration a free fallin$ o@:ect 4ould ha/e on "arthB 'n the e9uations of motion a 6 g 6
E(F1 m"s(
Mass is a property that tells us ho4 much matter it is made ofB
Mass is measured in kilograms, kg
+eight is a force caused @y $ra/ity actin$ on a massE
4ei$ht J mass # $ra/itational Aeld stren$th
m! # =
Weight is measured in $e<tons, $
Terminal 9elocity (Also seen in GCSE
Physics 2)
'f an o@:ect is pushed out of a plane it
4ill accelerate to4ards the $round
@ecause of its 4ei$ht Gdue to the "arth3s
$ra/ityIB 'ts /elocity 4ill increase as it
falls @ut as it does. so does the dra$
forces actin$ on the o@:ect Gair
resistanceIB "/entually the air resistance
4ill @alance the 4ei$ht of the o@:ectB
&his means there 4ill @e no o/erall force
4hich means there 4ill @e no
accelerationB &he o@:ect stops
acceleratin$ and has reached its
terminal /elocityB
ProFectiles
An o@:ect kicked or thro4n into the air 4ill
follo4 a para@olic path like that sho4n to
the ri$htB
'f the o@:ect had an initial /elocity of u.
this can @e resol/ed into its horiContal and
/ertical /elocity Gas 4e ha/e seen in
Lesson 2I
&he horiContal /elocity 4ill @e ucos and the /ertical /elocity 4ill @e usin. )ith these 4e
can sol/e pro:ectile 9uestions usin$ the e9uations of motion 4e already kno4B
HoriGontal and 9ertical Motion
&he dia$ram sho4s t4o @alls that are released at the same time. one is released and the
other has a horiContal /elocityB )e see that the @all shot from the cannon falls at the same
rate at the @all that 4as releasedB &his is @ecause the horiContal and /ertical components
of motion are independent of each otherB
HoriContalE &he horiContal /elocity is constantQ 4e
see that the Ared @all co/ers the same horiContal
GacrossI distance 4ith each secondB
0erticalE &he /ertical /elocity accelerates at a rate
of ! G*B(1mas
2
IB )e can see this more clearly in
the released @allQ it co/ers more distance each
secondB
&he horiContal /elocity has no a-ect on the
/ertical /elocityB 'f a @all 4ere Ared from the
cannon at a hi$h horiContal /elocity it 4ould
tra/el further @ut still take the same time to reach the $roundB
?nit 2
;e4ton3s La4s
Lesson (
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 and @e a@le to use ;e4ton3s 1
st
la4 of motion. 4here appropriate
&o kno4 and @e a@le to use ;e4ton3s 2
nd
la4 of motion. 4here appropriate
&o kno4 and @e a@le to use ;e4ton3s 3
rd
la4 of motion. 4here
appropriate
;B +)="1
Newton>s ;
st
#aw
An o@:ect 4ill remain at rest. or continue to mo/e 4ith uniform /elocity. unless it is acted
upon @y an e#ternal resultant forceB
Newton>s <
nd
#aw
&he rate of chan$e of an o@:ect3s linear momentum is directly proportional to the resultant
e#ternal forceB &he chan$e in the momentum takes place in the direction of the forceB
Newton>s =
rd
#aw
)hen @ody A e#erts a force on @ody <. @ody < e#erts an e9ual @ut opposite force on @ody
AB
3orce is measured in $e<tons, $
Say +hat?
Newton>s ;
st
#aw
'f the for4ard and @ack4ard forces cancel out. a stationary o@:ect 4ill remain stationaryB
'f the for4ard forces are $reater than the @ack4ards forces. a stationary o@:ect 4ill @e$in
to mo/e for4ardsB
'f the for4ard and @ack4ard forces cancel out. a mo/in$ o@:ect 4ill continue to mo/e 4ith
constant /elocityB
'f the for4ard forces are $reater than the @ack4ard forces. a mo/in$ o@:ect 4ill speed upB
'f the @ack4ard forces are $reater than the for4ard forces. a mo/in$ o@:ect 4ill slo4
do4nB
Newton>s <nd #aw
&he acceleration of an o@:ect increases 4hen the force is increased @ut decreases 4hen
the mass is increasedE
m
0
% = @ut 4e rearran$e this and use m% 0 =
Newton>s =
rd
#aw
!orces are created in pairsB
As you sit on the chair your 4ei$ht pushes do4n on the chair. the chair also pushes up
a$ainst youB
As the chair rests on the >oor its 4ei$ht pushes do4n on the >oor. the >oor also pushes
up a$ainst the chairB
&he forces ha/e the same siCe @ut opposite directionsB
Riding the %us
Newton>s ;
st
#aw
=ou $et on a @us and stand upB )hen the @us is stationary you feel no force. 4hen the @us
accelerates you feel a @ack4ards forceB =ou 4ant to stay 4here you are @ut the @us forces
you to mo/eB )hen the @us is at a constant speed you feel no for4ards or @ack4ards
forcesB &he @us slo4s do4n and you feel a for4ards forceB =ou 4ant to keep mo/in$ at the
same speed @ut the @us is slo4in$ do4n so you fall for4ardsB 'f the @us turns left you
4ant to keep mo/in$ in a strai$ht line so you are forced to the ri$ht Gin comparison to the
@usIB 'f the @us turns ri$ht you 4ant to keep mo/in$ in a strai$ht line so you are forced left
Gin comparison to the @usIB
Newton>s <
nd
#aw
As more people $et on the @us its mass increases. if the dri/in$ force of the @us3s en$ine
is constant 4e can see that it takes lon$er for the @us to $ain speedB
Newton>s =
rd
#aw
As you stand on the @us you are pushin$ do4n on the >oor 4ith a force that is e9ual to
your 4ei$htB 'f this 4as the only force actin$ you 4ould @e$in to mo/e throu$h the >oorB
&he >oor is e#ertin$ a force of e9ual ma$nitude @ut up4ards Gin the opposite directionIB
Ta"ing the #it
Newton>s ;
st
#aw
)hen you $et in the lift and 4hen it mo/es at a constant speed you feel no force up or
do4nB )hen it sets o- $oin$ up you feel like you are pushed do4n. you 4ant to stay
4here you areB )hen it sets o- $oin$ do4n you feel like you are li$hter. you feel pulled
upB
Newton>s <
nd
#aw
As more people $et in the lift its mass increases. if the liftin$ force is constant 4e can see
that it takes lon$er for the lift to $et mo/in$B 2r 4e can see that 4ith more people the
$reater the liftin$ force must @eB
Newton>s =
rd
#aw
As you stand in the lift you push do4n on the >oor. the >oor pushes @ackB
?nit 2
)ork. "ner$y and Po4er
Lesson *
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate 4ork done Gincludin$ situations in/ol/in$ an inclined
planeI
&o @e a@le to calculate the po4er of a de/ice
&o @e a@le to calculate edciency and percenta$e edciency ;B +)="1
(nergy (Also seen in GCSE Physics 1)
)e already kno4 that it appears in a num@er of di-erent forms and may @e transformed
from one form to anotherB <ut 4hat is ener$yK Energy is the a%ility to do <orkB
)e can say that the 4ork done is e9ual to the ener$y transferred
)ork done J ener$y transferred E 4 =
+or" /one (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
'n Physics 4e say that 4ork is done 4hen a force mo/es throu$h a distance and
esta@lished the e9uation
)ork +one J !orce # +istance mo/ed in the direction of the force 0& 4 =
Work >one is measured in :oules, :
3orce is measured in $e<tons, $
>istance is measured in metres, m
&he distance mo/ed is not al4ays in the direction of the forceB 'n the dia$ram 4e can see
that the @lock mo/es in a direction that is a4ay from the Oline of action3 of the forceB &o
calculate the 4ork done 4e must calculate the distance 4e mo/e in the direction of the
force or the siCe of the force in the direction of the distance mo/edB <oth of these are
calculated @y resol/in$ into horiContal and /ertical componentsB
)ork +one J !orce # +istance mo/ed in the direction of the force
)ork +one J SiCe of !orce in the direction of mo/ement # +istance mo/ed
4"3 5"ne J cos 0&
or
Power (Also seen in GCSE Physics 1 and AS 5nit 1)
Po4er is a measure of ho4 9uickly somethin$ can transfer ener$yB Po4er is linked to
ener$y @y the e9uationE
Po<er is
measured in Watts, W
Energy is measured in :oules, :
)ime is measured in seconds, s
<ut )ork +one J "ner$y &ransferred so 4e can say that po4er is a measure of ho4
9uickly 4ork can @e doneB

timet%3en
4"35"ne
P"#e =
t
4
P

=
;o4 that 4e can calculate )ork +one 4e can deri/e another e9uation for calculatin$
po4erE
)e can su@stitute 0& 4 = into
t
4
P = to @ecome
t
0&
P = this can @e separated into
t
&
0 P = B
v
t
&
= so 4e can 4rite 0v P =
?elocity is measured in metres *er second, m"s or ms
1
(Hciency (Also seen in GCSE Physics 1)
)e already kno4 that the edciency of a de/ice is a measure of ho4 much of the ener$y
4e put in is 4astedB
"dciency J useful ener$y transferred @y the de/ice this 4ill $i/e us a
num@er less than 1
total ener$y supplied to the de/ice
?seful ener$y means the ener$y transferred for a purpose. the ener$y transferred into
the desired formB
Since po4er is calculated from ener$y 4e can e#press edciency asE
"dciency J useful output po4er of the de/ice a$ain this 4ill $i/e
us a num@er less than 1
input po4er to the de/ice
&o calculate the edciency as a percenta$e use the follo4in$E
percenta$e edciency J edciency # 1,,N
?nit 2
Conser/ation of "ner$y
Lesson 1,
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate $ra/itational potential ener$y
&o @e a@le to calculate kinetic ener$y
&o @e a@le to sol/e pro@lems in/ol/in$ the con/ersion of ener$y ;B +)="1
timet%3en
&feed Ene!yT%n
P"#e =
t
E
P

=
(nergy Transormations (Also seen in GCSE Physics 1)
)e already kno4 that ener$y cannot @e created or destroyed. only transformed from one
type to another and transferred from one thin$ to anotherB "$ a speaker transforms
electrical ener$y to sound ener$y 4ith the ener$y itself is @ein$ transferred to the
surroundin$sB
An isolated Gor closedI system means an ener$y transformation is occurrin$ 4here none
of the ener$y is lost to the surroundin$sB 'n reality all transformationsatransfers are not
isolated. and all of them 4aste ener$y to the surroundin$sB
Cinetic (nergy (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
8inetic ener$y is the ener$y a mo/in$ o@:ect hasB Let us consider a car that accelerates
from @ein$ stationary GuJ,I to tra/ellin$ at a /elocity v 4hen a force. 0. is appliedB
&he time it takes to reach this /elocity is $i/e @y %t u v + = %t v =
%
v
t =
&he distance mo/ed in this time is $i/en @y t v u & ) (
2
1
+ = t v & ) (
2
1
=
%
v
v & ) (
2
1
=
%
v
&
2
2
1
=
"ner$y transferred J )ork +one. )ork +one J !orce # distance mo/ed and !orce J mass
# acceleration
4 E = 0& E = m%& E =
%
v
m% E
2
2
1
=
2
2
1
mv E
K
=
?elocity is measured in metres *er second, m"s
Mass is measured in kilograms, kg
/inetic Energy is measured in :oules, :
,ra'itational Potential (nergy
&his type of potential GstoredI ener$y is due to the position of an o@:ectB 'f an o@:ect of
mass m is lifted at a constant speed @y a hei$ht of h 4e can say that the acceleration is
CeroB Since 69ma 4e can also say that the o/erall force is Cero. this means that the liftin$
force is e9ual to the 4ei$ht of the o@:ect 0'm!
)e can no4 calculate the 4ork done in liftin$ the o@:ect throu$h a hei$ht. hB
0& 45 = h m! 45 ) ( = m!h 45 =
Since 4ork done J ener$y transferred h m! E
P
=
Ceight is a measure o= distance <hich is measured in metres, m
Gravitational Potential Energy is measured in :oules, :
+or" /one against5?
'n many situations $ra/itational potential ener$y is con/erted into kinetic ener$y. or /ice
/ersaB Some e/eryday e#amples of this areE
Swings and pendulums 'f 4e pull a pendulum @ack 4e $i/e it 6P". 4hen it is released it
falls. losin$ its 6P" @ut speedin$ up and $ainin$ 8"B )hen it passes the lo4est point of the
s4in$ it @e$ins to rise G$ainin$ 6P"I and slo4 do4n Glosin$ 8"IB
%ouncing or throwing a *all Holdin$ a @all in the air $i/es it 6P". 4hen 4e release this it
transforms this into 8"B As it rises it loses 8" and $ains 6P"B
Slides and ramps A @all at the top of a slide 4ill ha/e 6P"B )hen it reaches the @ottom of
the slide it has lost all its 6P". @ut $ained 8"B
'n each of these cases it appears as thou$h 4e ha/e lost ener$yB &he pendulum doesn3t
s4in$ @ack to its ori$inal hei$ht and the @all ne/er @ounces to the hei$ht it 4as released
fromB &his is @ecause 4ork is @ein$ done a$ainst resisti/e forcesB
&he s4in$ has to o/ercome air resistance 4hilst mo/in$ and the friction from the top
supportB
&he @all transforms some ener$y into sound and o/ercomin$ the air resistanceB
&ra/ellin$ do4n a slide transforms ener$y into heat due to friction and air resistance
)he total energy %e=ore a trans=ormation 6 )he total energy a=ter a
trans=ormation
?nit 2
Hooke3s La4
Lesson 11
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to state Hooke3s La4 and e#plain 4hat the sprin$ constant is
&o @e a@le to descri@e ho4 sprin$s @eha/e in series and parallel
&o @e a@le to deri/e the ener$y stored in a stretched material ;B +)="1
Hoo"e>s #aw
'f 4e take a metal 4ire or a sprin$ and han$ it from the ceilin$ it 4ill ha/e a natural.
unstretched len$th of l metresB 'f 4e then attach masses to the @ottom of the 4ire is 4ill
@e$in to increase in len$th GstretchIB &he amount of len$th it has increased @y 4e 4ill call
the e#tension and represent @y eB
'f the e#tension increases proportionally to the force applied it follo4s Hooke3s La4E
(he %orce needed to stretch a spring is directly proportional to the e,tension o% the spring
%rom its natural length
So it takes t4ice as much force to e#tend a sprin$ t4ice as far and half the force to e#tend
it half as farB
)e can 4rite this in e9uation formE e 0 or 3e 0 =
Here 3 is the constant that sho4s us ho4 much e#tension in len$th 4e 4ould $et for a
$i/en forceB 't is calledBBB
The Spring Constant
&he sprin$ constant $i/es us an idea of the sti-ness Gor stretchinessI
of the materialB
'f 4e rearran$e Hooke3s La4 4e $etE
e
0
3 =
'f 4e record the len$th of a sprin$. add masses to the @ottom and
measure its e#tension 4e can plot a $raph of force a$ainst e#tensionB
&he $radient of this $raph 4ill @e e9ual to the sprin$ constantB
A small force causes a lar$e e#tension the sprin$ constant 4ill @e
small X very stretchy
A lar$e force causes a small e#tension the sprin$ constant 4ill @e large X not stretchy
&*ring Constant is measured in $e<tons *er metre, $"m
Springs in Series
&he com@ined sprin$ constant of sprin$ A and sprin$ / connected in
series is $i/en @yE
/ A T
3 3 3
1 1 1
+ =
'f A and / are identical this @ecomesE
3 3 3
T
1 1 1
+ =

3 3
T
2 1
=

2
3
3
T
=
Since this $i/es us a smaller /alue for the sprin$ constant. applyin$
the same force produces a lar$er e#tensionB It is
stretchier
Springs in Parallel
&he com@ined sprin$ constant of sprin$ A and sprin$ / connected in
parallel isE
/ A T
3 3 3 + = so if A and / are identical this @ecomesE
3 3 3
T
+ = 3 3
T
2 =
Since this $i/es us a lar$er /alue for the sprin$ constant applyin$ the same force
produces a smaller e#tensionB It is less stretchy
(nergy Stored (Elastic Strain Energy)
)e can calculate the ener$y stored in a stretched material @y considerin$ the 4ork done
on itB
)e deAned 4ork done as the force # distance mo/ed in the direction of the force or
0& 4 =
)ork done is e9ual to the ener$y transferred. in this case transferred to the material. soE
0& E =
&he distance mo/ed is the e#tension of the material. e. makin$ the e9uationE 0e E =
&he force is not constantQ it increases from Cero to a ma#imum of 0B &he a/era$e force is
$i/en @yE
2
) 0 ( 0
'f 4e @rin$ these terms to$ether 4e $et the e9uation e
0
E
2
) 0 (
= 4hich simpliAes toE
0e E
2
1
=
(his is also e&ual to the area under the graph o% %orce against e,tension$
)e can 4rite a second /ersion of this e9uation @y su@stitutin$ our top e9uation of 3e 0 =
into the one a@o/eB
0e E
2
1
= e 3e E ) (
2
1
=
2
2
1
3e E =
?nit 2
Stress and Strain
Lesson 12
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat stress is. @e a@le to e#plain it. calculate it and state its units
&o kno4 4hat strain is. @e a@le to e#plain it. calculate it and state its units
&o @e a@le to calculate the elastic strain ener$y per unit /olume ;B +)="1
/eorming Solids
!orces can @e used to chan$e the speed. direction and shape of an o@:ectB &his section of
Physics looks at usin$ forces to chan$e of shape of a solid o@:ect. either temporarily or
permanentlyB
'f a pair of forces are used to s&uash a material 4e say that they are compressive forcesB
'f a pair of forces is used to stretch a material 4e say that they are tensile forcesB
Tensile Stress6 I
&ensile stress is deAned as the force applied per unit cross5sectional area G4hich is the
same as pressureIB
&his is represented @y the e9uationsE
A
0
&te&& =
A
0
=
&he lar$est tensile stress that can @e applied to a material @efore it @reaks is called the
ultimate tensile stress G?&SIB ;ylon has an ?&S of (5 7Pa 4hilst Stainless steel has a
/alue of ,, 7Pa and 8e/lar a massi/e 31,, 7Pa
&tress is measured in $e<tons *er metre sBuared, $"m
2
or $ m
2
&tress can also %e measured in Pascals, Pa
A tensile stress 4ill cause a tensile strainB Stress causes
Strain
Tensile Strain6 B
&ensile strain is a measure of ho4 the e#tension of a material compares to the ori$inal.
unstretched len$thB
&his is represented @y the e9uationsE
l
e
&t%in =
l
e
=
Steel 4ire 4ill under$o a strain of ,B,1 @efore it @reaksB &his means it 4ill stretch @y 1N of
its ori$inal len$th then @reakB Spider silk has a @reakin$ strain of @et4een ,B15 and ,B3,.
stretchin$ @y 3,N @efore @reakin$
&train has no units, it is a ratio o= t<o lengths
Stress-Strain ,raphs
A stress5strain $raph is /ery useful for comparin$ di-erent materialsB
Here 4e can see ho4 the strain of t4o materials. a and %. chan$es
4hen a stress is appliedB
'f 4e look at the dotted lines 4e can see that the same amount of
stress causes a @i$$er strain in % than in aB &his means that % 4ill
increase in len$th more than a Gcompared to their ori$inal len$thsIB
(lastic Strain (nergy
)e can @uild on the idea of ener$y stored from the pre/ious lesson no4 that 4e kno4
4hat stress and strain areB )e can 4ork out the amount of elastic strain ener$y that is
stored per unit volume of the materialB
't is $i/en @y the e9uationE &t%in &te&& E =
2
1
&here are t4o routes 4e can take to arri/e at this resultE
(7uations
'f 4e start 4ith the e9uation for the total ener$y stored in the materialE 0e E
2
1
=
&he /olume of the material is $i/en @yE Al V =
;o4 di/ide the total ener$y stored @y the /olumeE
Al
0e
E
2
1
= 4hich can @e 4ritten asE
l
e
A
0
E
2
1
=
'f 4e compare the e9uation to the e9uations 4e kno4 for stress and strain 4e see thatE
&t%in &te&& E =
2
1
,raphs
&he area under a stress5strain $raph $i/es us the elastic strain ener$y per unit /olume
Gm
3
IB &he area is $i/en @yE
hei!ht .%&e A =
2
1
&te&& &t%in A =
2
1
or &t%in &te&& A =
2
1

&t%in &te&& E =
2
1
?nit 2
<ulk Properties of Solids
Lesson 13
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate density and e#plain 4hat it is
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat elastic. plastic. yield point. @reakin$ stress. sti-.
ductile and @rittle are
&o @e a@le to la@el these 9ualities on stress5strain $raphs ;B +)="1
/ensity6 @
+ensity is the mass per unit volume o% a material. a measure of ho4 much mass
each cu@ic metre of /olume containsB +ensity if $i/en @y the e9uationE
)here 6 is density. m is mass in kilo$rams and V is /olume in metres cu@edB
>ensity is measured in kilograms *er metre cu%ed, kg"m
8
or kg m
8
(lasticity
7aterials e#tend in len$th 4hen a stress is applied to them Gmasses hun$ from themIB A
material can @e descri@ed as elastic if it returns to its ori$inal len$th 4hen the stress is
remo/edB &hey o@ey Hooke3s La4 as e#tension is proportional to the force appliedB
#imit o Proportionality6 P
?p to this point the material o@eys Hooke3s La4Q e#tension is proportional to the force
appliedB
(lastic #imit6 E
&he elastic limit is the Anal point 4here the material 4ill return to its ori$inal len$th if 4e
remo/e the stress 4hich is causin$ the e#tension Gtake the masses o-IB &here is no
chan$e to the shape or siCe of the materialB
)e say that the material acts plastically @eyond its elastic limitB
Jield Point6 :
<eyond the elastic limit a point is reached 4here small increases in stress cause a
massi/e increase in e#tension GstrainIB &he material 4ill not return to its ori$inal len$th
and @eha/es like a plasticB
Plasticity
7aterials e#tend in len$th 4hen a stress is applied to them Gmasses hun$ from themIB A
material can @e descri@ed as plastic if it does not return to its ori$inal len$th 4hen the
stress is remo/edB &here is a permanent chan$e to its shape
%rea"ing Stress . Altimate Tensile Strength6 5(S
&his is the ma#imum amount of stress that can @e applied to the material 4ithout makin$
it @reakB 't is sometimes referred to as the stren$th of the materialB
V
m
=
%rea"ing Point6 !
&his is Gsurprisin$lyKI the point 4here the material @reaksB
Sti$ness
'f di-erent materials 4ere made into 4ires of e9ual dimensions. the sti-er materials @end
the leastB
Sti- materials ha/e lo4 >e#i@ility
/uctility
A ductile material can @e easily and permanently stretchedB Copper is a $ood e#ample. it
can easily @e dra4n out into thin 4iresB &his can @e seen in $raph d @elo4B
%rittleness
A @rittle material 4ill e#tend o@eyin$ Hooke3s La4 4hen a stress is applied to itB 't 4ill
suddenly fracture 4ith no 4arnin$ si$n of plastic deformationB 6lass. pottery and
chocolate are e#amples of @rittle materialsB
Stress-Strain ,raphs
'n the Arst $raph 4e see a material that stretches. sho4s plastic @eha/iour and e/entually
@reaksB
'n the second $raph 4e can see that material a is sti-er than material % @ecause the
same stress causes a $reater strain in %B
'n the third $raph 4e see materials c and e are @rittle @ecause they @reak 4ithout
sho4in$ plastic @eha/iourB
&he fourth $raph sho4s ho4 a material can @e permanently deformed. the 4ire does not
return to its ori$inal len$th 4hen the stress is remo/ed Gthe masses ha/e @een remo/edIB
?nit 2
&he =oun$ 7odulus
Lesson 14
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat the =oun$ 7odulus is. @e a@le to e#plain it. calculate it and state
its units
&o @e a@le to descri@e an e#periment for Andin$ the =oun$ 7odulus
&o @e a@le to calculate the =oun$ 7odulus from a stress5strain $raph ;B +)="1
The Joung Modulus6 (
&he =oun$ 7odulus can @e thou$ht of as the sti-ness constant of a material. a measure of
ho4 much strain 4ill result from a stress @ein$ applied to the materialB 't can @e used to
compare the sti-ness of di-erent materials e/en thou$h their dimensions are not the
sameB
&he =oun$ 7odulus only applies up to the limit of proportionality of a materialB
&t%in
&te&&
u& Y"un!7"dul = or in e9uation terms 4e ha/e

= E
)e ha/e e9uations for stress
A
0
= and strain
l
e
= 4hich makes the e9uation look like
thisE

=
l
e
A
0
E

An easier 4ay of 4ritin$ this is

=
e
l
A
0
E
4hich @ecomesE
Ae
0l
E =
)he Houng Modulus is measured in $e<tons *er metre sBuares, $"m
2
or $ m
2
Stress-Strain ,raphs
&he =oun$ 7odulus of a material can @e found from its stress5strain $raphB
Since
x
y
!%dient

= . this @ecomes
&t%in
&te&&
!%dient = for our $raphB 2ur top e9uation stated
that
&t%in
&te&&
u& Y"un!7"dul = so 4e see that the $radient of a stress5strain $raph $i/es us
the =oun$ 7odulusB
&his only applied to the strai$ht line section of the $raph. 4here $radient Gand =oun$
7odulusI are constantB
Measuring the Joung Modulus
Here is a simple e#perimental set up for Andin$ the =oun$ 7odulus of a materialB
A piece of 4ire is held @y a 65clamp.
sent o/er a pulley 4ith the smallest
mass attached to itB &his should
keep it strai$ht 4ithout e#tendin$ itB
7easure the len$th from the clamp
to the pointerB &his is the ori$inal
len$th GunstretchedIB
?se a micrometer to measure the
diameter of the 4ire in se/eral placesB ?se this to calculate the cross5sectional area of
the 4ireB
Add a mass to the loaded end of the 4ireB
1ecord the e#tension @y measurin$ ho4 far the pointer has
mo/ed from its start positionB
1epeat for se/eral masses @ut ensurin$ the elastic limit is not
reachedB
1emo/e the masses. one at a time takin$ another set of
readin$ of the e#tensionB
Calculate stress and strain for each massB
Plot a $raph of stress a$ainst strain and calculate the $radient
of the line 4hich $i/es the =oun$ 7odulusB
Here is a more precise 4ay of Andin$ the =oun$ 7odulus @ut
in/ol/es takin$ the same measurements of e#tension and force
appliedB
't is called Searle3s apparatusB
?nit 2
Pro$ressi/e )a/es
Lesson 15
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e kno4 the @asic measurements of a 4a/e
&o @e a@le to calculate the speed of any 4a/e
&o @e kno4 4hat phase and path di-erence are and @e a@le to
calculate them
;B +)="1
+a'es
All 4a/es are caused @y oscillations and all transfer ener$y 4ithout transferrin$ matterB
&his means that a 4ater 4a/e can transfer ener$y to you sittin$ on the shore 4ithout the
4ater particles far out to sea mo/in$ to the
@eachB
Here is a dia$ram of a 4a/eQ it is one type of
4a/e called a trans/erse 4a/eB A 4a/e consists
of somethin$ Gusually particlesI oscillatin$ from
an e9uili@rium pointB &he 4a/e can @e descri@ed
as pro$ressi/eQ this means it is mo/in$ out4ards from the sourceB
)e 4ill no4 look at some @asic measurements and characteristics or 4a/esB
Amplitude6 A 'm*litude is measured in
metres, m
&he amplitude of a 4a/e is the ma#imum displacement of the particles from the
e9uili@rium positionB
+a'elength6 ; Wavelength is measured in
metres, m
&he 4a/elen$th of a 4a/e is the len$th of one 4hole cycleB 't can @e measured @et4een
t4o ad:acent peaks. trou$hs or any point on a 4a/e and the same point one 4a/e laterB
Time Period6 ( )ime Period is measured in
seconds, s
&his is simply the time is takes for one complete 4a/e to happenB Like 4a/elen$th it can
@e measured as the time it takes @et4een t4o ad:acent peaks. trou$hs or to $et @ack to
the same point on the 4a/eB
&re7uency6 % 3reBuency is measured in
CertD, CD
!re9uency is a measure of ho4 often somethin$ happens. in this case ho4 many complete
4a/es occur in e/ery secondB 't is linked to time period of the 4a/e @y the follo4in$
e9uationsE
f
T
1
=
and
T
f
1
=
+a'e Speed6 c Wave &*eed is measured in metres
*er second, m s
1
&he speed of a 4a/e can @e calculated usin$ the follo4in$ e9uationsE
f c =
Here c represents the speed of the 4a/e. f the fre9uency and 8 the 4a/elen$thB
Phase /i$erence Phase >iIerence is measured in
radians, rad
'f 4e look at t4o particles a 4a/elen$th apart Gsuch as C and 6I 4e 4ould see that they
are oscillatin$ in time 4ith each otherB )e say that they are completely in phaseB &4o
points half a 4a/elen$th apart Gsuch as ' and 8I 4e 4ould see that they are al4ays
mo/in$ in opposite directionsB )e say that they are completely out o% phaseB
&he phase di-erence @et4een t4o points depends on 4hat fraction of a 4a/elen$th lies
@et4een them
< C + " ! 6 H ' ` 8 L 7
Phase +i-erence
from A GradiansI
kY 1Y 1kY 2Y 2kY 3Y 3kY 4Y 4kY 5Y 5kY Y
Phase +i-erence
from A Gde$reesI
*, 1(, 2%, 3, 45, 54, 3, %2, (1, *,, **,
1,(
,
Path /i$erence Path >iIerence is measured in
<avelengths, J
'f t4o li$ht 4a/es lea/e a @ul@ and hit a screen the di-erence in ho4 far the 4a/es ha/e
tra/elled is called the path di-erenceB Path di-erence is measured in terms of
4a/elen$thsB
< C + " ! 6 H ' ` 8 L 7
Path +i-erence
from A
lm km nm 1m 1lm 1km 1nm 2m 2lm 2km 2nm 3m
So t4o 4a/es lea/in$ A 4ith one makin$ it to ! and the other to ` 4ill ha/e a path
difference of 1 4a/elen$th G1mIB
?nit 2
Lon$itudinal and &rans/erse
)a/es
Lesson 1
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le e#plain the di-erences @et4een lon$itudinal and trans/erse 4a/es
&o kno4 e#amples of each
&o @e e#plain 4hat polarisation is and ho4 it pro/es li$ht is a
trans/erse 4a/e
;B +)="1
+a'es
All 4a/es are caused @y oscillations and all transfer ener$y 4ithout transferrin$ matterB
&his means that a sound 4a/e can transfer ener$y to your eardrum from a far speaker
4ithout the air particles @y the speaker mo/in$ into your earB )e 4ill no4 look at the t4o
types of 4a/es and ho4 they are di-erent
#ongitudinal +a'es
Here is a lon$itudinal 4a/eQ the oscillations are parallel to the direction of propa$ation
Gtra/elIB
)here the particles are close to$ether 4e call a compression and 4here they are spread
4e call a rarefactionB
&he 4a/elen$th is the distance from one compression or rarefaction to the ne#tB
&he amplitude is the ma#imum distance the particle mo/es from its e9uili@rium position
to the ri$ht of leftB
E,ample<
sound +aves
Trans'erse +a'es
Here is a trans/erse 4a/eQ the oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of
propa$ationB
)here the particles are displaced a@o/e the e9uili@rium position 4e call a peak and @elo4
4e call a trou$hB
&he 4a/elen$th is the distance from one peak or trou$h to the ne#tB
&he amplitude is the ma#imum distance the particle mo/es from its e9uili@rium position
up or
do4nB
E,amples< +ater +aves
*e,ican +aves and
+aves o% the E* spectrum
"7 4a/es are produced from /aryin$ electric and ma$netic AeldB
Polarisation
Polarisation restricts the oscillations of a 4a/e to one planeB 'n the dia$rams the li$ht is
initially oscillatin$ in all directionsB A piece of Polaroid only allo4s li$ht to
oscillate in the same direction as itB
'n the top dia$ram the li$ht passes throu$h a /ertical plane
Polaroid and @ecomes polariCed in the /ertical planeB &his
can then pass throu$h the second /ertical PolaroidB
'n the middle dia$ram the li$ht @ecomes polariCed in
the horiContal planeB
'n the @ottom dia$ram the li$ht @ecomes /ertically
polariCed @ut this cannot pass throu$h a horiContal
plane PolaroidB
&his is proof that the 4a/es of the "7 spectrum are
trans/erse 4a/esB 'f they 4ere lon$itudinal 4a/es the
for4ards and @ack4ards motion 4ould not @e stopped
@y crossed pieces of PolaroidQ the @ottom set up 4ould
emit li$htB
Applications
&0 aerials $et the @est reception 4hen they point to the transmission source so they
a@sor@ the ma#imum amount of the radio 4a/esB
?nit 2
Superposition and Standin$
)a/es
Lesson 1%
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 and @e a@le to e#plain 4hat standin$ 4a/es are and ho4 they are
formed
&o kno4 4hat nodes and antinodes are
&o @e a@le to sketch the standin$ 4a/e produced at di-erent
fre9uencies
;B +)="1
Superposition
Here are t4o 4a/es that ha/e amplitudes of 1B, tra/ellin$ in opposite directionsE
Superposition is the process by +hich t+o +aves combine into a single +ave %orm +hen
they overlap$
'f 4e add these 4a/es to$ether the resultant depends on 4here the peaks of the 4a/es
are compared to each otherB Here are three e#amples of 4hat the resultant could @eE a
4a/e 4ith an amplitude of 1B5. no resultant 4a/e at all and a 4a/e 4ith an amplitude of
2B,
Stationary:Standing +a'es
)hen t4o similar 4a/es tra/el in opposite directions
they can superpose to form a standin$ Gor stationaryI
4a/eB Here is the e#perimental set up of ho4 4e can
form a standin$ 4a/e on a strin$B &he /i@ration
$enerator sends 4a/es do4n the strin$ at a certain
fre9uency. they reach the end of the strin$ and
re>ect @ack at the same fre9uencyB 2n their 4ay
@ack the t4o 4a/es tra/ellin$ in opposite direction
superpose to form a standin$ 4a/e made up of
nodes and antinodesB
Nodes Positions on a standin$ 4a/e 4hich do not
/i@rateB &he 4a/es com@ine to $i/e Cero
displacement
Antinodes Positions on a standin$ 4a/e 4here there is a ma#imum displacementB
&tanding Waves Progressive Waves
'm*litude 7a#imum at antinode and Cero at
nodes
&he same for all parts of the 4a/e
3reBuency All parts of the 4a/e ha/e the same
fre9uency
All parts of the 4a/e ha/e the same
fre9uency
Waveleng
th
&4ice the distance @et4een ad:acent
nodes
&he distance @et4een t4o ad:acent
peaks
Phase All points @et4een t4o ad:acent nodes
in phase
Points one 4a/elen$th apart in phase
Energy ;o ener$y translation "ner$y translation in the direction of
the 4a/e
Wave=orm +oes not mo/e for4ard 7o/es for4ards
Harmonics
As 4e increase the fre9uency of the /i@ration $enerator 4e
4ill see standin$ 4a/es @ein$ set upB &he Arst 4ill occur 4hen
the $enerator is /i@ratin$ at the fundamental fre9uency. %
,
. of
the strin$B
&irst Harmonic % 9 %
,
; 9 2 #
2 nodes and 1 antinode
Second Harmonic % 9 2%
,
; 9 #
3 nodes and 2 antinodes
Third Harmonic % 9 3%
,
; 9 = #
4 nodes and 3 antinodes
&orth Harmonic % 9 >%
,
; 9 ? #
5 nodes and 4 antinodes
?nit 2
1efraction
Lesson 1(
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate the refracti/e inde# of a material and to kno4 4hat it tells
us
&o @e a@le to descri@e and e#plain the direction li$ht takes 4hen enterin$ a
di-erent material
&o @e a@le to calculate the relati/e refracti/e inde# of a @oundary ;B +)="1
Reracti'e Inde)
&he refracti/e inde# of a material is a measure of ho4 easy it is for li$ht to tra/el throu$h
itB &he refracti/e inde# of material & can @e calculated usin$E
&
c
c
n =
4here n is the refracti/e inde#. c is the speed of li$ht in a /acuum and c
&
is the speed of
li$ht in material &B
!e=ractive 2nde4, n, has no units
'f li$ht can tra/el at c in material x then the refracti/e inde# isE
x
c
c
n =

c
c
n =
1 = n
'f li$ht can tra/el at ca2 in material y then the refracti/e inde# isE
y
c
c
n =

2
c
c
n =

2 = n
&he hi$her the refracti/e inde# the slo4er li$ht can tra/el throu$h it
&he hi$her the refracti/e inde# the denser the material
%ending #ight
)hen li$ht passes from one material to another it is not only
the speed of the li$ht that chan$es. the direction can chan$e
tooB
'f the ray of li$ht is incident at *,f to the material then there
is no chan$e in direction. only speedB
't may help to ima$ine the front of the ray of li$ht as the front of a car to determine the
direction the li$ht 4ill @endB 'ma$ine a lo4er refracti/e inde# as $rass and a hi$her
refracti/e inde# at mudB
(ntering a /enser Material
&he car tra/els on $rass until tyre A reaches the mudB 't is harder to
mo/e throu$h mud so A slo4s do4n @ut < can keep mo/in$ at the
same speed as @eforeB &he car no4 points in a ne4 directionB
@enser material A higher re%ractive inde, A bends to+ards the "ormal
(ntering a #ess /ense Material
&he car tra/els in mud until tyre A reaches the $rassB 't is easier to
mo/e across $rass so A can speed up @ut < keeps mo/in$ at the
same speed as @eforeB &he car no4 points in a ne4 directionB
#ess dense material A lo+er re%ractive inde, A bends a+ay %rom the "ormal
Relati'e Reracti'e Inde)
)hene/er t4o materials touch the @oundary @et4een them 4ill
ha/e a refracti/e inde# dependent on the refracti/e indices of
the t4o materialsB )e call this the relati/e refracti/e inde#B
)hen li$ht tra/els from material 9 to material : 4e can
calculate the relati/e refracti/e inde# of the @oundary usin$ any
of the follo4in$E
2
1
2
1
1
2
2 1
sin
sin

= = =
c
c
n
n
n
!elative !e=ractive 2nde4,
1
n
2
, has no units
Some 9uestions may in/ol/e li$ht tra/ellin$ throu$h
se/eral layers of materialsB &ackle one @oundary at a timeB
!
#
!
#
#
!
! #
c
c
n
n
n

sin
sin
= = =
5555555555555555555555555555o
%
!
%
!
!
%
% !
c
c
n
n
n

sin
sin
= = =
5555555555555555555555555555o
?nit 2
&otal 'nternal 1e>ection
Lesson 1*
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat the critical an$le is and @e a@le to calculate it
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat A@re optics are and ho4 they are used
&o @e a@le to e#plain ho4 claddin$ helps impro/e the edciency of a
A@re optic
;B +)="1
Total Internal ReKection (Also seen in GCSE Physics 3)
)e kno4 that 4hene/er li$ht tra/els from one material to another the ma:ority of the li$ht
refracts @ut a small proportion of the li$ht also re>ects o- the @oundary and stays in the
Arst materialB
)hen the incident ray strikes the @oundary at an an$le less than the critical an$le the
li$ht refracts into the second materialB
)hen the incident ray strikes the @oundary at an an$le e&ual to the critical an$le all the
li$ht is sent alon$ the @oundary @et4een the t4o materialsB
)hen the incident ray strikes the @oundary at an an$le greater than the critical an$le all
the li$ht is re>ected and none refracts. 4e say it is total internal re>ection has occurredB
Critical Angle (Also seen in GCSE Physics 3)
)e can deri/e an e9uation that connects the critical an$le 4ith the refracti/e indices of
the materialsB
1
2
2
1
sin
sin
n
n
=

@ut at the critical an$le 1

2
is e9ual to *,f 4hich makes sin1
2
J 1
1
2 1
1
sin
n
n
=

1
1
is the critical an$le 4hich 4e represent as 1
C
makin$ the e9uationE
1
2
sin
n
n
C
=
)hen the second material is air n
2
J 1. so the e9uation @ecomesE
1
1
sin
n
C
=
or
C
n
sin
1
1
=
4ptical &i*res:&i*re 4ptics
An optical A@re is a thin piece of >e#i@le $lassB Li$ht
can tra/el do4n it due to total internal re>ectionB &hier
uses includeE
jCommunication such as phone and &0 si$nalsE they
can carry more information that electricity in copper
4iresB
j7edical endoscopesE they allo4 us to see do4n them
and are >e#i@le so they don3t cause in:ury to the patientB
Cladding
Claddin$ is added to the outside of an optical A@re to
reduce the amount of li$ht that is lostB 't does this @y
$i/in$ the li$ht rays a second chance at &'1 as seen in
the dia$ramB
't does increase the critical an$le @ut the shortest path
throu$h the optical A@re is strai$ht throu$h. so only
lettin$ li$ht 4hich stays in the core means the si$nal is
transmitted 9uickerB
Consider the optical A@re 4ith a refracti/e inde# of 1B5p
)ithout claddin$ n
2
J 1
1
2
sin
n
n
C
=

5 . 1
1
sin =
C

= 8 . 41
C

)ith claddin$ n
2
J 1B4
1
2
sin
n
n
C
=

5 . 1
4 . 1
sin =
C

= 0 . 69
C

'f the claddin$ had a lo4er refracti/e inde# than the core it is easier for li$ht to tra/el
throu$h so the li$ht 4ould @end a4ay from the normal. (otal Internal 8e0ection$
'f the claddin$ had a hi$her refracti/e inde# than the core it is harder for li$ht to tra/el
throu$h so the li$ht 4ould @end to4ards the normal. 8e%raction$
?nit 2
'nterference
Lesson 2,
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat interference and coherence is
&o @e a@le to e#plain =oun$3s dou@le slit e#periment and a dou@le source
e#periment
&o @e a@le to use the e9uation to descri@e the appearance of frin$es
produced
;B +)="1
Intererence
'nterference is a special case of superposition 4here the 4a/es that com@ine are
coherentB &he 4a/es o/erlap and form a repeatin$ interference pattern of ma#ima and
minima areasB 'f the 4a/es 4eren3t coherent the interference pattern 4ould chan$e
rapidly and continuouslyB
CoherenceD )a/es 4hich are of the same fre9uency. 4a/elen$th. polarisation and amplitude
and in a constant phase relationshipB A laser is a coherent source @ut a li$ht @ul@ is notB
Constructi'e IntererenceD &he path di-erence @et4een the 4a/es is a 4hole num@er of
4a/elen$ths so the 4a/es arri/e in phase addin$ to$ether to $i/e a lar$e 4a/eB 2 pea's
overlap
/estructi'e IntererenceD &he path di-erence @et4een the 4a/es is a half num@er of
4a/elen$ths so the 4a/es arri/e out of phase cancellin$ out to $i/e no 4a/e at allB A
pea' and trough overlap
Joung>s /ou*le Slit ()periment
'n 1(,3 &homas =oun$ settled a de@ate started o/er 1,, years earlier @et4een
;e4ton and Huy$ens @y demonstratin$ the interference of li$htB ;e4ton
thou$ht that li$ht 4as made up of tiny particles called corpuscles and
Huy$ens thou$ht that li$ht 4as a 4a/e.
=oun$3s interference of li$ht pro/es li$ht is a
4a/eB Here is =oun$3s dou@le slit set up. the
t4o slits act as coherent sources of 4a/es
'nterference occurs 4here the li$ht from the
t4o slits o/erlapsB Constructi/e interference
produces @ri$ht areas. 4hile deconstructi/e
interference produces dark areasB &hese
areas are called interference frin$esB
&ringes
&here is a central @ri$ht frin$e directly
@ehind the midpoint @et4een the slits 4ith
more frin$es e/enly spaced and parallel to
the slitsB
As 4e mo/e a4ay from the centre of the
screen 4e see the intensity of the @ri$ht
frin$es decreasesB
/ou*le Source ()periment
&he interference of sound is easy to demonstrate 4ith t4o speakers connected to the
same si$nal $eneratorB )a/es of the same fre9uency GcoherentI interfere 4ith each otherB
Constructi/e interference produces loud frin$es. 4hile deconstructi/e interference
produces 9uiet frin$esB
/eri'ation
)e can calculate the separation of the
frin$es G#I if 4e consider the dia$ram to the
ri$ht 4hich sho4s the Arst @ri$ht frin$e
@elo4 the central frin$eB &he path di-erence
@et4een the t4o 4a/es is e9ual to one
4hole 4a/elen$th G8I for constructi/e
interferenceB
'f the distance to the screen G5I is massi/e
compared to the separation of the sources G&I the an$le G1I in the lar$e trian$le can @e
assumed the same as the an$le in the smaller trian$leB

Hyp"tenu&e
Opp"&ite
= sin
!or the small trian$leE
&

= sin !or the lar$e trian$leE

5
#
= sin
Since the an$les are the same 4e can 4rite
& 5
#
= = sin or
& 5
#
= 4hich rearran$es
toE
&
5
#

=
3ringe &e*aration, &ource &e*aration, >istance to &creen and Wavelength are
measured in metres, m
?nit 2
+i-raction
Lesson 21
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat di-raction is and 4hen it happens the most
&o @e a@le to sketch the di-raction pattern from a sin$le slit and a di-raction
$ratin$
&o @e a@le to deri/e dsin1=n ;B +)="1
/i$raction
)hen 4a/es pass throu$h a $ap
they spread out. this is called
di-ractionB &he amount of di-raction depends on the siCe of the 4a/elen$th compared to
the siCe of the $apB
'n the Arst dia$ram the $ap is se/eral times 4ider than the 4a/elen$th so the 4a/e only
spreads out a littleB
'n the second dia$ram the $ap is closer to the 4a/elen$th so it @e$ins to spread out moreB
'n the third dia$ram the $ap is no4 rou$hly the same siCe as the 4a/elen$th so it spreads
out the mostB
/i$raction Patterns
Here is the di-raction pattern from li$ht @ein$ shone throu$h a
sin$le slitB &here is a central ma#imum that is t4ice as 4ide as
the others and @y far the @ri$htestB &he outer frin$es are
dimmer and of e9ual 4idthB
'f 4e use three. four or more slits the interference ma#ima
@ecome @ri$hter. narro4er and further apartB
/i$raction ,rating
A di-raction $ratin$ is a series of narro4. parallel
slitsB &hey usually ha/e around 5,, slits per mmB
)hen li$ht shines on the di-raction $ratin$ se/eral
@ri$ht sharp lines can @e seen as sho4n in the
dia$ram to the ri$htB
&he Arst @ri$ht line Gor interference ma#imumI lies
directly @ehind 4here the li$ht shines on the $ratin$B
)e call this the Cero5order ma#imumB At an an$le of
1 from this lies the ne#t @ri$ht line called the Arst5
order ma#imum and so forthB
&he Cero5order ma#imum Gn';I
&here is no path di-erence @et4een nei$h@ourin$ 4a/esB &hey arri/e in phase and
interfere constructi/elyB
&he Arst5order ma#imum Gn'9I
&here is a path di-erence of 1 4a/elen$th @et4een
nei$h@ourin$ 4a/esB &hey arri/e in phase and
interfere constructi/elyB
&he second5order ma#imum Gn':I
&here is a path di-erence of 2 4a/elen$ths @et4een
nei$h@ourin$ 4a/esB &hey arri/e in phase and
interfere constructi/elyB
<et4een the ma#ima
&he path di-erence is not a 4hole num@er of
4a/elen$ths so the 4a/es arri/e out of phase and interfere destructi/elyB
/eri'ation
&he an$le to the ma#ima depends on the 4a/elen$th of the li$ht and the
separation of the slitsB )e can deri/e an e9uation that links them @y
takin$ a closer look at t4o nei$h@ourin$ 4a/es $oin$ to the Arst5order
ma#imumB
&he distance to the screen is so much @i$$er than the distance @et4een
t4o slits that emer$in$ 4a/es appear to @e parallel and can @e treated
that 4ayB
Consider the trian$le to the ri$htB
Hyp"tenu&e
Opp"&ite
= sin

d

= sin = sin d
!or the nth order the opposite side of the trian$le @ecomes n8. makin$
the e9uationE
n d = sin
A2 Physics
Unit 9
3ields and 3urther Mechanics
1 7omentum and Collisions
2 !orce and 'mpulse
3 Circular 7otion
4 Centripetal !orce and Acceleration
5 Simple Harmonic 7otion
SH7 6raphs
% SH7 &ime Periods
( 1esonance and +ampin$
* 6ra/itational !ields
1, 6ra/itational Potential
11 2r@its and "scape 0elocity
12 "lectric !ields
13 "lectric Potential
14 !ields Comparison
15 Capacitors
1 Char$in$ and +ischar$in$
1% "#ponential +ecay
1( !orce on a Current Carryin$ )ire
1* !orce on a Char$ed Particle
2, 7a$netic !lu# and !lu# Linka$e
21 "lectroma$netic 'nduction
22 &ransformers
Unit K
$uclear and )hermal Physics
1 1utherford Scatterin$
2 'onisin$ 1adiation
3 1adioacti/e +ecay
4 7odes of +ecay
5 ;uclear 1adius
7ass and "ner$y
% !ission and !usion
( ;uclear 1eactors
* ;uclear Safety Aspects
1, Heat. &emperature and 'nternal "ner$y
11 &he SpeciAcs
12 6as La4s
13 'deal 6as
14 7olecular 8inetic &heory 7odel
?nit 4
7omentum and Collisions
Lesson 1
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate momentum and kno4 the units
&o @e a@le to e#plain the di-erence @et4een elastic and inelastic collisions
&o @e a@le to And the /elocity of an o@:ect after a collision or
e#plosion
;B +)="1
Momentum (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
&he momentum of an o@:ect is $i/en @y the e9uationE m"mentum ' m%&& # vel"city
mv p =

Since it depends on the /elocity and not speed. momentum is a /ector 9uantityB 'f 4e
assi$n a direction to @e positi/e for e#ample if 4as positi/e. an o@:ect 4ith ne$ati/e
/elocity 4ould @e mo/in$ B 't 4ould also ha/e a ne$ati/e momentumB
Momentum is measured in kilogram metres *er second, kg m"s or kg m s
1
Conser'ation (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
'n an isolated system Gif no e#ternal forces are actin$I the linear momentum is conser/edB
)e can say thatE the t"t%l m"mentum .ef"e ' the t"t%l m"mentum %fte
&he total momentum @efore and after 4hatK A collision or an e#plosionB
Collisions (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
&here are t4o types of collisionsQ in @oth cases the momentum is conser/edB
(lastic A 'inetic energy in conserved no energy is trans%erred to the surroundings
'f a @all is dropped. hits the >oor and @ounces @ack to the same hei$ht it 4ould @e an
elastic collision 4ith the >oorB &he kinetic ener$y @efore the collision is the same as the
kinetic ener$y after the collisionB
Inelastic A 'inetic energy is not conserved energy is trans%erred to the surroundings
'f a @all is dropped. hits the >oor and @ounces @ack to a lo4er hei$ht than released it
4ould @e an inelastic collisionB &he kinetic ener$y @efore the collision 4ould @e $reater
than the kinetic ener$y after the collisionB

#e=ore '=ter
'n the situation a@o/e. car 1 and car 2 tra/el to the ri$ht 4ith initial /elocities u
1
and u
2

respecti/elyB Car 1 catches up to car 2 and they collideB After the collision the cars
continue to mo/e to the ri$ht @ut car 1 no4 tra/els at /elocity v
1
and car 2 tra/els a
/elocity v
2
B q is positi/er
Since momentum is conser/ed the total momentum @efore the crash J the total
momentum after the crashB
&he total momentum @efore is the momentum of A H the momentum of <
&he total momentum after is the ne4 momentum of A H the ne4 momentum of <
)e can represent this 4ith the e9uationE
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
v m v m u m u m + = +
()plosions (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
)e look at e#plosions in the same 4ay as 4e look at collisions. the total momentum
@efore is e9ual to the total momentum afterB 'n e#plosions the total momentum @efore is
CeroB q is positi/er

#e=ore '=ter
'f 4e look at the e#ample a@o/e 4e can see that the 4hole system is not mo/in$. so the
momentum @efore is CeroB After the e#plosion the shell tra/els ri$ht 4ith /elocity v
:
and
the cannon recoils 4ith a /elocity v
1
B
&he momentum of the system is $i/en asE
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
v m v m u m u m + = +
So the e9uation for this dia$ram 4ould @eE
2 2 1 1
0 v m v m + =
<ut remem@er. v
1
is ne$ati/e soE
2 2 1 1
0 v m v m + =
2 2 1 1
v m v m =
?nit 4
!orce and 'mpulse
Lesson 2
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate force from chan$e in momentum
&o @e a@le to e#plain and calculate impulse
&o kno4 the si$niAcance of the area under a force5time $raph ;B +)="1
&orce (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
'f 4e start at 0 = m% 4e can deri/e an e9uation that links force and momentumB
m% 0 = 4e can replace % in this e9uation 4ith
t
u v
%
) (
= from ?nit 2
t
u v
m 0
) (
= multiplyin$ out makes the e9uation
t
mu mv
0

= or
t
mv
0

=
) (
4here means Othe chan$e in3
&his states that the force is a measure of chan$e of momentum 4ith respect to timeB &his
is ;e4ton3s Second La4 of 7otionE
(he rate o% change o% an obBect/s linear momentum is directly proportional to the
resultant e,ternal %orce$ (he change in the momentum ta'es place in the direction o%
the %orce$
'f 4e ha/e a trolley and 4e increase its /elocity from rest to 3mas in 1, seconds. 4e kno4
that it takes a @i$$er force to do the same 4ith a trolley that3s full of shoppin$B "/er tried
turnin$ a trolley around a corner 4hen empty and then 4hen fullK
3orce is measured in $e<tons, $
Car Saety (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
7any of the safety features of a car rely on the a@o/e e9uationB Air@a$s. seat@elts and the
crumple Cone increase the time taken for the car and the people inside to stop mo/in$B
'ncreasin$ the time taken to chan$e the momentum to Cero reduces the force
e#periencedB
Catching
An "$$E 'f 4e held our hand out and didn3t mo/e it the e$$ 4ould smashB &he chan$e in
momentum happens in a short time. makin$ the force lar$eB 'f 4e cup the e$$ and mo/e
our hands do4n as 4e catch it 4e make it take lon$er to come to a complete stopB
'ncreasin$ the time taken decreases the force and the e$$ remains intactB
Cricket <allE 'f 4e didn3t mo/e our hands it 4ould hurt 4hen the @all stopped in our handsB
'f 4e make it take lon$er to stop 4e reduce the force on our hands from the @allB
Impulse
t
mu mv
0

= multiply @oth sides @y t mu mv 0t =
t
mv
0

=
) (
multiply @oth sides @y t
) (mv t 0 =
)e no4 ha/e an e9uation for impulseB 'mpulse is the product of the force and the time it
is applied forB
An impulse causes a chan$e in momentumB
2m*ulse is measured in $e<ton seconds, $s
Since
) (mv t 0 =
. the same impulse Gsame force applied for the same amount of timeI
can @e applied to a small mass to cause a lar$e /elocity or to a lar$e mass to cause a
small /elocity
0t ' mv ' mv
&orce-Time ,raphs
&he impulse can @e calculated from a force5time
$raph. it is the same as the area under the $raphB
&he area of the Arst $raph is $i/en @yE
hei$ht # len$th J !orce # time J 'mpulse
?nit 4
Circular 7otion
Lesson 3
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate the an$ular displacement of an o@:ect mo/in$ in a circle
&o @e a@le to calculate the an$ular speed of an o@:ect mo/in$ in a circle
&o @e a@le to calculate the speed of an o@:ect mo/in$ in a circle ;B +)="1
&o the ri$ht is the path a car is takin$ as it mo/es in a circle of
radius B
Angular /isplacement6 L
As the car tra/els from D to = it has tra/elled a distance of & and
has co/ered a section of the complete circle it 4ill makeB 't has
co/ered and an$le of 1 4hich is called the an$ular displacementB
%diu&
%c
=

&
=
'ngular >is*lacement is measured in radians, rad
Radians
1 radian is the an$le made 4hen the arc of a circle is e9ual to the radiusB
!or a complete circle
%diu&
%c
=
%diu&
nce cicumfee
=

2
=
2 =
A complete circle is 3,f so 3,f J 2Y rad
1f J ,B,1% rad 5%B3f J 1 rad
Angular Speed6 M
An$ular speed is the rate of chan$e of an$ular displacement. or the an$le that is co/ered
e/ery secondB
t

=
'ngular &*eed is measured in radians *er second, rad"s or rad s
1
&re7uency6
!re9uency is the num@er of complete circles that occur e/ery
secondB
!or one circleQ 2 = . if 4e su@stitute this into the e9uation a@o/e
4e $et
t

2
=
&his e9uation says that the an$ular speed Gan$le made per secondI
is e9ual to one circle di/ided @y the time taken to do itB 0ery similar
to speed J distanceatime
Since
T
f
1
= the a@o/e e9uation can @e 4ritten as
f 2 =
3reBuency is measures in CertD, CD
Speed6 '
&he /elocity of the car is constantly chan$in$ @ecause the direction is constantly
chan$in$B &he speed ho4e/er. is constant and can @e calculatedB
t
&
v = 'f 4e rearran$e the top e9uation 4e can $et & = . the speed
then @ecomes
t

v

= ;o4 if 4e rearran$e the second e9uation 4e $et = t . the
e9uation @ecomes
t
t
v

= Cancel the t3s and 4e Anally arri/e at our e9uation for the speedB
v =
&*eed is measured in metres *er second, m"s or m s
1
?nit 4
Centripetal !orce and
Acceleration
Lesson 4
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate the centripetal acceleration of an o@:ect mo/in$ in a circle
&o @e a@le to calculate the centripetal force that keeps an o@:ect mo/in$ in a
circle
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hy the centrifu$al force does not e#ist ;B +)="1
Mo'ing in a Circle (Also seen in GCSE Physics 3)
!or an o@:ect to continue to mo/e in a circle a force is needed that acts on the o@:ect
to4ards the centre of the circleB &his is called the centripetal force and is pro/ided @y a
num@er of thin$sE
!or a satellite or@itin$ the "arth it is pro/ided @y $ra/itational attractionB
!or a car dri/in$ around a rounda@out it is pro/ided @y the friction @et4een the
4heels and the roadB
!or a @all on a strin$ @ein$ s4un$ in a circle it is pro/ided @y the tension in the
strin$B
Centri*etal =orce acts =rom the %ody to the centre o= a circle
Since 0'm% the o@:ect must accelerate in the same direction as the resultant forceB &he
o@:ect is constantly chan$in$ its direction to4ards the centre of the circleB
Centri*etal acceleration has direction =rom the %ody to the centre o= the circle
Centriugal &orce
Some people thou$ht that an o@:ect mo/in$ in a circle 4ould e#perience the centripetal
force actin$ from the o@:ect to4ards the centre of the circle and the centrifu$al force
actin$ from the o@:ect a4ay from the centre of the circleB
&hey thou$ht this @ecause if you sit on a rounda@out as it spins it feels like you are @ein$
thro4n o- @ack4ardsB
'f someone 4as 4atchin$ from the side they 4ould see you try and mo/e in a strai$ht line
@ut @e pulled in a circle @y the rounda@outB
&he centrifu$al force does not e#ist in these situationsB
Centripetal Acceleration
&he centripetal acceleration of an o@:ect can
@e deri/ed if 4e look at the situation to the
ri$htB An o@:ect of speed / makes an an$ular
displacement of 1 in time tB
t
v
%

=
'f 4e look at the trian$le at the far ri$ht 4e can use

&
= 4hen 1 is smallB &his @ecomesE
v
v
=
)e can rearran$e this to $i/eE v v =
Acceleration is $i/en @y
t
v
%

= su@stitute the a@o/e e9uation into this one

t
v
%

=

this is the same as
t
v %

=

'n lesson 3 GCircular 7otionI 4e esta@lished that
t

=

. su@stitute this into the e9uation
a@o/e
v % =
'f 4e use v = 4e can deri/e t4o more e9uations for acceleration
v % =
2
% =

v
%
2
=
Centri*etal 'cceleration is measured in metres *er second sBuared, m"s
2
or m s

2
Centripetal &orce
)e can deri/e three e9uations for the centripetal force @y usin$ m% 0 = and the three
e9uations of acceleration from a@o/eB
mv 0 =
2
m 0 =

v
m 0
2
=
Centri*etal 3orce is measured in $e<tons, $
?nit 4
Simple Harmonic 7otion
Lesson 5
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat simple harmonic motion is
&o @e a@le to descri@e the acceleration of an SH7 system
&o @e a@le to calculate the displacement. /elocity and acceleration
of an SH7 system
;B +)="1
4scillations
'n each of the cases @elo4 there is somethin$ that is oscillatin$. it /i@rates @ack and forth
or up and do4nB
"ach of these systems is demonstratin$ Simple Harmonic 7otion GSH7IB
SHM Characteristics
&he e9uili@rium point is 4here the o@:ect comes to rest. in the simple pendulum it at its
lo4est pointB
'f 4e displace the o@:ect @y a displacement of x there 4ill @e a force that @rin$s the o@:ect
@ack to the e9uili@rium pointB )e call this the restorin$ force and it al4ays acts in the
opposite direction to the displacementB
)e can represent this asE x 0
Since m% 0 = 4e can also 4riteE x %
!or an o@:ect to @e mo/in$ 4ith simple harmonic motion. its acceleration must satisfy t4o
conditionsE
j&he acceleration is proportional to the displacement
j&he acceleration is in the opposite direction to the displacement Gto4ards the
e9uili@rium pointI
(7uations
&he follo4in$ e9uations are true for all SH7 systems @ut let us use the
simple pendulum 4hen thinkin$ a@out themB
&he pendulum @o@ is displaced in the ne$ati/e direction 4hen at point
1. it is released and s4in$s throu$h point 2 at its ma#imum speed until
it reaches point 3 4here it comes to a complete stopB 't then s4in$s to
the ne$ati/e direction. reaches a ma#imum speed at 4 and completes
a full cycle 4hen it stops at 5B
/isplacement6 )
&he displacement of the @o@ after a time t is $i/en @y the e9uationE
ft A x 2 cos =

(C'1C& 2$ !'>)
Since
T
f
1
= the e9uation can @ecomeE t
T
A x
1
2 cos =
T
t
A x 2 cos =
G4here t is the time into the cycle and T is the time for one complete cycleI
&he ma#imum displacement is called the amplitude. AB A x = 7AD'7?7
9elocity6 '
&he /elocity of the @o@ at a displacement of x is $i/en @y the e9uationE
2 2
2 x A f v =
&he ma#imum /elocity occurs in the middle of the s4in$ G2 and 4I 4hen displacement is
Cero G# J ,I
2 2
2 x A f v =
2 2
0 2 = A f v
2
2 A f v =
fA v 2 =

7AD'7?7
Acceleration6 a
&he acceleration of the @o@ at a displacement of x is $i/en @y the e9uationE x f %
2
) 2 ( =
As discussed @efore the acceleration acts in the opposite direction to the displacementB
&he ma#imum acceleration occurs at the ends of the s4in$ G1. 3 and 5I 4hen the
displacement is e9ual to the amplitude Gx ' AIB
x f %
2
) 2 ( = A f %
2
) 2 ( =
7AD'7?7
?nit 4
SH7 6raphs
Lesson
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to sketch the $raphs of displacement. /elocity and acceleration for a
simple pendulum
&o @e kno4 4hat the $radients represent
&o @e a@le to e#plain the ener$y in a full cycle and sketch the $raph ;B +)="1
Pendulum
Consider the simple pendulum dra4n @elo4B )hen released from A
the @o@ accelerates and mo/es to the centre pointB )hen it reached
< it has reached a ma#imum /elocity in the positi/e direction and
then @e$ins to slo4 do4nB At C it has stopped completely so the
/elocity is Cero. it is at a ma#imum displacement in the positi/e and
accelerates in the ne$ati/e directionB At + it is @ack to the centre
point and mo/es at ma#imum /elocity in the ne$ati/e directionB <y
" the /elocity has dropped to Cero. ma#imum ne$ati/e
displacement and a massi/e acceleration as it chan$es directionB
&his repeats as the pendulum s4in$s throu$h !. 6. H and @ack to 'B
<elo4 are the $raphs that represent thisE
,radients
Since
t
&
v

= the
$radient of the
displacement
$raph $i/es us
/elocityB At C the
$radient is Cero
and 4e can see
that the /elocity
is CeroB
Also since
t
v
%

=
the $radient of
the /elocity $raph
$i/es us
accelerationB At C
the $radient is a
ma#imum in the
ne$ati/e direction
and 4e can see
that the acceleration is a ma#imum in the ne$ati/e directionB
(nergy
'n all simple harmonic motion systems there is a
con/ersion @et4een kinetic ener$y and potential
ener$yB &he total ener$y of the system remains
constantB G&his is only true for isolated systemsI
!or a simple pendulum there is a transformation
@et4een kinetic ener$y and $ra/itational potential
ener$yB
At its lo4est point it has minimum $ra/itational and
ma#imum kinetic. at its hi$hest point G4hen
displacement is a ma#imumI it has no kinetic @ut a
ma#imum $ra/itationalB &his is sho4n in the $raphB
!or a mass on a sprin$ there is a transformation
@et4een kinetic ener$y. $ra/itational potential ener$y and the ener$y stored in the sprin$
Gelastic potentialIB At the top there is ma#imum elastic and $ra/itational @ut minimum
kineticB 'n the middle there is ma#imum kinetic. minimum elastic @ut it still has some
$ra/itationalB At its lo4est point it has no kinetic. minimum $ra/itational @ut ma#imum
elasticB
?nit 4
SH7 &ime Periods
Lesson %
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate the time period of a simple pendulum
&o @e a@le to calculate the time period of a mass on a sprin$
&o @e a@le to descri@e the e#periment to And $ ;B +)="1
The Simple Pendulum
'n the dia$ram 4e can see that the restorin$ force of the pendulum isE
sin m! 0 =
)hen is less than 1, Gin radiansI
l
x
= sin so the e9uation can @ecomeE
l
x
m! 0 =
Since @oth m% 0 = and x f %
2
) 2 ( = Gfor SH7I the e9uation no4 @ecomesE
x f m
l
x
m!
2
) 2 ( =
&his simpliAes toE
2
) 2 ( f
l
!
=
1earran$in$ for f $i/es us
l
!
f
2
1
=
And since
T
f
1
=
thenE
!
l
T 2 =
)ime is measured in seconds, s
Mass on a Spring
)hen a sprin$ 4ith sprin$ constant 3 and len$th l has a mass m attached to the @ottom it
e#tends @y an e#tension e. this is called the static e#tension and is the ne4 e9uili@rium
pointB &he tension in the sprin$ is @alanced @y the 4ei$htB )e can represent this asE
m! 3e T = =
'f the mass is pulled do4n @y a displacement x and released it 4ill under$o SH7B
&he net up4ards force 4ill @eE
) ) ( ( m! x e 3 0 + =
&his can @e multiplied out to @ecomeE
) ( m! 3x 3e 0 + =
Since
m! 3e =
this can @ecomeE
) ( m! 3x m! 0 + =

't simplify toE
3x 0 =
Since @oth m% 0 = and x f %
2
) 2 ( = Gfor SH7I the
e9uation no4 @ecomesE
x f m 3x
2
) 2 ( =
&his simpliAes toE
2
) 2 ( f
m
3
=
1earran$in$ for f $i/es usE
m
3
f
2
1
=
And since
T
f
1
= the e9uation @ecomesE
3
m
T 2 =
)ime is measured in seconds, s
&inding g
)e can And the /alue of the $ra/itational Aeld stren$th. !. on "arth @y carryin$ out the
follo4in$ e#perimentB
Set up a simple pendulum of len$th l and measure the time for one oscillationB
'f 4e measure the time taken for 2, oscillations and di/ide it @y 2, 4e reduce the
percenta$e human error of the readin$ and make our e#periment more accurateB
'f 4e look at the e9uation
!
l
T 2 = and rearran$e it to @ecomeE l
!
T
2
2
4
= . @y plottin$ a
$raph of T
2
a$ainst l 4e can And the /alue of ! from the $radient 4hich 4ill @e J
!
2
4
B
?nit 4
1esonance and +ampin$
&ree 9i*ration
!ree /i@ration is 4here a system is $i/en an initial displacement and then allo4ed to
/i@rateaoscillate freelyB &he system 4ill oscillate at a set fre9uency called the natural
fre9uency. f
0
B )e ha/e seen from the last lesson that the time period for a pendulum only
depends on the len$th and $ra/itational Aeld stren$th 4hilst the time period of a mass
and sprin$ only depends on the mass and the sprin$ constantB &hese factors $o/ern the
natural fre9uency of a systemB
&orced 9i*ration
!orced /i@ration is 4here a dri/in$ force is continuously applied to make the system
/i@rateaoscillateB &he thin$ that pro/ides the dri/in$ force 4ill @e mo/in$ at a certain
fre9uencyB )e call this the dri/in$ fre9uencyB
Resonance
'f ' hold one end of a slinky and let the other oscillate
freely 4e ha/e a free /i@ration systemB 'f ' mo/e my hand
up and do4n ' force the slinky to /i@rateB &he fre9uency of
my hand is the dri/in$ fre9uencyB
)hen the dri/in$ fre9uency is lo4er than the natural
fre9uency the oscillations ha/e a lo4 amplitude
)hen the dri/in$ fre9uency is the same as the natural
fre9uency the amplitude increases massi/ely. may@e e/en
e#ponentiallyB
)hen the dri/in$ fre9uency is hi$her than the natural
fre9uency the amplitude of the oscillations decreases a$ainB
Phase /i$erence *etween dri'er and dri'en
)hen the dri/in$ force @e$ins to oscillate the dri/en o@:ect the phase di-erence is ,B
)hen resonance is achie/ed the phase difference @et4een them is YB
)hen the dri/in$ fre9uency increases @eyond the natural fre9uency the phase di-erence
increases to Ya2B
/amping
+ampin$ forces oppose the motion of the oscillatin$ @ody. they slo4 or stop simple
harmonic motion from occurrin$B @amping %orces act in the opposite direction to the
velocityB
6alileo made an important o@ser/ation 4hile 4atchin$ lamps s4in$ in Pisa cathedralB He
noticed that the s4in$in$ $radually died a4ay @ut the time taken for each s4in$ stayed
rou$hly the sameB &he s4in$ of the lamp 4as @ein$ damped @y air resistanceB
#ight damping slo4ly reduces the amplitude of the oscillations. @ut keeps the time period
almost constantB
Hea'y damping allo4s the @ody to oscillate @ut @rin$s it 9uickly to restB
Critical damping @rin$s the @ody @ack to the e9uili@rium point /ery 9uickly 4ith out
oscillationB
4'er damping also pre/ent oscillation @ut makes the @ody
take a lon$er time to reach e9uili@riumB
/amping and Resonance
+ampin$ reduces the siCe of the oscillations at
resonanceB &here is still a ma#imum amplitude reached
@ut it is much lo4er than 4hen the system is undampedB
)e say that dampin$ reduces the sharpness of
resonanceB &his @ecomes clearer if 4e look at the $raph
on the ri$htB
't sho4s the amplitude of oscillation a$ainst fre9uency for
di-erent le/els of dampin$B
?nit 4
6ra/itational !ields
Lesson *
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate the force of $ra/ity @et4een t4o masses
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat $ra/itational Aeld stren$th is
&o @e a@le to calculate the $ra/itational Aeld stren$th at a distance r
from the centre
;B +)="1
Newton>s #aw o ,ra'itation 0,ra'ity2 (Also seen in GCSE Physics 3)
6ra/ity is an attracti/e force that acts @et4een all massesB 't is the masses themsel/es
that cause the force to e#istB &he force that acts @et4een t4o masses. m
1
and m
2
. 4hose
centres are separated @y a distance of is $i/en @yE
2
2 1

m m
0
&his 4as tested e#perimentally in a la@ usin$ lar$e lead spheres and 4as reAned to
@ecomeE
2
2 1

m <m
0 =
G is the Gravitational Constant, G 6 7(7L 4 1,
11
$ m
2
kg
2
)hen one of the masses is of planetary siCe. 7. the force @et4een it and a test mass. m.
4hose centres are separated @y a distance of is $i/en @yE
2

<7m
0 =
&he minus si$n means that the force is attracti/e. the force is in the opposite direction to
the distance from the mass GdisplacementIB &his 4ill @ecome clearer 4hen 4e look at the
electric forceB
;e$ati/e J Attracti/e
Positi/e J 1epulsi/e
3orce is measured in $e<tons, $
,ra'itational &ields
A $ra/itational Aeld is the area around a mass 4here any other mass 4ill e#perience a
forceB )e can model a Aeld 4ith
Aeld lines or lines of forceB
Radial &ields
&he Aeld lines end at the centre of
a mass and tail @ack to inAnityB )e
can see that they @ecome more
spread out the further from the
mass 4e $oB
Aniorm &ields
&he Aeld lines are parallel in a
uniform AeldB At the surface of the
"arth 4e can assume the Aeld
lines are parallel. e/en thou they are notB
,ra'itational &ield Strength6 g
)e can think of $ra/itational Aeld stren$th as the concentration of the Aeld lines at that
pointB )e can see from the dia$rams a@o/e that the Aeld stren$th is constant in a uniform
Aeld @ut drops 9uickly as 4e mo/e further out in a radial AeldB
&he $ra/itational Aeld stren$th at a point is a /ector 9uantity and is deAned asE
(he %orce per unit mass acting on a small mass placed at that point in the 4eld$
)e can represent this 4ith the e9uationE
m
0
! =
'f 4e use our e9uation for the $ra/itational force at a distance and su@stitute this in for
0 4e $etE
m
<7m
!
2
= 4hich simpliAes toE
2

<7
! =
Gravitational 3ield &trength is measured in $e<tons *er kilogram, $ kg
1
?nit 4
6ra/itational Potential
Lesson 1,
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat $ra/itational potential is and @e a@le to calculate it
&o kno4 ho4 $ra/itational potential is linked to potential ener$y and @e a@le to
calculate it
&o @e a@le to sketch $raphs of potential and Aeld stren$th o/er
distance from surface
;B +)="1
,ra'itational Potential6 9
&he $ra/itational potential at a point from a planet or mass is deAned asE
(he +or' done per unit mass against the 4eld to move a point mass %rom in4nity to that
point
&he $ra/itational potential at a distance from a mass 7 is $i/en @yE

<7
V =
&he /alue is ne$ati/e @ecause the potential at inAnity is Cero and as 4e mo/e to the mass
4e lose potential or ener$yB 6ra/itational potential is a scalar 9uantityB
&he $ra/itational Aeld is attracti/e so 4ork is done %y the Aeld in mo/in$ the mass.
meanin$ ener$y is $i/en outB
Gravitational Potential is measured in :oules *er kilogram, : kg
1
,ra'itational Potential (nergy (Also seen in AS 5nit 2)
'n ?nit 2 4e calculated the $ra/itational potential ener$y of an o@:ect of mass m at a
hei$ht of h 4ithE
m!h E
P
=
&his is only true 4hen the $ra/itational Aeld stren$th does not chan$e Gor is constantI
such as in a uniform AeldB
!or radial Aelds the $ra/itational Aeld stren$th is $i/en @y
2

<7
! =
)e can use this to help us calculate the $ra/itational potential ener$y in a radial Aeld at a
hei$ht B
m!h E
P
=

<7
m E
P
2
=

<7
m E
P
=
(-e have dropped the negative sign because energy is a scalar &uantity)
'f 4e look at the top e9uation for $ra/itational potential 4e can see that the $ra/itational
potential ener$y can @e calculated usin$E mV E
P
=
&he 4ork done to mo/e an o@:ect from potential V
1
to potential V
2
is $i/en @yE
) (
1 2
V V m 4 = 4hich can @e 4ritten as V m 4 =
Gravitational Potential Energy is measured in :oules, :
,raphs
Here are the $raphs of ho4 $ra/itational Aeld stren$th and $ra/itational potential /ary
4ith distance from the centre of a mass Ge$ planetIB 'n @oth cases 1 is the radius of the
mass GplanetIB

&he $radient of the $ra/itational potential $raph $i/es us the $ra/itational Aeld stren$th
at that pointB &o And the $radient at a point on a cur/e 4e must dra4 a tan$ent to the line
then calculate the $radient of the tan$entE
x
y
!%dient

V
!

=
'f 4e rearran$e the e9uation 4e can see 4here 4e $et the top e9uation for $ra/itational
potentialB

V
!

= V ! = su@ in the e9uation for ! V

<7
=
2
V

<7
=
2

V

<7
=
?nit 4
2r@its and "scape 0elocity
Lesson 11
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate the or@ital speed of a satellite if $i/en the hei$ht from the
"arth
&o @e a@le to calculate the time of or@it of a satellite if $i/en the hei$ht from the
"arth
&o @e a@le to calculate the escape /elocity from a planet ;B +)="1
4r*its (Also seen in GCSE Physics 3)
!or anythin$ to stay in or@it it re9uires t4o thin$sE
jA centripetal force. caused @y the $ra/itational force actin$ @et4een the o@:ect
or@itin$ and the o@:ect @ein$ or@ited
j&o @e mo/in$ at a hi$h speed
)e no4 kno4 e9uations for calculatin$ the centripetal force of an o@:ect mo/in$ in a circle
of radius A;+ for calculatin$ the $ra/itational force @et4een t4o masses separated @y a
distance of B
Centripetal force at distance E mv 0 = or
2
m 0 = or

mv
0
2
=
6ra/itational force at distance E
2

<7m
0 =
&hese forces are e9ual to each other. since it is the force of $ra/ity causin$ the centripetal
forceB
!rom these 4e can calculate many thin$s a@out an or@itin$ o@:ectE
The speed needed or a gi'en radius
2
2

<7m

mv
=
2
2

<7

v
=

<7
v =
2

<7
v =
The time o or*it or a gi'en radius
2
2

<7m
m =
3
2

<7
=
3
2
) 2 (

<7
f =
3
2
2

<7
T
=

3 2
2
4

<7
T
=

<7
T
3
2
2
4
=

<7

T
3 2
2
4
=
<7

T
3 2
4
=
(nergy o 4r*it
&he total ener$y of a @ody in or@it is $i/en @y the e9uationE
&otal ener$y J 8inetic ener$y H Potential ener$y or
P K T
E E E + =

<7m
mv E
T
=
2
2
1

<7m

<7
m E
T

=
2
2
1

<7m

<7m
E
T
=
2
1

<7m
E
T
2
1
=
,eostationary 4r*its (Also seen in GCSE Physics 3)
6eostationary or@itin$ satellites or@it around the e9uator from )est to "astB &hey stay
a@o/e the same point on the e9uator meanin$ that the time period is 24 hours or
secondsB &hey are used for communication satellites such as tele/ision or mo@ile phone
si$nalsB
(scape 9elocity
!or an o@:ect to @e thro4n from the surface of a planet and escape the $ra/itational
Aeld Gto inAnityI the initial kinetic ener$y it has at the surface must @e e9ual to the
potential ener$y G4ork doneI to take it from the surface to inAnityB
Potential ener$yE
R
<7
m E
P
= 8inetic ener$yE
2
2
1
mv E
K
=
R
<7
m mv =
2
2
1

R
<7
v =
2
2
1

R
<7
v
2
2
=
R
<7
v
2
=
!or an o@:ect to @e escape the "arthpBB
R
<7
v
2
=
) 10 40 . 6 (
) 10 00 . 6 )( 10 67 . 6 ( 2
6
24 11

v v = 11183 m/s
&his calculation is unrealisticB 't assumes that all the kinetic ener$y must @e pro/ided
instantaneouslyB )e ha/e multista$e rockets that pro/ide a continuous thrustB
?nit 4
"lectric !ields
Lesson 12
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate the force of $ra/ity @et4een t4o char$es
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat electric Aeld stren$th is
&o @e a@le to calculate the electric Aeld stren$th at a distance r from
the centre
;B +)="1
Coulom*>s #aw 0(lectric &orce2 (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
&he electrostatic force acts @et4een all char$ed particles and can @e attracti/e or
repulsi/eB 't is the char$es themsel/es that cause the force to e#istB &he force that acts
@et4een t4o char$es. Q
1
and Q
2
. 4hose centres are separated @y a distance of is $i/en
@yE
2
2 1

Q Q
0
#i'e charges 7pposite charges #i'e charges
&he proportional constant 4as found and the e9uation @ecomesE
2
2 1
0
4
1

Q Q
0

=
M
,
is the Permittivity o= 3ree &*ace, 0 6 F(FK9 4 1,
12
3 m
1
)hen one of the char$es is lar$e. Q. the force @et4een it and a test char$e. 2. 4hose
centres are separated @y a distance of is $i/en @yE
2
0
4
Q2
0

=
'f the t4o char$es are positi/e. GHQIGH2I J H Q2 A positi/e force means the char$es
repelB
'f the t4o char$es are ne$ati/e. GXQIGX2I J H Q2 A positi/e force means the char$es
repelB
'f one is ne$ati/e and one is positi/e. GXQIGH2I J X Q2 A ne$ati/e force
means the char$es attractB
(lectric &ields
An electric Aeld is the area around a char$e 4here any other char$e 4ill e#perience a
forceB )e can model a Aeld 4ith Aeld lines or lines of forceB
Radial &ields
!or a positi/e char$e the Aeld lines start at the char$e and $o out to inAnityB !or a
ne$ati/e char$e the Aeld
lines end at the centre of
a mass and tail @ack from
inAnityB )e can see that
they @ecome more spread
out the further from the
char$e 4e $oB
Aniorm &ields
&he Aeld lines are parallel
in a uniform AeldB <et4een t4o conductin$ plates the Aeld lines lea/e the positi/e plate
and enter the ne$ati/e plateB
(lectric &ield Strength6 (
)e can think of electric Aeld stren$th as the concentration of the Aeld lines at that pointB
)e can see from the dia$rams a@o/e that the Aeld stren$th is constant in a uniform Aeld
@ut drops 9uickly as 4e mo/e further out in a radial AeldB
&he electric Aeld stren$th at a point is a /ector 9uantity and is deAned asE
(he %orce per unit charge acting on a small charge placed at that point in the 4eld
)e can represent this 4ith the e9uationE
2
0
E =

'f 4e use our e9uation for the electric force at a distance and su@stitute this in for 0 4e
$etE
2
Q2
E
2
0
4
=
4hich simpliAes toE
2
0
4
Q
E

=
(!'>2'1 32E1>&)
Electric 3ield &trength is measured in $e<tons *er Coulom%, $ C
1
?nit 4
"lectric Potential
Lesson 13
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat electric potential is and @e a@le to calculate it
&o kno4 4hat the Aeld stren$th is like in a uniform Aeld and ho4 it is linked to
electric potential
&o @e a@le to sketch $raphs of potential and Aeld stren$th o/er
distance from surface
;B +)="1
(lectric Potential6 9
&he electric potential at a point from a point char$e is deAned asE
(he +or' done per unit charge against the 4eld to move a positive point charge %rom
in4nity to that point
&he electric potential at a distance from a char$e Q is $i/en @yE

Q
V
0
4
=
&he /alue 4ill @e positi/e 4hen 4ork is done a$ainst the Aeld G4hen like char$es are
repellin$IB
&he /alue 4ill @e ne$ati/e 4hen 4ork is done @y the Aeld G4hen opposite char$es attractIB
'n @oth cases the potential at inAnity is CeroB "lectric potential is a scalar 9uantityB
Electric Potential is measured in :oules *er Coulom%, : C
1
(lectric Potential /i$erence (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2 and AS 5nit 1)
"lectric potential is the 4ork done per unit char$e 4hich can @e 4ritten like thisE
Q
4
V =
)e came across this e9uation in the Q0'1t lesson of ?nit 1B )e used it to deAne the
potential di-erence as the ener$y $i/en to each char$eB !rom 4hat 4e ha/e :ust deAned
4e can no4 update our deAnition of potential di-erenceB Potential diCerence is the
diCerence in electric potential bet+een t+o points in an electric 4eld$
&he 4ork done to mo/e a char$e from potential V
1
to potential V
2
is $i/en @yE
) (
1 2
V V Q 4 = 4hich can @e 4ritten as
V Q 4 =
Aniorm &ields
'n a uniform Aeld like that @et4een t4o conductin$ plates the Aeld
stren$th is constant as 4e ha/e already seenB ;o4 that 4e
understand electric potential 4e can use an e9uation for the Aeld
stren$th in a uniform AeldB
d
V
E = )here V is the potential di-erence @et4een the plates and d is the separation of
the platesB
Electric 3ield &trength can %e measured in ?olts *er metre, ? m
1
,raphs
Here are the $raphs of ho4
electric Aeld stren$th and
electric potential /ary 4ith
distance from the centre of a
char$ed sphereB 'n @oth cases
1 is the radius of the sphereB
&he $radient of the electric
potential $raph $i/es us the
electric Aeld stren$th at that
pointB &o And the $radient at
a point on a cur/e 4e must
dra4 a tan$ent to the line
then calculate the $radient of
the tan$entE
x
y
!%dient

V
E

=
'f 4e rearran$e the e9uation 4e can see 4here 4e $et the top e9uation for electric
potentialB

V
E

= V E = su@ in the e9uation for "

V

Q
=
2
0
4

V

Q
=
2
0
4

V

Q
=
0
4
?nit 4
!ields Comparison
Lesson 14
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to descri@e and e#plain the motion of a char$ed particle in an electric
Aeld
&o @e a@le to state the similarities @et4een $ra/itational and electric Aelds
&o @e a@le to state the di-erences @et4een $ra/itational and electric
Aelds
;B +)="1
Motion in an (lectric &ield
A char$ed particle mo/in$ throu$h an electric Aeld
4ill feel a force to4ards the oppositely char$ed plateB
)e see that the electron mo/es in a para@ola to4ards
the positi/e plate and the positron mo/es to4ards the
ne$ati/e plateB
&he Aeld stren$th is constant so the force is the same at all points in the Aeld and is $i/en
@y
2E 0 =
B &he direction of the force depends on the char$e of the particle enterin$ the
Aeld
Like the pro:ectiles 4e looked at durin$ AS ?nit 2. the /ertical /elocity is independent from
the horiContal /elocityB
&he acceleration in the /ertical plane 4ill @e e9ual to E and it 4ill Ofreefall3 like a mass in
a $ra/itational AeldB
Comparing &ields
)e ha/e seen that the characteristics of $ra/itational and electric Aelds ha/e some
similarities and di-erencesB
,ra'itational &ields (lectric &ields
6orce is
bet+een
7asses Char$es
Constant o%
proportionality
<
0
4
1

E&uation %or
%orce
2
2 1

m <m
0 =
;e4ton G;I
0ector
2
2 1
0
4
1

Q Q
0

=
;e4tons G;I
0ector
"ature o% %orce Attracti/e only
Like char$es repel
+i-erent char$es attract
@e4nition o%
4eld strength
!orce per unit mass !orce per unit char$e
6ield strength
in radial 4eld
2

<7
! =
;e4tons per kilo$ram G;ak$I
0ector
2
0
4
Q
E

=
;e4tons per Coulom@ G;aCI
0ector
@e4nition o%
potential
&he 4ork done in @rin$in$ a unit
mass from inAnity to the point in
the Aeld
&he 4ork done in @rin$in$ a unit
char$e from inAnity to the point in
the Aeld
Potential

<7
V =
`oules per kilo$ram G`ak$I
Scalar

Q
V
0
4
=
`oules per Coulom@ G`aCI
Scalar
Potential at
in4nity
, ,
-or' done
moving
bet+een points
o% diCerent
potential
V m 4 =
`oules G`I
Scalar
V Q 4 =
`oules G`I
Scalar
Gradient o%
potential
against
distance graph
!ield stren$th !ield stren$th
?nit 4
Capacitors
Lesson 15
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate capacitance
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat happens as a capacitor char$es up
&o @e a@le to deri/e the ener$y stored @y a capacitor ;B +)="1
Capacitors
A capacitor is an electronic component that can store electrical char$e and
then release itB
't is made of t4o conductin$ plates separated @y an insulatorB
&he char$e that is stored @y the capacitor is due to the potential di-erence acrossB )e can
4rite this asE
Q V or Q = 3V
3 is a constant speciAc to the capacitor. this is called the capacitance and is represented
@y the sym@ol C
CV Q =
Ca*acitance is measured in 3arads, 3
Charge is measured in Coulom%s, C
)e can rearran$e the e9uation into C = Q / V and from this 4e can see that capacitance is
a measure of the char$e stored per /olt of potential di-erenceB 1 !arad means 1 Coulom@
of char$e is stored per 0oltB
+ater Analogy
)e can think of the char$e stored @y a capacitor as the /olume of
4ater in a @ucketB
&he cross5sectional area of the @ucket represents the capacitance
of the capacitorB )e can see that the capacitance of capacitor 1 is
hi$her than the capacitance of capacitor 2B
&he hei$ht of the 4ater represents the potential di-erence across
the capacitorB )e can see that the potential di-erence across
capacitor 2 is hi$her than the pBdB across capacitor 1B &he char$e
stored @y @oth capacitors is the sameB
A capacitor 4ith a lo4er capacitance can store more char$e if the pBdB across it is
increasedB
Charging and /ischarging
)hen a capacitor is connected to a @attery is sends out electrons to one of the plates. this
@ecomes ne$ati/ely char$edB &he same amount of electrons mo/e from the second plate
and enter the @attery. lea/in$ the plate positi/ely char$edB &he capacitor is no4 storin$ a
char$e or is Ochar$ed3B
'f the char$ed capacitor is disconnected from the @attery and connected to a lamp it 4ill
$i/e out the stored char$e or 4ill Odischar$e3B &he electrons on the ne$ati/e plate mo/e
throu$h the circuit and onto the positi/e plateB &he plates no4 ha/e no char$e on themB
&he ener$y stored @y the capacitor is transferred to the @ul@ 4hilst the electrons mo/e
G4hilst a current >o4sIB
(nergy Stored *y a Capacitor
&he top e9uation sho4s us that the char$e of a capacitor increases 4ith the
potential di-erence across itB 'f 4e plotted pBdB a$ainst char$e 4e $et a
$raph that looks like this
)e can deri/e an e9uation to And the ener$y that a capacitor stores @y
considerin$ the ener$y transferred durin$ the shaded section on the lo4er $raphB
'n this section the char$e chan$es from 2 to 2+2 4hen an a/era$e
pBdB of v is applied across itB
?sin$ E = VQ Gsee AS ?nit 1I the ener$y stored is E = v 2B
&he total ener$y is e9ual to the total of all the little rectan$ular
sections and is $i/en @y E = QVB &his is also e9ual to the area under
the $raphB
)e can use the top e9uation to deri/e t4o more e9uations for the
ener$y stored @y a capacitorE
QV E
2
1
=
2
2
1
CV E =
C
Q
E
2
2
1
=
Energy is measured in :oules, :
?nit 4
Char$in$ and +ischar$in$
Lesson 1
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to sketch $raphs of char$e. pBdB and current o/er time for a char$in$
capacitor
&o @e a@le to sketch $raphs of char$e. pBdB and current o/er time for a
dischar$in$ capacitor
&o @e a@le to calculate the time constant and state its si$niAcance ;B +)="1
'n the dia$ram to the ri$ht a capacitor can @e char$ed @y
the @attery if the s4itch is mo/ed to position AB 't can
then @e dischar$ed throu$h a resistor @y mo/in$ the
s4itch to position <B
Charging a Capacitor
)hen the s4itch is mo/ed to A the @attery sends
electrons to the lo4er plate and takes them from the upper plateB &his lea/es the lo4er
plate ne$ati/ely char$ed and the upper plate positi/ely char$edB An electric Aeld is set up
@et4een the platesB
Current &he current is the >o4 of electrons throu$h the circuit Gsee ?nit 1IB &here is a lar$e
current initially as electrons mo/e to the lo4er plateB As time passes and more electrons
are on the plate it @ecomes more didcult to add more due to the electrostatic repulsion of
similar char$esB )hen no more electrons mo/e in the circuit the current drops to CeroB
Charge &he char$e stored @y the capacitor increases 4ith e/ery electron the mo/es to the
ne$ati/e plateB &he amount of char$e increases 9uickly at the @e$innin$ @ecause a lar$e
current is >o4in$B As the current drops the rate at 4hich the char$e increases also dropsB
A ma#imum char$e is reachedB
P?/? Since potential di-erence is proportional to char$e. as char$e @uilds up so does pBdB &he
ma#imum /alue of pBdB is reached as is e9ual to the terminal pBdB of the @atteryB

/ischarging a Capacitor
)hen the s4itch in mo/ed to < the electrons on the ne$ati/e plate repel each other and
mo/e @ack into the circuitB "/entually @oth plates lose their char$e and the electric Aeld
@et4een them disappearsB
Current &here is initially a lar$e current as the electrons lea/e the ne$ati/e plateB As the
num@er of electrons on the ne$ati/e plate falls so does the siCe of the repulsi/e
electrostatic force. this makes the current fall at a slo4er rateB )hen no more electrons
mo/e in the circuit the current drops to CeroB
Charge &he char$e that 4as stored on the plates no4 falls 4ith e/ery electron that lea/es the
ne$ati/e plateB &he char$e falls 9uickly initially and then slo4s. e/entually reachin$ Cero
4hen all the char$e has left the platesB
P?/? As the char$e falls to Cero so does the potential di-erence across the capacitorB

Time Constant6 N
&he time it takes for the capacitor to dischar$e depends on the Otime constant3B
&he time constant is the time it takes for the char$e or pBdB of a capacitor to fall to 8LN of
the initial /alueB 21
&he time constant is the time it takes for the char$e or pBdB of a capacitor to fall %y 78N
of the initial /alueB
't is $i/en @y the e9uationE RC =
'f the capacitor has a lar$er capacitance it means it can hold more char$e. this means it
4ill take lon$er to dischar$eB 'f the resistor has a lar$er resistance it means it is harder to
mo/e the electrons around the circuit. this also means it 4ill take lon$er to dischar$eB
?nit 4
"#ponential +ecay
Lesson 1%
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate the char$e of a dischar$in$ capacitor after a time. t
&o @e a@le to calculate the potential di-erence across a dischar$in$ capacitor
after a time. t
&o @e a@le to calculate the current throu$h a dischar$in$ capacitor
after a time. t
;B +)="1
&inding N rom ,raphs
&he time constant of a dischar$in$ capacitor can @e found from a $raph of either char$e.
current or potential di-erence a$ainst timeB After one time constant the /alue 4ill ha/e
dropped to ,B3% of the initial /alueB
'n this case the time constant is 4 secondsB
!uantitati'e Treatment
)e could use the $raph a@o/e to And the char$e on the capacitor after a time. tB )e could
also use it to And the time it takes for the char$e to fall to a /alue of QB
&his re9uires the $raph to @e dra4n /ery accurately and /alues need to @e taken from it
/ery carefullyB
'nstead of doin$ this 4e can use the follo4in$ e9uation to calculate the char$e. Q after a
time. tB
RC t
e Q Q
/
0

=
t is the time that has elapsed since dischar$e @e$an
Q is the remainin$ char$e
Q
0
is the initial Gor startin$I char$e
RC is the time constant. also e9ual to the resistance multiplied @y the capacitanceB
)ime is measured in seconds, s
)hen the time elapsed is e9ual to the time constant the char$e should ha/e fallen to
3%N of the initial /alueB
RC t
e Q Q
/
0

=
RC RC
e Q Q
/
0

=
1
0

= e Q Q G@ut e
51
J ,B3%I 37 . 0
0
Q Q =
)hen the time elapsed is e9ual to t4ice the time constant the char$e should ha/e fallen
to 3%N of 3%N of the initial /alueB
RC t
e Q Q
/
0

=
RC RC
e Q Q
/ 2
0

=
2
0

= e Q Q G@ut e
52
J ,B3% # ,B3%I 14 . 0
0
Q Q =
Similar e9uations can @e esta@lished for the current >o4in$ throu$h and the potential
di-erence across the capacitor after time. tE
RC t
e Q Q
/
0

=
RC t
e I I
/
0

=
RC t
e V V
/
0

=
Rearranging
&he e9uations a@o/e can @e rearran$ed to make t the su@:ectB )e 4ill use the e9uation for
char$eE
RC t
e Q Q
/
0

=
RC t
e
Q
Q
/
0

=

RC
t
Q
Q

=

0
ln t RC
Q
Q
=

0
ln
t RC
Q
Q
=

0
ln
&hey can also @e rearran$ed to make RC Gtime constantI the su@:ectE
RC t
e Q Q
/
0

=
RC t
e
Q
Q
/
0

=

RC
t
Q
Q

=

0
ln

=
0
ln
Q
Q
t
RC

?nit 4
!orce on a Current Carryin$
)ire
Lesson 1(
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hy a 4ire 4ith a current >o4in$ throu$h it 4ill e#perience
a force
&o @e a@le to calculate the siCe of the force on the 4ire
&o @e a@le to state the direction of the force on the 4ire ;B +)="1
)e 4ill @e lookin$ at the force a current carryin$ 4ire e#periences 4hen it is in a ma$netic
AeldB
<efore 4e look into the siCe and direction of the force 4e need to esta@lish some @asicsB
Con'entional Current
)e kno4 that the current >o4in$ in a circuit is due to the ne$ati/e electrons >o4in$ from
the ne$ati/e terminal of a @attery to the positi/e terminalB
"egative to Positive is the 0o+ o% electrons
<efore the disco/ery of the electron scientist thou$ht that the current >o4ed from the
positi/e terminal to the ne$ati/e oneB <y the time the electron 4as disco/ered many la4s
had @een esta@lished to e#plain the 4orld around them usin$ current as >o4in$ from
positi/e to ne$ati/eB
Positive to "egative is the Conventional Current
Magnetic &ield #ines
)e are familiar 4ith the shape of a ma$netic Aeld around a @ar ma$netB 7a$netic Aeld
lines lea/e the ;orth Pole of the ma$net and enter the South PoleB &he poles of a ma$net
are stron$er than the side @ecause there are more Aeld lines in the same area of spaceB
*agnetic 4eld lines go %rom "orth to South
A =/ Pro*lem
)e 4ill @e lookin$ at mo/ement. Aelds and currents in 3+ @ut our pa$e is only 2+B &o
sol/e this pro@lem 4e 4ill use the follo4in$ notationE A dot means comin$ out of the pa$e
and a cross means $oin$ into the pa$eB 'ma$ine an arro4 Ared from a @o4. pointy end
means it3s comin$ to4ards you. cross means its mo/in$ a4ayB
out o% the page into the page
Current Carrying +ires
)hen a current >o4s throu$h a strai$ht piece of 4ire it creates a circular
ma$netic AeldB &he 1i$ht Hand 6rip 1ule sho4s us the direction of the
ma$netic AeldB 'f 4e use our ri$ht hand and do a thum@s up the thum@ is the
direction of the con/entional current and the An$ers point the direction of the
Aeld linesB
8ight hand thumbs up
&orce on a Current Carrying +ire
)hen a 4ire is placed @et4een a ;orth and
South Pole Gin a ma$netic AeldI. nothin$
happensB
)hen a Gcon/entionalI current >o4s throu$h
the 4ire it e#periences a force due to the
ma$netic Aelds of the ma$net and the 4ireB 'f
4e look at the dia$ram 4e can see that the ma$netic Aeld lines a@o/e are more compact
than @elo4B &his forces the 4ire do4n4ardsB
&leming>s #et Hand Rule
&his rule links the directions of the force. ma$netic Aeld and con/entional
current 4hich are all at ri$ht an$les to each otherB =our Arst An$er points
from ;orth to South. your middle An$er points from positi/e to ne$ati/e and
your thum@ points in the direction of the forceB
SiGe o the &orce
&he siCe of the force on a 4ire of len$th l. carryin$ a current I placed in a ma$netic Aeld of
ma$netic >u# density / is $i/en @y the e9uationE /Il 0 =
Here the 4ire is at *,f to the ma$netic Aeld linesB
)hen the 4ire is at an an$le of 1 4ith the ma$netic Aeld the force is $i/en @yE
sin /Il 0 =
'f 4e rearran$e the e9uation to
Il
0
/ = 4e see that 1 &esla is the ma$netic >u# density
GAeld stren$thI that causes a 1 ;e4ton force to act on 1 metre of 4ire carryin$ 1 Amp of
currentB
Magnetic 3lu4 >ensity is measured in )esla, )
&his e9uation looks /ery familiar if 4e compare it to the force in a $ra/itational and
electric AeldB

! m 0 . =

E 2 0 . =
/ Il 0 . =
?nit 4
!orce on a Char$ed Particle
Lesson 1*
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate the siCe and direction of the force on a char$ed particle in
a ma$netic Aeld
&o @e a@le to descri@e the motion of a char$ed particle in a ma$netic Aeld
&o @e a@le to descri@e the main features of a cyclotron and e#plain
ho4 it 4orks
;B +)="1
&orce on Charged Particle
!rom our e9uation for the force a ma$netic Aeld 4ill e#ert on a 4ire 4e can deri/e a
e9uation for the force it 4ill e#ert on a sin$le char$ed particleB
Start 4ith /Il 0 = B 'n ?nit 1 4e deAned the current as
t
Q
I = so 4e can su@ this in to
@ecome l
t
Q
/ 0 =
)e can re4rite this e9uation
t
l
/Q 0 = and use
t
l
v = from ?nit 2 to arri/e at the e9uationE
/Qv 0 =
Mo'ing in a Circle
'f a char$ed particle enters a ma$netic Aeld it 4ill feel a
forceB )e no4 kno4 the siCe of the force G$i/en @y e9uation
a@o/eI and direction of the force G$i/en @y !lemin$3s Left
Hand 1uleIB
'f 4e use the left hand rule in the dia$ram to the ri$ht 4e
can see that the force is al4ays at ri$ht an$les to the /elocityB !irst An$er
points into the pa$e. middle An$er points alon$ the line and our thum@
points up4ardsB
)hile the particle is in the ma$netic Aeld it 4ill mo/e in a circleB
Radius o the circle
)e can calculate the radius a char$ed particle 4ill mo/e in @y usin$ our e9uation for the
force on a char$ed particle in a ma$netic Aeld and a centripetal force e9uationB
/Qv 0 =
and

mv
0
2
= are e9ual to each other so 4e can 4rite

mv
/Qv
2
=
/Qv
mv

2
=

/Q
mv
=
Time or a complete circle
)e can also calculate the time it takes for the char$ed particle to mo/e in one complete
circleB
Startin$ at mv 0 = 4e can use
f 2 =
to make the e9uation @ecome
f mv 0 2 =
and
then
T
mv
0
2
=
&he centripetal force is due to the ma$netic force on the char$ed particle so 4e can put
these e9ual to each otherB
T
mv
/Qv
2
= cancel the v to @ecome
T
m
/Q
2
= 4hich
rearran$es toE
/Q
m
T
2
=
So the time it takes to complete a full circle does not depend on the /elocityB
The Cyclotron
A cyclotron is a particle acceleratorB 't consists of t4o hollo4 +5
shaped electrodes Gcalled Odees3I that are attached to an
alternatin$ pBdB supplyB &he dees are placed in /acuum cham@er
and a ma$netic Aeld 4hich acts at ri$ht an$les to themB
A particle 4ill mo/e in a circle @ecause of the ma$netic AeldB
)hen it reaches the $ap @et4een the dees the alternatin$ supply
has made the other dee ha/e the opposite char$e to the particleB
&his causes the particle to accelerate across the $ap and enter the
second deeB &his continues to happen until the particle is mo/in$ at
the re9uired speedB At this point it lea/es the cyclotronB
The Mass Spectrometer
A mass spectrometer is used to analyse the types of atom that are in a sampleB &he atoms
are $i/en a char$e. accelerated and sent into a ma$netic AeldB 'f 4e look at the radius
e9uation a@o/e 4e can see that atoms tra/ellin$ at the same speed in the same ma$netic
Aeld $i/en the same char$e 4ill @e de>ected @ased on their massB Hea/y
atoms 4ill mo/e in @i$$er circles than li$hter onesB
Pair Production
'f 4e think @ack to ?nit 1 4e sa4 this phenomenon in actionB Pair production is
4hen a photon of ener$y is con/erted into a particle and an antiparticle. such
as an electron and a positronB 'f this happens in a ma$netic Aeld the electron
4ill mo/e in a circle in one direction and the positron 4ill mo/e in a circle in
the other directionB
?nit 4
7a$netic !lu# and !lu#
Linka$e
Lesson 2,
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate and e#plain the ma$netic >u# throu$h a coil of 4ire
&o @e a@le to calculate the ma$netic >u# linka$e of a coil of 4ire
&o @e a@le to calculate the ma$netic >u# linka$e of a rotatin$ coil ;B +)="1
Magnetic &lu)6
7a$netic >u# is a measure of ho4 many ma$netic Aeld lines are passin$ throu$h an area
of A m
2
B
&he ma$netic >u# throu$h an area A in a ma$netic Aeld of >u# density / is $i/en @yE
/A =
&his is 4hen / is perpendicular to A. so the normal to the area is in the same direction as
the Aeld linesB
Magnetic 3lu4 is measured in We%ers, W%
&he more Aeld pass throu$h area A. the $reater the concentration and the stron$er
ma$netic AeldB
&his is 4hy a ma$net is stron$est at its polesQ there is a hi$h concentration of Aeld linesB
)e can see that the amount of >u# >o4in$
throu$h a loop of 4ire depends on the
an$le it makes 4ith the Aeld linesB &he
amount of >u# passin$ throu$h the loop is
$i/en @yE
cos /A =
1 is the an$le that the normal to the loop
makes 4ith the Aeld linesB
Magnetic &lu) /ensity
)e can no4 see 4hy / is called the ma$netic >u# densityB 'f 4e rearran$e the top
e9uation for / 4e $etE
A
/

= So / is a measure of ho4 many >u# lines GAeld linesI passes throu$h each unit area
Gper m
2
IB
A >u# density of 1 &esla is 4hen an area of 1 metre s9uared has a >u# of 1 )e@erB
&lu) #in"age
)e no4 kno4 that the amount of >u# throu$h one loop of 4ire isE
/A =
'f 4e ha/e a coil of 4ire made up of = loops of 4ire the total >u# is $i/en @yE
/A= = =
&he total amount of >u#.
=
. is called the *agnetic 6lu, #in'ageQ this is @ecause 4e
consider each loop of 4ire to @e linked 4ith a certain amount of ma$netic >u#B
Sometimes >u# linka$e is represented @y . so
= =
4hich makes our e9uation for
>u# linka$e /A= =
3lu4 1inkage is measured in We%ers, W%
Rotating Coil in a Magnetic &ield
'f 4e ha/e a rectan$le of 4ire that has an area of A and 4e place it in a ma$netic Aeld of
>u# density /. 4e ha/e seen that the amount of >u# >o4in$ throu$h the 4ire depends on
the an$le @et4een it and the >u# linesB
&he >u# linka$e at an an$le 1 from the perpendicular to the ma$netic Aeld is $i/en @yE
cos /A= = =

!rom our lessons on circular motion 4e esta@lished that the an$ular speed is $i/en @y
t

= 4hich can @e rearran$ed to t = and su@stituted into the e9uation a@o/e to

transform it intoE
t /A= = cos =
)hen t J , the 4ire is perpendicular to the Aeld so there is a ma#imum amount of >u#B
At 1 the >u# linka$e is a ma#imum in one directionB &here is the lo4est rate of chan$e at
this pointB
At 2 the >u# linka$e is CeroB &here is the @i$$est rate of chan$e at this point
At 3 the >u# linka$e is ma#imum @ut in the opposite directionB &he lo4est rate of chan$e
occurs here tooB
At 4 the >u# linka$e is CeroB &here is the @i$$est rate of chan$e at the point too @ut in the
opposite directionB
;e#t lesson 4e 4ill @e lookin$ at inducin$ an eBmBfB usin$ a 4ire and a ma$netic AeldB &he
siCe of the eBmBfB depends on the rate of chan$e of >u# linka$eB
?nit 4
"lectroma$netic 'nduction
Lesson 21
&o kno4 ho4 emf and current are induced
&o kno4 !araday3s La4 and @e a@le to use it to descri@e the induced emf
Learnin$
&o kno4 LenC3s La4 and @e a@le to use it to descri@e the induced
emf
;B +)="1
Ma"ing (lectricity (Also seen at GCSE Physics 3)
An eBmBfB can @e induced across the ends of a conductin$ 4ire in t4o 4aysE
1I 7o/e the 4ire throu$h a ma$netic Aeld or 2I 7o/e a ma$net throu$h a coil
of the 4ire
'n @oth cases ma$netic Aeld lines and 4ires are cuttin$ throu$h each otherB )e say that
the 4ire is cuttin$ throu$h the ma$netic Aeld lines Galthou$h it is fair to say that the Aeld
lines are cuttin$ throu$h the 4ireIB
'f the conductor is part of a complete circuit a current 4ill @e induced throu$h it as 4ell as
an eBmBfB across itB
&here are t4o la4s that descri@e the induced eBmBfBBB
&araday>s #aw A SiDe o% induced e$m$%$
(he magnitude o% the e$m$%$ induced in a conductor e&uals the rate o% change o% 0u,
lin'ages or the rate at +hich the conductor cuts a magnetic 0u,$
Straight +ire
'ma$ine a strai$ht piece of 4ire of len$th l is mo/ed throu$h
a ma$netic Aeld at a /elocity vB 'f the 4ire is mo/in$ at ri$ht
an$les to the Aeld lines an eBmBfB is induced G@ecause Aeld
lines are @ein$ cutIB
&he siCe of the eBmBfB is $i/en @y the e9uationE

t
=

!or one loop of 4ire

t

=

and the >u# is $i/en @y
/A =
4hich are com@ine to @ecome
t
/A

=
/ is constant so
t
A /

= B A is the area the 4ire cuts throu$h in a time t and is $i/en @y

vt l A . = so 4e $etE
t
vt l /

=
.
&he len$th of the 4ire and /elocity are constant so it
@ecomes
t
t /lv

= 4hich cancels toE /lv =

Rotating Coil o +ire
'f 4e ha/e a coil of 4ire 4ith = turns. each of 4hich has an area of A and placed it a
ma$netic Aeld of >u# density / nothin$ 4ould happenB 'f it 4as rotated 4ith an an$ular
speed of > it 4ould cut throu$h the ma$netic Aeld lines and an eBmBfB 4ould @e inducedB
&he siCe of the eBmBfB is $i/en @yE
Since
t
=

=

and
t /A cos =
4e $et
t
t /A
=

=
) cos (
and if 4e di-erentiate itE
t /A= sin =
&his is 4hy the 7ains supply is alternatin$Q the rotatin$ coil cuts the Aeld lines in one
direction on the 4ay up and the other direction on the 4ay do4nB
#enG>s #aw A @irection o% induced e$m$%$
(he direction o% the e$m$%$ induced in a conductor is such that it opposes the change
producing it$
Solenoid 0Right Hand ,rip Rule2
A solenoid 4ith a current >o4in$ throu$h it produces a
ma$netic Aeld like that of a @ar ma$netB )e can 4ork
out 4hich end is the ;orth Pole and 4hich is the South
@y usin$ the 1i$ht Hand 6rip 1ule from our force on a
4ire lessonB 'f our An$ers follo4 the direction of the
current throu$h the coils our thum@ points out of the ;orth PoleB
j)hen 4e push the ;orth Pole of a ma$net the induced current in
the solenoid >o4s to make a ;orth Pole to repel the ma$netB
j)hen 4e pull the ;orth Pole out of the solenoid the induced
current >o4s to make a South Pole to attract the ma$netB
&leming>s Right Hand Rule
'f 4e are :ust mo/in$ a strai$ht 4ire throu$h a uniform ma$netic Aeld the direction of the
induced current can @e 4orked out usin$ !lemin$3s 1i$ht Hand 1uleB
=our Arst An$er points in the direction of the Aeld from ;orth to South. your thum@ points
in the direction the 4ire is mo/ed and your middle An$er points in the direction of the
con/entional currentB
?nit 4
&ransformers
Lesson 22
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to descri@e a transformer and calculate the /olta$e and current in the
secondary coil
&o @e a@le to calculate the edciency of a transformer and e#plain 4hy they are
used
&o @e a@le to state the causes of inedciency in transformers ;B +)="1
Transormers (Also seen at GCSE Physics 3)
A transformer is a de/ice used to chan$e the /olta$eacurrent
of a circuit usin$ electroma$netic inductionB 't consists of a
soft iron core 4rapped on @oth side 4ith 4ireB &he Arst coil of
4ire is called the primary coil and the other coil of 4ire is
called the secondary coilB
A current doesn3t >o4 from one coil of 4ire to the otherB
How They +or"
A current >o4s throu$h the primary coil 4hich creates a
ma$netic AeldB
As this Aeld is esta@lished the Aeld lines cut throu$h the turns of 4ire on the secondary
coilB &his induces an eBmBfB G/olta$eI and a current in the second coilB
Since the supply to the primary coil is constantly chan$in$ direction the ma$netic Aeld is
constantly chan$in$ directionB &his means the secondary coil also has an alternatin$
eBmBfB and currentB
An iron core is used @ecause it is easily ma$netised and dema$netised and conducts the
ma$netic AeldB
Transorming 9oltage and Current (Also seen at GCSE Physics 3)
&here are t4o types of transformersE
Step Ap
&he /olta$e in the secondary coil is lar$er than the /olta$e in the primary coilB
&he current in the secondary coil is smaller than the current in the primary coilB
(here +ill be more turns o% +ire on the secondary coil meaning more 0u, lin'age
Step /own
&he /olta$e in the secondary coil is smaller than the /olta$e in the primary coilB
&he current in the secondary coil is lar$er that the current in the primary coilB
(here +ill be %e+er turns o% +ire on the secondary coil meaning less 0u, lin'age
'n @oth cases the /olta$e and current GV
P
and I
P
I in the primary coil of =
P
turns is linked to
the /olta$e and current GV
?
and I
?
I in the secondary coil of =
?
turns @y the follo4in$
e9uationE
?
P
P
?
P
?
I
I
V
V
=
=
= =
The National ,rid (Also seen at GCSE Physics 1)
&he ;ational 6rid is a system of transformers that increases the /olta$e Greducin$ the
currentI of an alternatin$ electrical supply as it lea/es the po4er stationB &hick ca@les held
a@o/e the $round @y pylons carry the supply to our nei$h@ourhoodB A second series of
transformers lo4ers the /olta$e to a safe le/el and increases the current to @e used in our
homesB
+hy %other?
"ner$y is lost in the transmission of electricityB &he electrons >o4in$ in the 4ire are
constantly collidin$ 4ith the positi/e ions of the metal that the 4ire is made fromB 'f 4e
increase the /olta$e of a supply this lo4ers the currentB Lo4erin$ the current reduces the
num@er of collisions happenin$ per second hence reducin$ the amount of ener$y lost in
reachin$ our homesB
&he ca@les that carry the current ha/e a lar$er cross sectional area. this lo4ers the
resistance and ener$y lostB
(Hciency o a Transormer
&he edciency of a transformer can @e calculated usin$ the follo4in$ e9uationE
"dciency
P P
? ?
V I
V I
=

&he edciency of a transformer can @e increased @yE
j?sin$ lo4 resistance 4indin$s to reduce the po4er 4asted due to the heatin$ e-ect of
the currentB
j?se a laminated core 4hich consists of layers of iron separated @y layers of insulationB
&his reduces heatin$ in the iron core and currents @ein$ induced in the core itself
Greferred to as eddy currentsIB
?nit 5
1utherford Scatterin$
Lesson 1
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 the set up of 1utherford3s e#periment and the results he found
&o @e a@le to e#plain ho4 the results are e/idence for the nucleus
&o kno4 the factors 4e must consider 4hen choosin$ the particle 4e
4ill scatter
;B +)="1
Rutherord>s Scattering ()periment (Also seen in GCSE
Physics 2)
Hans 6ei$er and "rnest 7arsden
4orked 4ith "rnest 1utherford in
his 7anchester la@oratories in
1*,*B &hey Ared alpha particles
G4hich they kne4 to ha/e a
positi/e char$eI of a fe4 7e0 into
a thin piece of $old foilB &his 4as
done in an e/acuated cham@er
connected to a /acuum pumpB
)hen the alpha particles passed
throu$h the $old foil they hit a Cinc sulphide screen 4hich emits
li$ht 4hene/er an alpha particle strikes itB &his screen 4as
o@ser/ed usin$ a mo/in$ microscope in a dark roomB
At the time the accepted structure of the atom 4as like a plum
puddin$E positi/e dou$h spread e/enly 4ith ne$ati/e electrons
scattered throu$h out it like plums in a puddin$B
Results (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
6ei$er and 7arsden found that almost all of the alpha particles
passed throu$h 4ith little or no de>ectionB 1utherford su$$ested
mo/in$ the microscope in front of the foil. 4hen they did they
found that a@out 1 in e/ery (,,, 4as Ore>ected3 @ack or scattered
throu$h an an$le of more that *,B
'f the plum puddin$ model 4as the structure of the atom this 4ould
@e like Arin$ a @ullet at a piece of toilet paper and it @ouncin$ @ack
X mentalL
The Nuclear Model (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
1utherford used these results to make the follo4in$ conclusionsE
7ost of the mass must @e $athered in one small /olume X the
nucleusB
(hey can repel a %ast moving alpha particle
&he nucleus must @e positi/ely char$edB
(hey repel positive alpha particles
7ost of the atom is empty spaceB
7nly 1 in EFFF alpha particles are de0ected
;e$ati/e electrons or@it the nucleus at a lar$e distance from itB
"egative charges are needed to 'eep the atom neutral
+hich Particle to Ase?
&here are t4o thin$s to consider 4hen usin$ scatterin$ to And the structure of thin$sE the
particle and the ener$y
Alpha ScatteringE 1utherford used alpha particles 4ith ener$ies around 47e0. any
hi$her and it 4ould @e close enou$h to the nucleus to e#perience the stron$ nuclear forceB
(lectron ScatteringE "lectrons are accelerated to hi$h ener$ies of around 6e0B &hey
ha/e enou$h ener$y to @e scattered 4ithin protons and neutronsQ disco/erin$ 9uarksB
"lectrons tra/ellin$ at this speed ha/e a de <ro$lie 4a/elen$th 1,,, times smaller than
/isi@le li$ht meanin$ 4e can see more detailB
O-ray ScatteringE D5ray photons ha/e short 4a/elen$ths and can @e scattered or
completely a@sor@ed @y atomic electronsB 'f the electron is ti$htly @ound or the photon
has /ery little ener$y the electron remains in the atom and the photon loses no ener$yB
&his is kno4n as elastic or coherent scatterin$B 'f the photon has enou$h ener$y it knocks
the electron out of or@it GionisationI and does lose ener$yB
Neutron ScatteringE 0ery useful @ecause they are not char$ed @ut this limits the
ener$ies they can @e accelerated toB ;eutrons interact 4eakly 4ith other nuclei and do
not interact 4ith electrons at all. @ecause of this they can penetrate furtherB &heir
4a/elen$ths are similar to that of atomic spacin$. meanin$ that di-raction 4ill occurB
?nit 5
'onisin$ 1adiation
Lesson 2
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat alpha. @eta and $amma are and @e a@le to list their uses and
dan$ers
&o kno4 the in/erse5s9uare la4 of radiation and @e a@le to calculate intensity at
$i/en distances
&o kno4 4hat @ack$round radiation is and 4hat contri@utes to it ;B +)="1
Ionisation (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
&he process of ionisation in/ol/es the remo/al of one or more electron from an atomB
)hen radiation enters a 67 tu@e it may ionise the atoms inside. the electrons are
attracted to a positi/e 4ire and a small current >o4sB &here are three types of radiation.
each 4ith its o4n properties. uses and dan$ersB
AlphaD A Gelium nucleus A t+o protons and t+o neutrons
!elative massO 4 !elative chargeO H2 >ePection %y E"M QeldO =es
2onising *o<erO Hi$h Penetrating *o<erO Lo4 !ange in airO 5cm
&to**ed %yO Skin. paper
UsesO Smoke detectors. radiotherapy to treat cancer
>anger out o= %odyO Lo4 >anger in %odyO Cell
death. mutation and cancer
%etaD A %ast moving electron
!elative massO 1a2,,, !elative chargeO 51 >ePection %y
E"M QeldO =es
2onising *o<erO 7edium Penetrating *o<erO 7edium !ange in
airO 253m &to**ed %yO Aluminium
UsesO &hickness control in paper production
>anger out o= %odyO +ama$e to skin >anger in %odyO Similar to alpha @ut less
dama$e
,ammaD A high %re&uency electromagnetic +ave
!elative massO , !elative chargeO , >ePection %y E"M QeldO ;o
2onising *o<erO Lo4 Penetrating *o<erO Hi$h !ange in airO 15m
&lo<ed %yO Lead. concrete
UsesO &racersE medical and industrial. sterilisin$ sur$ical e9uipment
>anger out o= %odyO Cell death. mutation and cancer >anger in %odyO Lo4
The In'erse-S7uare #aw
6amma radiation from a source 4ill spread outB &he radiation from a small source can @e
considered the same in all directions GisotropicI. ima$ine a sphere around the sourceB As
4e mo/e further a4ay from the source the @i$$er the sphere $etsB &he same amount of
ener$y is shared o/er a $reater surface areaB &he further 4e mo/e from the source the
less intensity of the $amma radiationB
2ntensity is measured in Watts, W
&he intensity. I. of the radiation at a distance x from the source is $i/en as
)here I
0
is the intensity at the source and 3 is a constantB
)e do not al4ays need to kno4 the intensity at the source to And it at a $i/en distanceB
Consider t4o points. A and <. a certain distance a4ay from a $amma sourceB
2
0
) (
A
A
x
3I
I =

0
2
) ( 3I x I
A A
= and
2
0
) (
/
/
x
3I
I =

0
2
) ( 3I x I
/ /
=
)e can com@ine these to $i/e
2
0
2
) ( ) (
/ / A A
x I 3I x I = =
2 2
) ( ) (
/ / A A
x I x I =
%ac"ground Radiation (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
)e are continuously e#posed to a certain le/el of @ack$round radiationB 'n the lessons to
come you must remem%er to su%tract the %ackground radiation =rom the
recorded radiation le/el to $et the true Gor correctedI readin$B
&he main contri@utors to @ack$round radiation areE
1adon and &horon $asE
51N
6round. rocks and
@uildin$sE 14N
!ood and drinkE 12N
7edicalE 12N
Cosmic raysE 1,N
Air tra/elE ,B4N
;uclear 4eapons
testin$E ,B3N
2ccupationalE ,B2N
;uclear po4erE ,B1N
?nit 5
1adioacti/e +ecay
Lesson 3
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat acti/ity is and ho4 to calculate it
&o kno4 4hat the decay constant is and ho4 to calculate it
&o kno4 4hat half life is and @e a@le to And it @y calculation or
$raphical methods
;B +)="1
/ecay (Also seen in GCSE Physics 1)
Somethin$ that is radioacti/e 4ill decay into somethin$ that is sta@leB 1adioacti/e decay
happens randomly and spontaneouslyE there is no 4ay of predictin$ 4hen a radioacti/e
nucleus 4ill decay and e#ternal factors do not in>uence it at all GeB$B pressure and
temperatureIB
)hat 4e can do is $i/e a pro@a@ility that a nucleus 4ill decay in a $i/en timeB
/ecay Constant6
"/ery radioacti/e isotope has its o4n pro@a@ility that a nucleus 4ill decay. called the
decay constantB
Acti'ity6 A
&he acti/ity of a radioacti/e source is the num@er of decays that happen e/ery secondB
1 @ec9uerel is e9ual to one decay per second. 5, @ec9uerels is e9ual to 5, decay per
second.
'ctivity is measured in %ecBuerels, #B (decays *er second, s
1
)
+urin$ a certain amount of time. t. some radioacti/e atoms G=) decay from a sample of
" atomsB
2
0
x
3I
I =
&he chan$e in the num@er of nuclei in a certain time is =
t
=
=

this can @e 4ritten as
= A =
&he minus si$n is there @ecause 4e are losin$ nuclei. the num@er 4e ha/e left is $ettin$
smallerB
()ponential /ecay
As time passes the num@er of nuclei that decay e/ery second 4ill
decreaseB
&o calculate the num@er of nuclei that 4e ha/e left after a time. t. is $i/en @yE
)here =
0
is the num@er of nuclei at the start and = is the current num@er of nucleiB &his is
similar to the e#ponential decay e9uation of a dischar$in$ capacitorB
&he e9uation for calculatin$ the acti/ity looks similarE
Hal-#ie (Also seen in GCSE Physics 1)
"ach radioacti/e isotopes has its o4n half5lifeB )e already kno4 that it isE
(he time it ta'es %or the number o% atoms in a sample to drop to hal% o% its original sample
or
(he time it ta'es %or the activity o% a substance to drop to hal% o% its original activity
Cal=1i=e is measured in seconds, s
&he half life of a su@stance is linked to the decay constantB
'f there is a hi$h pro@a@ility that a nucleus 4ill decay G J <'6I then it 4ill not take lon$
@efore half the sample has decayed to sta@ility Ghalf5life J shortIB
'f there is a lo4 pro@a@ility that a nucleus 4ill decay G J smallI then it 4ill take a lon$
time for half of the sample to ha/e decayed Ghalf5life J L2;6IB

2 ln
2
1
= T 4here
2
1
T
is the half life
,raphs (Also seen in GCSE Physics 1)
)e can calculate
the half5life from
acti/ity and
num@er of nuclei
$raphsB Choose a
startin$ /alue and
then And ho4 lon$
it takes to fall to
half this /alueB 'n
the $raphs 4e can
see that @oth fall
from 5, to 25 and
take 5 hours to do
thisB &herefore the half5life is 5 hoursB 8no4in$ this 4e
can then calculate the decay constantB
?nit 5
7odes of +ecay
Lesson 4
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to sketch and la@el a $raph of ; a$ainst F for sta@le and unsta@le
nuclei
&o @e a@le to state the chan$es to the parent nuclei 4hen it under$oesE decay.

5
decay.
H
decay.
nucleon emission. electron capture and $amma ray emission ;B +)="1
N Against P ,raph
Here is a $raph of the num@er of neutrons a$ainst the
num@er of protons in a nucleusB 't sho4s sta@le and
unsta@le nucleiB
Sta@le nucleiaisotopes are found on the @lack lineadotsB
&he shaded areas a@o/e and @elo4 the line of sta@ility
represent radioacti/e isotopesB
t
e A A

=
0
t
e = =

=
0
+hy doesn>t it ollow NQP?
Protons repel each other 4ith the electroma$netic force @ut the stron$ nuclear force is
stron$er at small distances and keeps them to$ether in the nucleusB )e can see the line
of sta@ility follo4s ;JF at lo4 /aluesB
As the nucleus $ets @i$$er there are more protons. 4hen they @ecome a certain distance
apart they no lon$er e#perience the stron$ nuclear force that keeps them to$ether. only
the electroma$netic 4hich pushes them apartB &o keep the nucleus to$ether 4e need
more neutrons 4hich feel no electroma$netic repulsion only the attraction of the stron$
nuclear forceB
Points to remem*er
!ollo4s ;JF around FJ2,. then cur/es to $o throu$h FJ(, ;J12,

5
emitters a@o/e the line.
H
emitters @elo4 the line and at the top
Alpha /ecay (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
An alpha particle Ga Helium nucleusI is e:ected from the parent nucleusB

4
2
4
2
+

Y X
A
Z
A
Z
1ossO 2 protons. 2 neutrons
%eta Minus /ecay (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
A neutron is transformed into a proton Gthat stays in the nucleusI and an electron G4hich
is emittedIB
e
A
Z
A
Z
e Y X + +
+
0
1 1
1ossO 1 neutron GainO 1 proton
%eta Plus /ecay
A proton is transformed into a neutron and a positronB
e
A
Z
A
Z
e Y X + +
+
0
1 1
1ossO 1 proton GainO 1 neutron
(lectron Capture
A nucleus can capture one of the or@itin$ electronsB A proton chan$es into a neutronB
e
A
Z
A
Z
Y e X + +
1
0
1
1ossO 1 proton GainO 1 neutron
Nucleon (mission /ecay
't is possi@le for an unsta@le isotope to emit a nucleon
from the nucleusB
'n proton5rich or proton5hea/y nuclei it is possi@le Gthou$h
rareI for a proton to @e emittedB
p Y X
A
Z
A
Z
1
1
1
1
+

1ossO 1 proton
'n neutron5rich or neutron5hea/y nuclei it is possi@le
Gthou$h rareI for a neutron to @e emittedB
n X X
A
Z
A
Z
1
0
1
+

1ossO 1 neutron
,amma Ray (mission (Also seen in GCSE Physics 2)
Alpha emission is often follo4ed @y $amma ray emissionB
&he dau$hter nuclei are left in an e#cited state
Gremem@er ener$y le/els from ?nit 1I 4hich they 4ill at
some point fall from to the $round state. emittin$ a
$amma photonB &here is no nuclear structure chan$e.
:ust a chan$e of ener$yB
+ X X
A
Z
A
Z
1ossO "ner$y
?nit 5
;uclear 1adius
Lesson 5
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate the radius of a nucleus @y the closest approach of alpha
particles
&o @e a@le to calculate the radius of a nucleus @y the di-raction an$le of
electrons
&o @e a@le to calculate the nuclear radius and nuclear density ;B +)="1
1utherford $a/e us an idea of the siCe of the nucleus compared to the atom @ut more
e#perimental 4ork has @een done to And a more accurate measurementB
Closest Approach o Alpha
Particles
1utherford Ared alpha particles at $old atoms
in a piece of foilB &hey approach the nucleus
@ut slo4 do4n as the electroma$netic
repulsi/e force @ecome stron$erB "/entually
they stop mo/in$. all the kinetic ener$y has @een con/erted into potential ener$y as the
particles come to rest at a distance from the centre of the nucleusB
P K
E E = 2V E
P
= 4here V is the electric potential at a distance of from the centre

Q
2 E
P
0
4
=

Q
2 E
K
0
4
=

K
E
Q
2
0
4
=
&his $i/es us the upper limit of the radius of a nucleusB
Calculatin$ the nuclear radius this 4ay $i/es us a /alue of J 4B55 # 1,
514
m or 45B5 fm
G4here 1 fm J 1 # 1,
515
mI
7odern measurements $i/e us /alues of appro#imately J B5 fm
G1emem@er that 1 e0 of ener$y is e9ual to 1B # 1,
51*
`I
(lectron /i$raction
A @eam of electrons 4ere Ared at a thin sample of
atoms and the di-raction pattern 4as detected and
then e#aminedB
&he $raph sho4s a
minimum at a /alue of
1
min
B )e can use this to
And a /alue of the
nuclear radiusB
5

61 . 0
sin
min
=
)here 5 is the nuclear radius and 8 is the de <ro$lie
4a/elen$th of the @eam of electronsB )e can calculate
this as follo4sE
&he kinetic ener$y $ained @y the electrons is eV E
K
= 4here e is the char$e on the
electron and V is the potential di-erence used to accelerate itB So 4e no4 ha/eE
eV mv =
2
2
1

eV mv 2
2
=

meV v m 2
2 2
=

meV v m 2
2 2
=
meV mv 2 =
)e can no4 su@stitute this into the e9uation for de <ro$lie 4a/elen$thE
mv
h
=
meV
h
2
=
Nuclear Radius
!rom the e#perimental results a $raph 4as plotted of R a$ainst AB A
$raph like the one to the ri$ht 4as o@tainedB &hey sa4 that R
depends not on A. @ut on A

.
)hen they plotted the $raph of R a$ainst A
T
they found a strai$ht
line that cut the ori$in and had a $radient of
0
B G
0
is a constant
representin$ the radius of a sin$le nucleon and has a /alue of
@et4een 1B2 and 1B5 fmI
&he radius of a nucleus has @een found to @eE
3
1
0
A R =
Nuclear /ensity
;o4 that 4e ha/e an e9uation for the nuclear radius 4e can calculate the density of a
nucleusB
'f 4e ha/e a nucleus of A nucleons. 4e can assume the mass is Au and the /olume is the
/olume of a sphereE
V
m
=
3
3
4
R
Au

=

3
0 3
4
) (
3
1
A
Au

=

A
Au
3
0 3
4

=

3
0 3
4

=
)e can see that the density is independent of the nucleon num@er and $i/es a /alue ofE
3B4 # 1,
1%
k$ m
53
B
?nit 5
7ass and "ner$y
Lesson
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat mass defect is and @e a@le to calculate
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat @indin$ ener$y is and @e a@le to calculate
&o @e a@le to sketch the $raph of <B"B per nucleon a$ainst nucleon
num@er
;B +)="1
/isappearing Mass
&he mass of a nucleus is less than the mass of the protons and neutrons that it is made ofB
Gmass of protons H mass of neutronsI X mass of nucleus J m
@m is the di-erence in the masses and is called the mass deectB
Let us look at the nucleus of a Helium atom to see this in actionB 't is made up of 2 protons
and 2 neutronsE
7ass of nucleons J 2 # Gmass of protonI H 2 # Gmass of neutronI
7ass of nucleons J 2 # G1B%3 # 1,
52%
I H 2 # G1B%5 # 1,
52%
I
7ass of nucleons J B* # 1,
52%
k$ 7ass of nucleus J B4( # 1,
52%
k$
7ass defect J mass of nucleons X mass of nucleus
7ass defect J B* # 1,
52%
X B4( # 1,
52%
J ,B,4( # 1,
52%
k$
As 4e can see. 4e are dealin$ 4ith tiny
massesB !or this reason 4e 4ill use the
atomic mass unit, u
1u J 1B1 # 1,
52%
k$
&he mass defect no4 @ecomes J ,B,2* u
(instein to the Rescue
'n 1*,5. "instein pu@lished his theory of special relati/ityB 'n this it is stated thatE
2
mc E = "ner$y is e9ual to the mass multiplied @y the speed of li$ht
s9uaredB
&his means $ainin$ ener$y means a $ain in mass. losin$ ener$y means losin$ massB &he
re/erse must @e trueB
6ainin$ mass means a $ain in ener$y. losin$ mass means a loss in ener$yB
&he ener$y 4e are losin$ is the @indin$ ener$yB
2
mc E = 4here m is the mass defect and E is @indin$ ener$y
%inding (nergy
As the protons and neutrons come to$ether the stron$ nuclear force pulls them closer and
they lose potential ener$yB GLike ho4 an o@:ect loses its $ra/itational potential ener$y as it
falls to the "arthBI
"ner$y must @e done a$ainst the sBnBfB to separate the nucleus into the nucleons it is
made ofB &his is called the @indin$ ener$y Galthou$h Oun@indin$3 ener$y 4ould @e a @etter
4ay to think of itIB
&he @indin$ ener$y of the Helium nucleus from a@o/e 4ould @eE E = m c
2
E J
G,B,4( # 1,
52%
I # G3B, # 1,
(
I
2
E J 4B32 # 1,
512
`
&he `oule is too @i$ a unit to use at the atomic scaleB )e 4ill use the electron 0olt Gsee AS
?nit 1I
1u J 1B5 # 1,
51,
` and 1e0 J 1B, # 1,
51*
` 1u J *31B3 7e0
Particle Mass (kg) Mass (u)
Proton 1B%3 # 1,
5
2%
1B,,%2(
;eutron 1B%5 # 1,
5
2%
1B,,(%
"lectron *B11 # 1,
531
,B,,,55
)e can no4 calculate the @indin$ ener$y of the Helium nucleus to @eE E J 2% 7e0
G2% million e0I
%inding (nergy ,raph
&he @indin$ ener$y is the ener$y re9uired
to separate a nucleus into its constituent
nucleonsB &he @indin$ ener$y per nucleon
$i/es us the ener$y re9uired to remo/e one
proton or neutron from the nucleusB
&he $raph of @indin$ ener$y per nucleon
a$ainst nucleon num@er looks like thisB
&here is an increase in the ener$y re9uired
to remo/e one nucleon up until the peak of
(B( 7e0 at 'ron 5B &he line then $ently
decreasesB &his means 'ron is the most
sta@le nucleus @ecause it re9uires the
lar$est amount of ener$y to remo/e one
nucleonB &his 4ill also mean that there is
the $reatest mass defectB
?nit 5
!ission and !usion
Lesson %
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat occurs in nuclear Assion and nuclear fusion processes
&o kno4 4hat a chain reaction is. ho4 it occurs and 4hat critical mass is
&o @e a@le to state and e#plain 4hether Assion or fusion 4ill occur ;B +)="1
Nuclear &ission (Also see GCSE Physics 2)
6ission occurs +hen a nucleus splits into t+o smaller nuclei
)e make Assion happen @y Arin$ slo4 mo/in$ neutrons at ?ranium 235. Plutonium 23* or
&horium 232 nucleiB )e call this induced 4ssionB 'n this processes the nucleus a@sor@s a
neutron then splits to form t4o li$hter nuclei. releases ener$y and any neutrons left o/er.
usually 2 or 3B
Here is a possi@le e9uation for the Assion of ?ranium 235E
E %&ed ene!yele n K /% n A 2
1
0
90
36
144
56
1
0
235
92
+ + + +
Chain Reaction
'n the a@o/e reaction t4o free neutrons 4ere
released. these can also @e a@sor@ed @y t4o
hea/y nuclei and cause a Assion processB
&hese nuclei 4ould release more neutrons
4hich could cause further Assions and so onB
Critical Mass
!or a chain reaction to happen the mass of the
Assiona@le material must @e $reater than a
certain minimum /alueB &his minimum /alue is
kno4n as the critical mass and is 4hen the
surface area to mass ratio is too smallB
'f mass g critical massE more neutrons are escapin$ than are producedB Stops
'f mass J critical massE num@er of neutrons escapin$ J num@er of neutrons producedB
Steady
'f mass o critical massE more neutrons are produced than are escapin$B 7eltdo4n
Nuclear &usion (Also see GCSE Physics 2)
6usion occurs +hen t+o nuclei Boin to %orm a bigger nucleus
&he t4o nuclei must ha/e /ery hi$h ener$ies to @e mo/in$ fast enou$h to o/ercome the
electrostatic repulsion of the protons then. 4hen close enou$h. the stron$ nuclear force
4ill pull the t4o nuclei to$etherB
Here is an e#ample of the fusin$ of t4o hydro$en isotopesE
E %&ed ene!yele n He H H
1
0
4
2
3
1
2
1
+ + +
+hich +ill Happen?
Lookin$ at the $raph 4e can see the 'ron 5 has
the hi$hest @indin$ ener$y per nucleon. the
most ener$y re9uired to remo/e one proton or
neutron from the nucleusB &his makes it the most
sta@leB
"uclei lighter than Iron +ill undergo %usion$
Protons and neutrons feel the attraction of the
stron$ nuclear force @ut only protons feel the
repulsion of the electrostatic forceB !or li$ht
nuclei. addin$ an e#tra proton increases the
stron$ nuclear force to pull the nucleon to$etherB
&his is @ecause at this ran$e the sBnBfB force is
stron$er than the other three fundamental forcesB
&he nucleons mo/e closer to$ether potential ener$y is lost ener$y is $i/en out
"uclei heavier than Iron +ill undergo 4ssion$
<eyond 'ron. each proton that is added to the nuclei adds to the electrostatic repulsionB
&he @i$$er the nucleus @ecome the less the outer protons feel the stron$ nuclear force
from the other sideB )e can see the @indin$ ener$y per nucleon decrease for hea/ier
nucleiB
A @i$ nucleus 4ill @reak into t4o smaller nuclei. each @ein$ stron$er @onded to$ether due
to the smaller siCeB
&he nucleons mo/e closer to$ether potential ener$y is lost ener$y is $i/en outB
?nit 5
;uclear 1eactors
Lesson (
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to e#plain ho4 a nuclear reactor produces electricity
&o @e a@le to e#plain the roles of the fuel rods. moderator. coolant and control
rods
&o @e a@le to $i/e e#amples of the materials use for each of the
a@o/e
;B +)="1
Ma"ing (lectricity
&his is a typical nuclear Assion
reactorB
A nuclear po4er station is
similar to a po4er station
po4ered @y the com@ustion of
fossil fuels or @iomassB 'n such a
station the fuel is @urnt in a
@oiler. the heat this produces it
uses to heat 4ater into steam in
the pipes that co/er the roof and
4alls of the @oilerB &his steam is
used to turn a tur@ine 4hich is
connected to a $enerator that
produces electricity Gsee 6CS"
Physics 3 and A2 ?nit 4IB Steam
enters the coolin$ to4ers 4here is it condensed into 4ater to @e used a$ainB
'n a nuclear Assion reactor the heat is produced in a di-erent 4ayB
Components o a Nuclear Reactor
&uel Rods
&his is 4here nuclear Assion reactions happenB &hey are made or ?ranium and there are
hundreds of them spread out in a $rid like patternB
;atural ?ranium is a mi#ture of di-erent isotopeB &he most common are ?
23(
4hich
accounts for **B2(N and ?
235
4hich accounts for only ,B%2N of itB 23( 4ill only under$o
Assion 4hen e#posed to /ery hi$h5ener$y neutrons 4hilst 235 4ill under$o Assion much
more easilyB &he ?ranium that is used in fuel rods has a hi$her percenta$e of 235 and is
said to @e enrichedB &his is so more Assion reactions may take placeB
Moderator
!oleO &he neutrons that are $i/en out from nuclear Assion are tra/ellin$ too fast to cause
another Assion processB &hey are released at 1 # 1,
%
mas and must @e slo4ed to 2 # 1,
3

mas. losin$ **B***%5N of their kinetic ener$yB &he neutrons collide 4ith the atoms of the
moderator 4hich turns the kinetic ener$y into heatB
;eutrons that are tra/ellin$ slo4 enou$h to cause a Assion process are called thermal
neutrons. this is @ecause they ha/e the same amount of kinetic ener$y as the atoms of
the moderator Ga@out ,B,25 e0 at 2,fCIB
3actors aIecting the choice o= materialsO 7ust ha/e a lo4 mass num@er to a@sor@
more kinetic ener$y 4ith each collision and a lo4 tendency to a@sor@ neutrons so it
doesn3t hinder the chain reactionB
)y*ical materialsE $raphite and 4aterB
Coolant
!oleO Heat is carried from the moderator to the heat e#chan$er @y the coolantB &he
pressuriser and the pump mo/e the hot coolant to the heat e#chan$er. here hot coolant
touches pipes carryin$ cold 4aterB Heat >o4s from hot coolant to cold 4ater turnin$ the
4ater into steam and coolin$ the coolantB &he steam then lea/es the reactor Gand 4ill turn
a tur@ineI as the coolant return to the reactorB
3actors aIecting the choice o= materialsE 7ust @e a@le to carry lar$e amounts of heat
GL11 &he SpeciAcsI. must @e $as or li9uid. non5corrosi/e. non5>amma@le and a poor
neutron a@sor@er Gless likely to @ecome radioacti/eIB
)y*ical materialsO car@on dio#ide and 4aterB
Control rods
!oleO !or the reactor to transfer ener$y at a constant rate each nuclear Assion reaction
must lead to one more Assion reactionB Since each reaction $i/es out t4o or more 4e
must remo/e some of the e#tra neutronsB &he control rods a@sor@ neutrons. reducin$ the
amount of nuclear Assion processes occurrin$ and makin$ the po4er output constantB
&hey can @e lo4ered further into the fuel rods to a@sor@ more neutrons and further reduce
the amount of Assion occurrin$B Some neutrons lea/e the reactor 4ithout interactin$.
some tra/el too fast 4hile other are a@sor@ed @y ?
23(
nucleiB 'f 4e need more neutrons 4e
can raise the control rodsB
3actors aIecting the choice o= materialsO A@ility to a@sor@ neutrons and a hi$h
meltin$ pointB
)y*ical materialsO @oron and cadmiumB
?nit 5
;uclear Safety Aspects
Lesson *
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to list and e#plain the safety features of a nuclear reactor
&o @e a@le to e#plain ho4 an emer$ency shut5do4n happens in a nuclear reactor
&o @e a@le to state and e#plain the methods of nuclear 4aste
disposal
;B +)="1
Nuclear Reactor Saety
&here are many safety features and controls in place desi$ned to minimise the risk of
harm to humans and the surroundin$ en/ironmentB
&uel Ased
?sin$ solids rather than li9uids a/oids the dan$er of leaks or spilla$esB &hey are inserted
and remo/ed from the reactor @y remote controlled handlin$ de/icesB
Shielding
&he reactor core Gcontainin$ the fuel. moderator and control rodsI is made from steel and
desi$ned to 4ithstand hi$h temperatures and pressuresB
&he core itself is inside a thick. leak proof concrete @o# 4hich a@sor@s escapin$ neutrons
and $amma radiationB
Around the concrete @o# is a safety area. not to @e entered @y humansB
(mergency Shut-down
&here are se/eral systems in place to make it impossi@le for a nuclear disaster to take
placeE
'f the reactor needs stoppin$ immediately the control rods are inserted fully into the core.
they a@sor@ any neutrons present and stop any further reactions from happenin$B
Some reactors ha/e a secondary set of control rods held up @y an electroma$net. so if a
po4er cut happens the control rods fall into the coreB
'f there is a loss of coolant and the temperature of the core rises @eyond the safe 4orkin$
limits an emer$ency coolin$ system >oods the core G4ith nitro$en $as or 4aterI to cool it
and a@sor@ any spare neutronsB
Nuclear +aste /isposal
&here are three le/els of 4aste. each is produced. handled and disposed of in di-erent
4aysE
High-le'el Radioacti'e +aste
What it isR Spent fuel rods from the reactor and un4anted. hi$hly radioacti/e material
separated from the spent fuel rodsB
Co< do <e get ridR &he spent fuel rods are taken from the reactor and stored in coolin$
ponds 4ith in the po4er station to allo4 most of the short5term radioacti/ity to die a4ayB
't is then transported to a processin$ plantB Here it is encased in steel containers and kept
under 4aterB
&he claddin$ is e/entually remo/ed and the fuel rods are separated into unused uranium
and plutonium and hi$hly radioacti/e 4asteB
&he uranium and plutonium is kept in sealed container for possi@le future useB
&he 4aste is con/erted into po4der. fused into $lass @locks. sealed in air5cooled
containers for around 5, years @efore @ein$ stored deep under$round in a sta@le rock
formationB
)ime scaleR ?p to a year in the coolin$ pondsB 1adioacti/e 4aste can remain at
dan$erous le/els for thousands of yearsB
Intermediate-le'el Radioacti'e +aste
What it isR !uel element claddin$. slud$e from treatment processes. contaminated
e9uipment. hospital radioisotopes and containers of radioacti/e materialsB
Co< do <e get ridR Sealed in steel drums that are encased in concrete and stored in
@uildin$s 4ith reinforced concreteB Also stored deep under$round in a suita@le location
that has a sta@le rock formation and lo4 4ater >o4B
)ime scaleR &housands of yearsB
#ow-le'el Radioacti'e +aste
What is itR )orn5out la@oratory e9uipment. used protecti/e clothin$. 4rappin$ material
and coolin$ pond 4aterB
Co< do <e get ridR Sealed in metal drums and @uried deep under$round in a
super/ised repositoryB &reated coolin$ pond 4ater is released into the en/ironmentB
)ime scaleR A fe4 monthsB
?nit 5
Heat. &emperature and 'nternal
"ner$y
Lesson 1,
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 4hat internal ener$y is
&o @e a@le to e#plain the di-erence @et4een heat. temperature and internal
ener$y
&o @e a@le to e#plain 4hat a@solute Cero is and ho4 it 4as found ;B +)="1
Internal (nergy
&he internal ener$y of a su@stance is due to the /i@rationsamo/ement ener$y of the
particles GkineticI and the ener$y due to the @onds holdin$ them to$ether GpotentialIB
SolidsD 'n a solid the particles are arran$ed in a re$ular A#ed structure. they cannot mo/e
from their position in the structure @ut can /i@rateB &he internal ener$y of a solid is due to
the kinetic ener$y of the /i@ratin$ particles and the potential ener$y from the @onds
@et4een themB
#i7uidsD 'n a li9uid the particles /i@rate and are free to mo/e around @ut are still in
contact 4ith each otherB &he forces @et4een them are less than 4hen in solid formB &he
internal ener$y of a li9uid is due to the kinetic and potential ener$ies of the particles @ut
since they are free to slide past each other the potential ener$y is less than that of it in
solid formB
,asesD 'n a $as particles are free to mo/e in all directions 4ith hi$h speedsB &here are
almost no forces of attraction @et4een themB &he internal ener$y of a $as is almost
entirely due to the kinetic ener$y of the particlesB
Temperature
&emperature is a measure of the kinetic ener$ies of
the particles in the su@stanceB As 4e can see from the
$raph somethin$ 4ith a hi$h temperature means the
particles are /i@ratin$amo/in$ 4ith hi$her a/era$e
speeds that a su@stance at a lo4er temperatureB
't is possi@le for t4o o@:ectsasu@stances to @e at the
same temperature @ut ha/e di-erent internal
ener$iesB )e 4ill $o into this further in the ne#t
lessonE &he SpeciAcsB
Heat
Heat is the >o4 of thermal ener$y and it >o4s from a hi$h temperature to a lo4
temperatureB
'f t4o o@:ects are at the same temperature 4e say that they are in thermal e9uili@rium
and no heat >o4sB
I% obBect A is in thermal e&uilibrium +ith obBect ! and obBect ! is in thermal e&uilibrium
+ith obBect C then A and C must be in thermal e&uilibrium +ith each other$
6et into a hot or cold @ath and ener$y is transferredE
'n a cold @ath thermal ener$y is transferred from your @ody to the 4aterB
'n a hot @ath thermal ener$y is transferred from the 4ater to your @odyB
As the ener$y is transferred you and the 4ater @ecome the same temperatureB )hen this
happens there is no lon$er a >o4 of ener$y so no more heatB =ou @oth still ha/e a
temperature due to the /i@rations of your particles @ut there is no lon$er a temperature
di-erence so there is no lon$er a >o4 of ener$yB
Temperature Scale
&he Celsius scale 4as esta@lished @y $i/in$ the temperature at 4hich 4ater @ecomes ice
a /alue of , and the temperature at 4hich it
@oils a /alue of 1,,B ?sin$ these A#ed points a
scale 4as createdB
A*solute Pero and Cel'ins
'n 1(4( )illiam &homson came up 4ith the
8el/in scale for temperatureB He measured the
pressure caused @y $ases at kno4n
temperatures Gin fCI and plotted the resultsB He
found a $raph like this oneB
<y e#trapolatin$ his results he found the temperature at 4hich a $as 4ould e#ert Cero
pressureB Since pressure is caused @y the collisions of the $as particles 4ith the container.
Cero pressure means the particles are not mo/in$ and ha/e a minimum internal ener$yB At
this point the particle stops mo/in$ completely and 4e call this temperature a@solute
Cero. it is not possi@le to $et any colderB &his temperature is 52%3fCB
1 8el/in is the same siCe as 1 de$ree Celsius @ut the 8el/in scale starts at a@solute CeroB
fC J 8 X 2%3 8 J fC H 2%3
?nit 5
&he SpeciAcs
Lesson 11
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to e#plain and calculate speciAc heat capacity
&o @e a@le to e#plain and calculate speciAc latent heat
&o kno4 the correct units to use and the assumptions 4e make in
ener$y transfer
;B +)="1
Specifc Heat Capacity
)e kno4 that 4hen 4e heat a su@stance the temperature 4ill increaseB &he e9uation that
links heat Gener$yI and temperature isE
T mc Q =
c is the speciAc heat capacity 4hich is the ener$y re9uired to raise the temperature of 1
k$ of a su@stance @y 1 de$reeB 't can @e thou$ht of as the heat ener$y 1 k$ of the
su@stance can hold @efore the temperature 4ill increase @y 1 de$reeB
&*eciQc Ceat Ca*acity is measured in :oules *er kilogram *er /elvin, :"kg / or :
kg
1
/
1
+ater Analogy
)e can think of the ener$y @ein$ transferred as /olume of 4aterB Consider t4o
su@stancesE one 4ith a hi$h heat capacity represented @y 25, ml @eakers and one 4ith a
lo4 heat capacity represented @y 1,, ml @eakersB )hen a @eaker is full the temperature
of the su@stance 4ill increase @y 1 de$reeB
)e can see that 2 litres of 4ater 4ill All ( of the 25, ml @eakers or 2, of the 1,,ml
@eakers meanin$ the same amount of ener$y can raise the temperature of the Arst
su@stance @y ( de$rees or the second @y 2, de$reesB
Changes o State
)hen a su@stance chan$es state there is no chan$e in temperatureB
)hen a solid is heated ener$y is
transferred to the particles makin$ them
/i@rate more 4hich means the
temperature increasesB &he potential
ener$y of the solid remains constant @ut
the kinetic ener$y increasesB
At meltin$ point the particles do not
/i@rate any faster. meanin$ the kinetic
ener$y and temperature are constantB &he
@onds that keep the particles in a ri$id
shape are @roken and the potential ener$y
increasesB
'n li9uid form the particles are still in
contact 4ith each other @ut can slide past
each otherB As more ener$y is transferred
the particles /i@rate moreB &he kinetic
ener$y increases @ut the potential ener$y is constantB
At @oilin$ point the particles do not /i@rate any faster. meanin$ the kinetic ener$y and
temperature are constantB &he @onds holdin$ the particles to$ether are all @roken. this
takes much more ener$y than 4hen meltin$ since all the @onds need to @e @rokenB
)hen a $as is heated the particles mo/e faster. meanin$ the kinetic ener$y and
temperature increasesB &he potential ener$y stays constantB
Specifc #atent Heat
+i-erent su@stances re9uire di-erent amounts of ener$y to chan$e them from solid to
li9uid and from li9uid to $asB &he ener$y re9uired is $i/en @y the e9uationE
ml Q =
l represents the speciAc latent heat 4hich is the ener$y re9uired to chan$e 1 k$ of a
su@stance from solid to li9uid or li9uid to $as 4ithout a chan$e in temperatureB
&*eciQc 1atent Ceat is measured in :oules *er kilogram, :"kg or : kg
1
&he speciAc latent heat of fusion is the ener$y re9uired to chan$e 1 k$ of solid into li9uid
&he speciAc latent heat of /aporisation is the ener$y re9uired to chan$e 1 k$ of li9uid into
$asB
As 4e ha/e :ust discussed. chan$in$ from a li9uid to a $as takes more ener$y than
chan$in$ a solid into a $as. so the speciAc latent heat of /aporisation is hi$her than the
speciAc latent heat of fusionB
?nit 5
6as La4s
Lesson 12
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o kno4 and @e a@le to use the correct units for /olume. temperature and
pressure
&o @e a@le to state <oyle3s Charles3 and the Pressure la4 for $ases
&o @e a@le to sketch the $raphs that sho4 these la4s ;B +)="1
,as Properties
0olume. VE &his is the space occupied @y the particles that make up the $asB
?olume is measured in metres cu%ed, m
8
&emperature. TE &his is a measure of the internal ener$y of the $as and this is e9ual to the
a/era$e kinetic ener$y of its particlesB
)em*erature is measured in /elvin, /
Pressure. pE )hen a $as particle collides 4ith the 4alls of its container it causes a
pressureB Pressure is $i/en @y the e9uation pressure J !orceaArea or Oforce per unit area3B
Pressure is measured in *ascals, Pa
1 pascal is e9ual to a pressure of 1 ne4ton per s9uare metreB
Anderstanding the ,as #aws
)e are a@out to look at the three di-erent la4s that all $ases o@eyB &o help
us understand them let us apply each one to a simple modelB 'ma$e one
@all in a @o#Q the pressure is a measure of ho4 many collisions @et4een
the @all and the @o# happen in a certain time. the /olume is the area of
the @o# and the temperature is the a/era$e speed of the @allB &o simply
thin$ further let us assume it is only mo/in$ @ack and forth in the #
directionB
%oyle>s #aw
&he pressure of a A#ed mass of $as is in/ersely proportional to its
/olume 4hen kept at a constant temperatureB
V
p
1
for constant T
Thin" a*out it5
'f temperature is constant this means that the @all is tra/ellin$ at
a A#ed. constant speedB 'f 4e increase the siCe of the @o# it
makes fe4er collisions in the same time @ecause it has to tra/el
further @efore it collides 4ith the sideB 'f 4e make the @o# smaller
the @all 4ill collide 4ith the @o# more often since it has less
distance to tra/elB
Charles> #aw
All $ases e#pand at the same rate 4hen heatedB &he /olume of a
A#ed mass of $as is proportional to its temperature 4hen kept at
a constant pressureB
T V for constant p
Thin" a*out it5
'f pressure is constant that means that the same num@er of
collisions 4ith the @o# are takin$ placeB So if the @o# 4as made
@i$$er the @all 4ould ha/e to mo/e faster to make sure there
4ere the same amount of collisions per unit timeB
The Pressure #aw
&he pressure of a A#ed mass of $as is proportional to its
temperature 4hen kept at a constant /olumeB
T p
for constant V
Thin" a*out it5
'f the /olume in constant it means the @o# has a A#ed siCeB 'f 4e
increase the speed at 4hich the @all is mo/in$ it 4ill hit the sides
of the @o# more oftenB 'f 4e slo4 the @all do4n it 4ill hit the sides
less oftenB
?nit 5
'deal 6ases
Lesson 13
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to calculate the pressure. /olume or temperature of a $as
&o kno4 and @e a@le to use the ideal $as e9uation
&o kno4 the si$niAcance of A/o$adro3s constant. <oltCmann3s
constant and moles
;B +)="1
Messing with ,ases
&he three $as la4s can @e com@ined to $i/e us the e9uationE
T pV

)e can rearran$e this to $i/eE =
T
pV
c"n&t%nt
)e can use this to deri/e a /ery useful e9uation to compare the pressure. /olume and
temperature of a $as that is chan$ed from one state Gp
1
. V
1
. T
1
I to another Gp
2
. V
2
. T
2
IB
2
2 2
1
1 1
T
V p
T
V p
=

)em*eratures must %e in /elvin, /
A'ogadro and the Mole
2ne mole of a material has a mass of 7 $rams. 4here 7 is the molecular mass in atomic
mass units. uB 2#y$en has a molecular mass of 1. so 1 mole of 2#y$en atoms has a
mass of 1$. 2 moles has a mass of 32$ and so onB An 2#y$en molecule is made of t4o
atoms so it has a molecular mass of 32$B &his means 1$ 4ould @e half a mole of 2#y$en
moleculesB
7
m
n = 4here n is the num@er of moles. m is the mass and 7 is the
molecular massB
A/o$adro su$$ested that one mole of any su@stance contains the same num@er of
particles. he found this to @e B,2 # 1,
23
B &his $i/es us a second 4ay of calculatin$ the
num@er of moles
A
=
=
n =
4here = is the num@er of particles and =
A
is the A/o$adro constantB
$
'
is the 'vogadro Constant, N
A
6 7(,2 4 1,
28
mol
1
Ideal ,ases
)e kno4 from the three $as la4s that =
T
pV
c"n&t%nt
'deal $ases all @eha/e in the same 4ay so 4e can assi$n a letter to the constantB &he
e9uation @ecomesE
R
T
pV
=
'f the /olume and temperature of a $as are kept constant then the pressure depends on R
and the num@er of particles in the containerB )e must take account of this @y @rin$in$ the
num@er of moles. n. into the e9uationE
nR
T
pV
=
nRT pV =
! is the Molar Gas Constant, R 6 F(81 : /
1
mol
1
&his is called the e&uation o% state for an ideal $asB &he concept of ideal $ases is used to
appro#imate the @eha/iour of real $asesB 1eal $ases can @ecome li9uids at lo4
temperatures and hi$h pressuresB
?sin$ the A/o$adro3s e9uation for n 4e can deri/e a ne4 e9uation for an ideal $asE
nRT pV =
RT
=
=
pV
A
=

T
=
R
= pV
A
=
%oltGmann Constant . chee"yR
<oltCmann noticed that R and =
A
in the a@o/e e9uation are constants. so di/idin$ one @y
the other 4ill al4ays $i/e the same ans4erB &he <oltCmann constant is represented @y 3
and is $i/en as
3
=
R
A
=
k is the #oltDmann Constant, k 6 1(8F 4 1,
28
: /
1
nRT pV =
can @ecome
T
=
R
= pV
A
=
4hich can also @e 4ritten as
=3T pV =
?nit 5
7olecular 8inetic &heory
7odel
Lesson 14
Learnin$
2utcomes
&o @e a@le to list the assumptions needed to deri/e an e9uation for the pressure
of a $as
&o @e a@le to deri/e an e9uation for the pressure of a $as
&o @e a@le to calculate the mean kinetic ener$y of a $as molecule ;B +)="1
Assumptions
1B &here are a /ery lar$e num@er of molecules G=I
2B 7olecules ha/e ne$li$i@le /olume compared to the container
3B &he molecules sho4 random motion Gran$es of speeds and directionsI
4B ;e4ton3s La4s of 7otion can @e applied to the molecules
5B Collisions are elastic and happen 9uickly compared to the time @et4een collisions
B &here are no intermolecular forces actin$ other than 4hen they collide
The %ig6 %ad /eri'ation
&he molecules mo/e in all directionsB Let us start 4ith one molecule of mass m tra/ellin$
4ith /elocity v
!
B 't collides 4ith the 4alls of the container. each 4all has a len$th of LB
Calculate the chan$e in momentumE @efore it mo/es 4ith /elocity v
!
and after the collision
it mo/e 4ith Xv
!
B

) ( ) (
x x
mv mv mv =

x
mv mv 2 =
EBuation 1
&he time can @e $i/en @y usin$ distanceaspeedE the speed is v
!
and the distance is t4ice
the len$th of the @o# Gthe distance to collide and then collide a$ain 4ith the same 4allI
x
v
L
t
2
=
EBuation 2
!orce can @e calculated @yE
t
mv
0

= Su@stitute in EBuation 1 and 2

EBuation 8. $i/es the force of one molecule actin$ on the side of the
containerB
)e can no4 calculate the *ressure this one molecule causes in the ! directionE
A
0
p = Su@stitutin$ EBuation 8
2
2
L
L
mv
p
x
=

3
2
L
mv
p
x
=

V
mv
p
x
2
=

EBuation 9
G'f 4e assume that the @o# is a cu@e. 4e can replace L
3
4ith V. @oth units
are m
3
I
All the molecules of the $as ha/e di-erence speeds in the ! directionB )e can And the
pressure in the ! direction due to them all @y Arst usin$ the mean /alue of v
!
and then
multiplyin$ it @y =. the total num@er of moleculesE
V
mv
p
x
2
=

V
v m
p
x
2
=
V
v =m
p
x
2
=
EBuation K
EBuation K $i/es us the pressure in the ! directionB
&he mean speed in all directions is $i/en @yE
)e can su@stitute this into the EBuation K for pressure a@o/eE
V
v =m
p
x
2
=

2
x
v =m pV =
3
2
c
=m pV =

2
3
1
c =m pV = EBuation 7
<ut since the
a/era$e /elocities
in all directions are
e9ualE

=
x
x
v
L
mv
0
2
2

=
L
v
mv 0
x
x
2
. 2
L
mv
0
x
2
=
2 2 2 2
x x x
v v v c + + =
2 2
3
x
v c =

2
2
3
x
v
c
=
Cinetic (nergy o a ,as
!rom the e9uation 4e ha/e :ust deri/ed 4e can And an e9uation for the mean kinetic
ener$y of a $asE
Since
2
3
1
c =m pV = and
nRT pV =
com@ine these to $et nRT c =m =
2
3
1
EBuation L
8inetic ener$y is $i/en @y
2
2
1
mv E
K
= so 4e need to make the a@o/e e9uation look the
sameB
nRT c =m =
2
3
1

=
nRT
c m =
2
3
1

=
nRT
c m
3
2
=
=
nRT
c m
2
3
2
1
2
=
A
=
=
n =

n
=
=
A
=
=
n
=
A
=
1
A
=
RT
c m
2
3
2
1
2
=
+on3t for$et that cheeky chap <oltCmann
A
=
R
3 =
3T c m
2
3
2
1
2
=
EBuation F